Edit on GitHub

sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 118        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 119        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 122        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 123        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 125        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 127        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 128        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 132        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 135        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 136        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 138        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 139        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 140        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 141        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 142        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 143        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 144        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 145        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 146        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 147        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 150        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 151        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 152        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 153        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 154        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 155        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 156        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 157        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 158        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 159        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 160        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 161        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 162        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 163        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 164        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 165        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 166        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 168        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 169        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 170        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 171        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 172            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 173        ),
 174        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 175        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 176        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 177        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 178        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 179        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 180        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 181        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 182        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 183        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 184        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 185        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 186        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 187        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 188        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 189        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 190        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 191        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 192        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 193        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 194        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 195        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 196        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 197        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 198        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 199        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 200        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 201        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 202        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 203        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 205    }
 206
 207    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 208    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 209    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 210    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 211
 212    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 213    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 214    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 215
 216    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 217    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 218
 219    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 220    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 221
 222    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 223    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 224
 225    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 226    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 227
 228    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 229    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 230
 231    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 232    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 233
 234    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 235    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 236
 237    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 238    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 239
 240    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 241    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 242
 243    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 244    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 245
 246    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 247    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 248
 249    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 250    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 251
 252    # Whether join hints should be generated
 253    JOIN_HINTS = True
 254
 255    # Whether table hints should be generated
 256    TABLE_HINTS = True
 257
 258    # Whether query hints should be generated
 259    QUERY_HINTS = True
 260
 261    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 262    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 263
 264    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 265    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 266
 267    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 268    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 269
 270    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 271    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 272
 273    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 274    RETURNING_END = True
 275
 276    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 277    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 278
 279    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 280    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 281
 282    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 283    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 284
 285    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 286    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 287
 288    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 289    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 290    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 291    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 292
 293    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 294    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 295
 296    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 297    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 298
 299    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 300    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 301
 302    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 303    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 304
 305    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 306    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 307
 308    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 309    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 310
 311    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 312    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 313
 314    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 315    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 316
 317    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 318    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 319
 320    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 321    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 322
 323    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 324    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 325
 326    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 327    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 328
 329    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 330    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 331
 332    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 333    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 334
 335    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 336    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 337
 338    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 339    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 340
 341    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 342    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 343
 344    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 345    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 346
 347    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 348    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 349
 350    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 351    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 352
 353    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 354    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 355
 356    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 357    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 358
 359    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 360    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 361
 362    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 363    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 364
 365    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 366    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 367
 368    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 369    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 370    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 371
 372    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 373    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 374
 375    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 376    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 377
 378    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 379    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 380
 381    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 382    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 383
 384    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 385    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 386
 387    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 388    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 389
 390    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 391    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 392    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 393    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 394
 395    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 396    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 397
 398    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 399    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 400
 401    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 402    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 403
 404    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 405    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 406
 407    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 408    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 409
 410    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 411    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 412
 413    # The HEX function name
 414    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 415
 416    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 417    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 418
 419    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 420    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 421
 422    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 423    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 424
 425    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 426    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 427
 428    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 429    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 430
 431    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 432    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 433
 434    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 435    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 436
 437    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 438        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 439        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 440        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 441        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 442        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 443        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 444        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 445        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 446        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 447        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 448    }
 449
 450    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 451        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 452        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 453        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 454        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 455        "DAYS": "DAY",
 456        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 457        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 458        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 459        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 460    }
 461
 462    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 463        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 464        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 465        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 466        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 467            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 468            if e.args.get("windows")
 469            else ""
 470        ),
 471        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 472    }
 473
 474    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 475
 476    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 477
 478    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 479    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 480
 481    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 482        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 484        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 488        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 490        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 497        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 498        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 499        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 502        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 508        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 509        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 510        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 511        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 512        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 513        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 514        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 515        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 517        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 518        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 523        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 524        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 525        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 526        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 527        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 528        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 529        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 530        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 531        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 532        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 533        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 534        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 535        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 536        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 539        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 541        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 542        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 543        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 544        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 545        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 546        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 547        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 548        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 549        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 550        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 551        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 552        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 553        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 554        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 555        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 556        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 557        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 558        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 559        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 560        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 561        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 563        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 564        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 565        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 566        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 567        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 568        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 569    }
 570
 571    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 572    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 573
 574    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 575    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 576        exp.Command,
 577        exp.Create,
 578        exp.Delete,
 579        exp.Drop,
 580        exp.From,
 581        exp.Insert,
 582        exp.Join,
 583        exp.MultitableInserts,
 584        exp.Select,
 585        exp.SetOperation,
 586        exp.Update,
 587        exp.Where,
 588        exp.With,
 589    )
 590
 591    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 592    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 593        exp.Binary,
 594        exp.SetOperation,
 595    )
 596
 597    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 598    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 599        exp.Column,
 600        exp.Literal,
 601        exp.Neg,
 602        exp.Paren,
 603    )
 604
 605    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 606        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 607        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 608        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 609        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 610    }
 611
 612    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 613    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 614
 615    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 616
 617    __slots__ = (
 618        "pretty",
 619        "identify",
 620        "normalize",
 621        "pad",
 622        "_indent",
 623        "normalize_functions",
 624        "unsupported_level",
 625        "max_unsupported",
 626        "leading_comma",
 627        "max_text_width",
 628        "comments",
 629        "dialect",
 630        "unsupported_messages",
 631        "_escaped_quote_end",
 632        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 633        "_next_name",
 634        "_identifier_start",
 635        "_identifier_end",
 636    )
 637
 638    def __init__(
 639        self,
 640        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 641        identify: str | bool = False,
 642        normalize: bool = False,
 643        pad: int = 2,
 644        indent: int = 2,
 645        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 646        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 647        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 648        leading_comma: bool = False,
 649        max_text_width: int = 80,
 650        comments: bool = True,
 651        dialect: DialectType = None,
 652    ):
 653        import sqlglot
 654        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 655
 656        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 657        self.identify = identify
 658        self.normalize = normalize
 659        self.pad = pad
 660        self._indent = indent
 661        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 662        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 663        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 664        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 665        self.comments = comments
 666        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 667
 668        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 669        self.normalize_functions = (
 670            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 671        )
 672
 673        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 674        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 675            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 676        )
 677        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 678
 679        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 680
 681        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 682        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 683
 684    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 685        """
 686        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 687
 688        Args:
 689            expression: The syntax tree.
 690            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 691                it is safer to copy.
 692
 693        Returns:
 694            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 695        """
 696        if copy:
 697            expression = expression.copy()
 698
 699        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 700
 701        self.unsupported_messages = []
 702        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 703
 704        if self.pretty:
 705            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 706
 707        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 708            return sql
 709
 710        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 711            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 712                logger.warning(msg)
 713        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 714            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 715
 716        return sql
 717
 718    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 719        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 720        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 721
 722        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 723            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 724
 725            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 726
 727        return expression
 728
 729    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 730        if (
 731            not expression.parent
 732            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 733            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 734        ):
 735            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 736
 737            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 738        return expression
 739
 740    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 741        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 742            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 743        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 744
 745    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 746        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 747
 748    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 749        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 750
 751    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 752        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 753        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 754        return comment
 755
 756    def maybe_comment(
 757        self,
 758        sql: str,
 759        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 760        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 761        separated: bool = False,
 762    ) -> str:
 763        comments = (
 764            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 765            if self.comments
 766            else None
 767        )
 768
 769        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 770            return sql
 771
 772        comments_sql = " ".join(
 773            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 774        )
 775
 776        if not comments_sql:
 777            return sql
 778
 779        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 780
 781        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 782            return (
 783                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 784                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 785                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 786            )
 787
 788        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 789
 790    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 791        this_sql = (
 792            self.sql(expression)
 793            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 794            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 795        )
 796        if not this_sql:
 797            return "()"
 798
 799        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 800        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 801
 802    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 803        original = self.identify
 804        self.identify = False
 805        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 806        self.identify = original
 807        return result
 808
 809    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 810        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 811            return name.upper()
 812        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 813            return name.lower()
 814        return name
 815
 816    def indent(
 817        self,
 818        sql: str,
 819        level: int = 0,
 820        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 821        skip_first: bool = False,
 822        skip_last: bool = False,
 823    ) -> str:
 824        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 825            return sql
 826
 827        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 828        lines = sql.split("\n")
 829
 830        return "\n".join(
 831            (
 832                line
 833                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 834                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 835            )
 836            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 837        )
 838
 839    def sql(
 840        self,
 841        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 842        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 843        comment: bool = True,
 844    ) -> str:
 845        if not expression:
 846            return ""
 847
 848        if isinstance(expression, str):
 849            return expression
 850
 851        if key:
 852            value = expression.args.get(key)
 853            if value:
 854                return self.sql(value)
 855            return ""
 856
 857        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 858
 859        if callable(transform):
 860            sql = transform(self, expression)
 861        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 862            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 863
 864            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 865                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 866            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 867                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 868            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 869                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 870            else:
 871                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 872        else:
 873            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 874
 875        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 876
 877    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 878        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 879        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 880        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 881
 882    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 883        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 884        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 885        options = expression.args.get("options")
 886        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 887        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 888        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 889        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 890        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 891
 892    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 893        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 894            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 895        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 896        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 897
 898    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 899        return ".".join(
 900            self.sql(part)
 901            for part in (
 902                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 903                expression.args.get("db"),
 904                expression.args.get("table"),
 905                expression.args.get("this"),
 906            )
 907            if part
 908        )
 909
 910    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 911        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 912
 913        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 914            join_mark = ""
 915            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 916
 917        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 918
 919    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 921        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 922        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 923        return f"{position}{this}"
 924
 925    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 926        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 927        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 928        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 929        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 930        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 931        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 932        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 933        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 934
 935        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 936            kind = ""
 937
 938        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 939
 940    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 941        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 942        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 943        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 944
 945    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 947        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 948            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 949        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 950            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 951        else:
 952            persisted = ""
 953        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 954
 955    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 956        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 957
 958    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 959        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 960            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 961        else:
 962            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 963
 964        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 965
 966    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 967        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 968    ) -> str:
 969        this = ""
 970        if expression.this is not None:
 971            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 972            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 973
 974        start = expression.args.get("start")
 975        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 976        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 977        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 978        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 979        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 980        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 981        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 982        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 983        cycle_sql = ""
 984
 985        if cycle is not None:
 986            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 987            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 988
 989        sequence_opts = ""
 990        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 991            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 992            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 993
 994        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 995        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 996
 997        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 998
 999    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1000        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1001    ) -> str:
1002        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1003        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1004        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1005
1006    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1007        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1008    ) -> str:
1009        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1010
1011    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1012        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1013
1014    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1015        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1016
1017    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1018        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1019        if desc is not None:
1020            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1021        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1022
1023    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1024        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1025        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1026        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1027        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1028        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1029        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1030        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1031        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1032
1033    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1034        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1035
1036    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1037        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1038        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1039        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1040        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1041
1042        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1043
1044        properties_sql = ""
1045        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1046            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1047        ):
1048            properties_sql = self.sql(
1049                exp.Properties(
1050                    expressions=[
1051                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1052                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1053                    ]
1054                )
1055            )
1056
1057            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1058                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1059            elif not self.pretty:
1060                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1061                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1062
1063        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1064        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1065
1066        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1067        if expression_sql:
1068            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1069
1070            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1071                postalias_props_sql = ""
1072                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1073                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1074                        exp.Properties(
1075                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1076                        ),
1077                        wrapped=False,
1078                    )
1079                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1080                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1081
1082        postindex_props_sql = ""
1083        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1084            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1085                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1086                wrapped=False,
1087                prefix=" ",
1088            )
1089
1090        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1091        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1092        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1093
1094        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1095        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1096        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1097
1098        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1099        if clustered is None:
1100            clustered_sql = ""
1101        elif clustered:
1102            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1103        else:
1104            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1105
1106        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1107        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1108            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1109                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1110                sep=" ",
1111                prefix=" ",
1112                wrapped=False,
1113            )
1114
1115        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1116
1117        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1118        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1119            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1120                exp.Properties(
1121                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1122                ),
1123                sep=" ",
1124                prefix=" ",
1125                wrapped=False,
1126            )
1127
1128        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1129        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1130        no_schema_binding = (
1131            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1132        )
1133
1134        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1135        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1136
1137        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1138        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1139
1140    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1141        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1142        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1143        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1144        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1145        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1146        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1147        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1148        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1149        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1150        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1151
1152        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1153        if cache is None:
1154            cache_str = ""
1155        elif cache is True:
1156            cache_str = " CACHE"
1157        else:
1158            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1159
1160        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1161        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1162
1163        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1164
1165    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1166        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1167        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1168        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1169        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1170
1171    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1172        style = expression.args.get("style")
1173        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1174        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1175        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1176        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1177
1178    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1179        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1180        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1181
1182    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1183        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1184        if with_:
1185            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1186        return sql
1187
1188    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1189        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1190        recursive = (
1191            "RECURSIVE "
1192            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1193            else ""
1194        )
1195
1196        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1197
1198    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1199        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1200
1201        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1202        if materialized is False:
1203            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1204        elif materialized:
1205            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1206
1207        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1208
1209    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1210        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1211        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1212        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1213
1214        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1215            columns = ""
1216            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1217
1218        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1219            alias = self._next_name()
1220
1221        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1222
1223    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1224        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1225        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1226            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1227        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1228
1229    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1230        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1231        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1232            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1233        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1234
1235    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1236        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1237        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1238            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1239        return this
1240
1241    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1242        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1243        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1244
1245        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1246            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1247            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1248        else:
1249            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1250            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1251
1252        if escape:
1253            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1254            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1255        else:
1256            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1257            escape_sql = ""
1258
1259        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1260            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1261
1262        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1263
1264    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1265        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1266        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1267
1268    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1269        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1270        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1271        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1272        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1273
1274    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1275        nested = ""
1276        values = ""
1277        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1278
1279        type_value = expression.this
1280        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1281            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1282        else:
1283            type_sql = (
1284                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1285                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1286                else type_value
1287            )
1288
1289        if interior:
1290            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1291                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1292                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1293                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1294                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1295                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1296            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1297                nested = f" {interior}"
1298            else:
1299                nested = f"({interior})"
1300
1301        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1302        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1303            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1304            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1305        ):
1306            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1307
1308        return type_sql
1309
1310    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1311        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1312        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1313        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1314        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1315
1316    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1317        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1318        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1319        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1320        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1321        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1322        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1323        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1324        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1325        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1326        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1327        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1328        if self.RETURNING_END:
1329            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1330        else:
1331            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1332        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1333
1334    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1335        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1336        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1337        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1338        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1339        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1340        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1341        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1342        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1343        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1344        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1345        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1346        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1347        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1348        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1349        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1350
1351    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1352        op_type = type(expression)
1353        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1354
1355        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1356        if (
1357            distinct is False
1358            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1359            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1360        ):
1361            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1362
1363        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1364
1365        if distinct is None:
1366            distinct = default_distinct
1367            if distinct is None:
1368                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1369
1370        if distinct is default_distinct:
1371            kind = ""
1372        else:
1373            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1374
1375        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1376        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1377
1378    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1379        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1380            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1381            order = expression.args.get("order")
1382
1383            if limit or order:
1384                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1385                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1386                )
1387
1388                if limit:
1389                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1390                if order:
1391                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1392                return self.sql(select)
1393
1394        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1395        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1396
1397        while stack:
1398            node = stack.pop()
1399
1400            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1401                stack.append(node.expression)
1402                stack.append(
1403                    self.maybe_comment(
1404                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1405                    )
1406                )
1407                stack.append(node.this)
1408            else:
1409                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1410
1411        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1412        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1413        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1414
1415    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1416        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1417        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1418        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1419        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1420        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1421            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1422        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1423        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1424
1425    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1426        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1427            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1428            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1429            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1430
1431        agg = expression.this
1432        agg_arg = agg.this
1433        cond = expression.expression.this
1434        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1435        return self.sql(agg)
1436
1437    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1438        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1439            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1440            return ""
1441
1442        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1443
1444    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1445        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1446        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1447        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1448        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1449        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1450        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1451        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1452        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1453        if include:
1454            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1455        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1456        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1457        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1458        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1459        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1460        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1461
1462        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1463
1464    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1465        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1466        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1467        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1468        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1469        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1470        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1471        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1472
1473        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1474
1475        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1476        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1477
1478    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1479        text = expression.name
1480        lower = text.lower()
1481        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1482        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1483        if (
1484            expression.quoted
1485            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1486            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1487            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1488        ):
1489            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1490        return text
1491
1492    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1493        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1494        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1495            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1496
1497        return text
1498
1499    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1500        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1501        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1502            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1503        return text
1504
1505    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1506        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1507        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1508        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1509        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1510        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1511
1512    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1513        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1514        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1515
1516    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1517        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1518
1519    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1520        root_properties = []
1521        with_properties = []
1522
1523        for p in expression.expressions:
1524            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1525            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1526                with_properties.append(p)
1527            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1528                root_properties.append(p)
1529
1530        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1531        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1532
1533        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1534            with_props = " " + with_props
1535
1536        return root_props + with_props
1537
1538    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1539        if properties.expressions:
1540            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1541        return ""
1542
1543    def properties(
1544        self,
1545        properties: exp.Properties,
1546        prefix: str = "",
1547        sep: str = ", ",
1548        suffix: str = "",
1549        wrapped: bool = True,
1550    ) -> str:
1551        if properties.expressions:
1552            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1553            if expressions:
1554                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1555                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1556        return ""
1557
1558    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1559        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1560
1561    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1562        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1563        for p in properties.expressions:
1564            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1565            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1566                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1567            else:
1568                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1569
1570        return properties_locs
1571
1572    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1573        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1574            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1575        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1576
1577    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1578        property_cls = expression.__class__
1579        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1580            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1581
1582        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1583        if not property_name:
1584            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1585
1586        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1587
1588    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1589        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1590            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1591            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1592
1593            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1594            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1595                like = f"({like})"
1596
1597            return like
1598
1599        if expression.expressions:
1600            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1601
1602        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1603        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1604
1605    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1606        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1607        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1608        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1609
1610    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1611        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1612        local = expression.args.get("local")
1613        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1614        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1615        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1616        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1617        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1618
1619    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1620        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1621        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1622        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1623
1624    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1625        if expression.args.get("default"):
1626            property = "DEFAULT"
1627        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1628            property = "ON"
1629        else:
1630            property = "OFF"
1631        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1632
1633    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1634        if expression.args.get("no"):
1635            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1636        if expression.args.get("default"):
1637            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1638
1639        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1640        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1641
1642    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1643        default = expression.args.get("default")
1644        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1645        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1646        if default or minimum or maximum:
1647            if default:
1648                prop = "DEFAULT"
1649            elif minimum:
1650                prop = "MINIMUM"
1651            else:
1652                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1653            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1654        units = expression.args.get("units")
1655        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1656        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1657
1658    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1659        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1660        always = expression.args.get("always")
1661        default = expression.args.get("default")
1662        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1663        never = expression.args.get("never")
1664
1665        if autotemp is not None:
1666            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1667        elif always:
1668            prop = "ALWAYS"
1669        elif default:
1670            prop = "DEFAULT"
1671        elif manual:
1672            prop = "MANUAL"
1673        elif never:
1674            prop = "NEVER"
1675        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1676
1677    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1678        no = expression.args.get("no")
1679        no = " NO" if no else ""
1680        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1681        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1682        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1683        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1684        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1685
1686    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1687        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1688            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1689        if expression.this:
1690            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1691            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1692            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1693
1694        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1695        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1696        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1697
1698    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1699        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1700
1701        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1702        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1703            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1704        else:
1705            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1706
1707        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1708
1709    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1710        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1711        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1712        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1713        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1714        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1715        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1716        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1717
1718    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1719        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1720        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1721        statistics_sql = ""
1722        if statistics is not None:
1723            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1724        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1725
1726    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1727        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1728        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1729        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1730        data_consistency = (
1731            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1732        )
1733        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1734        retention_period = (
1735            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1736        )
1737
1738        if this:
1739            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1740        else:
1741            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1742
1743        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1744
1745        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1746
1747    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1748        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1749        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1750
1751        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1752            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1753        else:
1754            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1755
1756        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1757        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1758        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1759        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1760        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1761        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1762        if is_function:
1763            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1764        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1765
1766        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1767        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1768        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1769        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1770        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1771        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1772        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1773        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1774
1775        if self.RETURNING_END:
1776            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1777        else:
1778            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1779
1780        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1781        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1782        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1783        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1784
1785        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1786        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1787
1788        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1789        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1790
1791    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1792        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1793
1794    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1795        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1796        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1797        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1798        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1799        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1800
1801    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1802        return expression.name
1803
1804    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1805        return expression.name
1806
1807    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1808        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1809
1810        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1811        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1812
1813        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1814        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1815        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1816
1817        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1818        if expressions:
1819            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1820            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1821
1822        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1823
1824    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1825        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1826
1827    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1828        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1829        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1830        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1831        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1832        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1833        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1834        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1835        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1836        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1837        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1838        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1839        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1840        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1841
1842    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1843        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1844
1845    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1846        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1847        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1848        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1849        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1850
1851    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1852        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1853        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1854        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1855        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1856
1857    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1858        return ".".join(
1859            self.sql(part)
1860            for part in (
1861                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1862                expression.args.get("db"),
1863                expression.args.get("this"),
1864            )
1865            if part is not None
1866        )
1867
1868    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1869        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1870        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1871        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1872        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1873        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1874        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1875        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1876        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1877
1878        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1879        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1880            sample_pre_alias = sample
1881            sample_post_alias = ""
1882        else:
1883            sample_pre_alias = ""
1884            sample_post_alias = sample
1885
1886        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1887        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1888        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1889        joins = self.indent(
1890            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1891        )
1892        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1893
1894        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1895        if file_format:
1896            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1897            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1898            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1899
1900        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1901        if ordinality:
1902            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1903            alias = ""
1904
1905        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1906        if when:
1907            table = f"{table} {when}"
1908
1909        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1910        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1911
1912        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1913        if rows_from:
1914            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1915
1916        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1917
1918    def tablesample_sql(
1919        self,
1920        expression: exp.TableSample,
1921        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1922    ) -> str:
1923        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1924        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1925        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1926        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1927        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1928        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1929        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1930        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1931        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1932
1933        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1934        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1935            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1936
1937        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1938        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1939            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1940
1941        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1942        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1943            expr = f"({expr})"
1944
1945        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1946
1947    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1948        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1949
1950        if expression.this:
1951            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1952            if not expressions:
1953                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1954
1955            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1956            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1957            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1958            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1959            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1960
1961        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1962        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1963        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1964
1965        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1966
1967        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1968        if include_nulls is not None:
1969            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1970        else:
1971            nulls = ""
1972
1973        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1974        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1975        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1976
1977    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1978        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1979        kind = expression.text("kind")
1980        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1981        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1982
1983    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1984        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1985
1986    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1987        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1988        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1989        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1990        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1991        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1992        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1993        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1994        if self.RETURNING_END:
1995            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1996        else:
1997            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1998        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1999        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2000
2001    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2002        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2003
2004        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2005        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2006            args = self.expressions(expression)
2007            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2008            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2009            values = (
2010                f"({values})"
2011                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2012                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2013                else values
2014            )
2015            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2016
2017        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2018        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2019        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2020
2021        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2022
2023        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2024            row = tup.expressions
2025
2026            if i == 0 and column_names:
2027                row = [
2028                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2029                ]
2030
2031            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2032
2033        if self.pretty:
2034            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2035            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2036            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2037            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2038            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2039
2040        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2041        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2042        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2043
2044    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2045        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2046
2047    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2048    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2049        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2050        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2051        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2052
2053    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2054        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2055
2056    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2057        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2058        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2059
2060    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2061        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2062        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2063
2064    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2065        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2066        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2067
2068    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2069        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2070        if group_by_all is True:
2071            modifier = " ALL"
2072        elif group_by_all is False:
2073            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2074        else:
2075            modifier = ""
2076
2077        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2078
2079        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2080        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2081        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2082
2083        groupings = csv(
2084            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2085            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2086            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2087            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2088            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2089        )
2090
2091        if (
2092            expression.expressions
2093            and groupings
2094            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2095        ):
2096            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2097
2098        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2099
2100    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2101        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2102        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2103
2104    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2105        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2106        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2107        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2108        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2109        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2110        return start + connect
2111
2112    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2113        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2114
2115    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2116        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2117            side = None
2118        else:
2119            side = expression.side
2120
2121        op_sql = " ".join(
2122            op
2123            for op in (
2124                expression.method,
2125                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2126                side,
2127                expression.kind,
2128                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2129            )
2130            if op
2131        )
2132        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2133        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2134        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2135        using = expression.args.get("using")
2136
2137        if not on_sql and using:
2138            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2139
2140        this = expression.this
2141        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2142
2143        if on_sql:
2144            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2145            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2146            if using:
2147                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2148            else:
2149                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2150        elif not op_sql:
2151            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2152                return f" {this_sql}"
2153
2154            return f", {this_sql}"
2155
2156        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2157            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2158
2159        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2160
2161    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2162        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2163        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2164        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2165
2166    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2167        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2168
2169        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2170        if cross_apply is True:
2171            op = "INNER JOIN "
2172        elif cross_apply is False:
2173            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2174        else:
2175            op = ""
2176
2177        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2178
2179    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2180        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2181
2182        if expression.args.get("view"):
2183            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2184            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2185            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2186            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2187            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2188            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2189
2190        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2191        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2192        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2193
2194    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2195        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2196
2197        args = [
2198            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2199            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2200            if e
2201        ]
2202
2203        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2204        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2205        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2206        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2207
2208        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2209
2210    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2211        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2212        value = expression.expression
2213        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2214        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2215        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2216        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2217
2218    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2219        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2220        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2221        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2222        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2223        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2224        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2225        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2226        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2227
2228    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2229        expressions = (
2230            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2231        )
2232        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2233        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2234
2235    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2236        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2237
2238    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2239        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2240            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2241            return ""
2242
2243        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2244        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2245        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2246        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2247
2248        if wait is not None:
2249            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2250                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2251            else:
2252                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2253
2254        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2255
2256    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2257        text = expression.this or ""
2258        if expression.is_string:
2259            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2260        return text
2261
2262    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2263        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2264            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2265            text = "".join(
2266                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2267            )
2268
2269        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2270            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2271        )
2272
2273    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2274        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2275        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2276        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2277        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2278        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2279        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2280        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2281        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2282        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2283        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2284        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2285
2286    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2287        return "NULL"
2288
2289    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2290        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2291
2292    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2293        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2294        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2295        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2296        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2297
2298    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2299        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2300        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2301        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2302        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2303        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2304        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2305        interpolated_values = [
2306            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2307            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2308        ]
2309        interpolate = (
2310            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2311        )
2312        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2313
2314    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2315        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2316
2317    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2318        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2319
2320    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2321        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2322
2323    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2324        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2325        asc = not desc
2326
2327        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2328        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2329        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2330        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2331        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2332
2333        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2334
2335        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2336        nulls_sort_change = ""
2337        if nulls_first and (
2338            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2339        ):
2340            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2341        elif (
2342            nulls_last
2343            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2344            and not nulls_are_last
2345        ):
2346            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2347
2348        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2349        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2350            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2351            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2352                self.unsupported(
2353                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2354                )
2355                nulls_sort_change = ""
2356            elif (
2357                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
2358                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
2359                and (
2360                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2361                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2362                )
2363            ):
2364                self.unsupported(
2365                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2366                )
2367                nulls_sort_change = ""
2368            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2369                if expression.this.is_int:
2370                    self.unsupported(
2371                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2372                    )
2373                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2374                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2375                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2376                nulls_sort_change = ""
2377
2378        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2379        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2380
2381        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2382
2383    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2384        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2385        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2386
2387        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2388
2389        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2390
2391    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2392        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2393        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2394        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2395        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2396        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2397        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2398        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2399        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2400        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2401        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2402        definition_sqls = [
2403            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2404            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2405        ]
2406        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2407        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2408        body = "".join(
2409            (
2410                partition,
2411                order,
2412                measures,
2413                rows,
2414                after,
2415                pattern,
2416                define,
2417            )
2418        )
2419        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2420        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2421        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2422
2423    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2424        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2425
2426        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2427            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2428        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2429            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2430
2431        return csv(
2432            *sqls,
2433            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2434            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2435            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2436            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2437            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2438            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2439            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2440            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2441            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2442            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2443            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2444            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2445            self.options_modifier(expression),
2446            sep="",
2447        )
2448
2449    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2450        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2451        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2452
2453    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2454        return ""
2455
2456    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2457        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2458    ) -> t.List[str]:
2459        return [
2460            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2461            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2462        ]
2463
2464    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2465        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2466        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2467        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2468
2469    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2470        into = expression.args.get("into")
2471        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2472            into.pop()
2473
2474        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2475        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2476        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2477        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2478
2479        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2480        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2481            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2482            limit.pop()
2483        else:
2484            top = ""
2485
2486        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2487
2488        if kind:
2489            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2490                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2491            else:
2492                if kind == "STRUCT":
2493                    expressions = self.expressions(
2494                        sqls=[
2495                            self.sql(
2496                                exp.Struct(
2497                                    expressions=[
2498                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2499                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2500                                        else e
2501                                        for e in expression.expressions
2502                                    ]
2503                                )
2504                            )
2505                        ]
2506                    )
2507                kind = ""
2508
2509        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2510        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2511        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2512        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2513        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2514            expression,
2515            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2516            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2517            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2518        )
2519
2520        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2521
2522        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2523            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2524                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2525            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2526                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2527            else:
2528                table_kind = ""
2529            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2530
2531        return sql
2532
2533    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2534        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2535        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2536        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2537
2538    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2539        if expression.expressions:
2540            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2541        return ""
2542
2543    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2544        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2545        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2546        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2547        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2548        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2549        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2550        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2551
2552    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2553        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2554        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2555
2556    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2557        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2558        kind = expression.text("kind")
2559        if kind:
2560            kind = f"{kind}."
2561        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2562
2563    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2564        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2565
2566    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2567        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2568        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2569        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2570        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2571            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2572
2573            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2574            expression.set("sample", None)
2575
2576        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2577        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2578        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2579
2580    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2581        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2582        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2583
2584    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2585        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2586
2587        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2588        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2589
2590        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2591            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2592                alias.append("columns", offset)
2593
2594        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2595            columns = alias.columns
2596            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2597        else:
2598            alias = self.sql(alias)
2599
2600        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2601        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2602            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2603        else:
2604            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2605                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2606            elif offset:
2607                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2608            else:
2609                suffix = alias
2610
2611        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2612
2613    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2614        return ""
2615
2616    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2617        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2618        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2619
2620    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2621        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2622        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2623        order = expression.args.get("order")
2624        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2625        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2626        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2627        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2628
2629        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2630
2631        first = expression.args.get("first")
2632        if first is None:
2633            first = ""
2634        else:
2635            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2636
2637        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2638            return f"{this} {alias}"
2639
2640        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2641        return f"{this} ({args})"
2642
2643    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2644        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2645        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2646
2647    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2648        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2649        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2650        end = (
2651            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2652            or "CURRENT ROW"
2653        )
2654        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2655
2656    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2657        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2658        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2659        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2660
2661    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2662        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2663        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2664        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2665        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2666
2667    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2668        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2669    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2670        return apply_index_offset(
2671            expression.this,
2672            expression.expressions,
2673            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2674        )
2675
2676    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2677        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2678        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2679        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2680
2681    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2682        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2683
2684    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2685        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2686        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2687            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2688                this = self.wrap(this)
2689            return f"ANY{this}"
2690        return f"ANY {this}"
2691
2692    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2693        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2694
2695    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2696        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2697        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2698
2699        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2700            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2701            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2702
2703        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2704
2705        if default:
2706            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2707
2708        statements.append("END")
2709
2710        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2711            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2712
2713        return " ".join(statements)
2714
2715    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2716        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2717        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2718        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2719
2720    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2721        order = expression.args.get("order")
2722        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2723        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2724
2725    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2726        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2727        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2728        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2729
2730    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2731        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2732
2733        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2734            func_name = "LTRIM"
2735        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2736            func_name = "RTRIM"
2737        else:
2738            func_name = "TRIM"
2739
2740        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2741
2742    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2743        args = expression.expressions
2744        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2745            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2746
2747        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2748            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2749
2750        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2751            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2752
2753        return args
2754
2755    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2756        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2757
2758        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2759        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2760            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2761
2762        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2763
2764    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2765        return self.func(
2766            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2767        )
2768
2769    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2770        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2771        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2772
2773    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2774        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2775        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2776        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2777        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2778        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2779        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2780        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2781        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2782
2783    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2784        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2785        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2786        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2787        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2788
2789    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2790        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2791
2792    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2793        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2794        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2795        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2796
2797    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2798        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2799
2800    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2801        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2802
2803        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2804            path = self.escape_str(path)
2805
2806        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2807            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2808
2809        return path
2810
2811    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2812        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2813            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2814            if not callable(transform):
2815                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2816                return ""
2817
2818            return transform(self, expression)
2819
2820        if isinstance(expression, int):
2821            return str(expression)
2822
2823        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2824            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2825            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2826        else:
2827            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2828            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2829
2830        return escaped
2831
2832    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2833        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2834
2835    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2836        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2837        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2838
2839        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2840        if unique_keys is not None:
2841            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2842        else:
2843            unique_keys = ""
2844
2845        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2846        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2847        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2848        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2849
2850        return self.func(
2851            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2852            *expression.expressions,
2853            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2854        )
2855
2856    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2857        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2858
2859    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2860        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2861        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2862        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2863        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2864        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2865        return self.func(
2866            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2867        )
2868
2869    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2871        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2872        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2873        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2874        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2875        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2876        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2877        return self.func(
2878            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2879            this,
2880            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2881        )
2882
2883    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2884        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2885        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2886        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2887
2888        if nested_schema:
2889            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2890
2891        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2892        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2893        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2894        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2895
2896    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2897        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2898
2899    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2901        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2902        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2903        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2904        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2905        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2906        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2907        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2908        return self.func(
2909            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2910        )
2911
2912    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2913        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2914        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2915        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2916        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2917        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2918        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2919
2920    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2922        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2923        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2924        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2925        with_ = (
2926            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2927            if expressions
2928            else ""
2929        )
2930        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2931
2932    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2933        query = expression.args.get("query")
2934        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2935        field = expression.args.get("field")
2936        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2937
2938        if query:
2939            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2940        elif unnest:
2941            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2942        elif field:
2943            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2944        else:
2945            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2946
2947        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2948
2949    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2950        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2951
2952    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2953        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2954        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2955            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2956        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2957
2958        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2959            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2960            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2961
2962        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2963        if this:
2964            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2965            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2966
2967        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2968
2969    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2970        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2971
2972    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2973        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2974        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2975        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2976        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2977        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2978        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2979
2980    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2981        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
2982        parent = expression.parent
2983        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
2984        return self.func(
2985            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
2986        )
2987
2988    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2989        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2990        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2991
2992    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2993        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2994        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2995        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2996        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2997
2998    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2999        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3000
3001    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3002        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3003        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3004        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3005
3006    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3007        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3008
3009        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3010        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3011
3012        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3013            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3014        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3015            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3016
3017        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3018
3019    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3020        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3021
3022    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3023        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3024        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3025        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3026
3027    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3029        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3030        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3031
3032    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3033        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3034        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3035        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3036
3037    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3038        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3039
3040    def and_sql(
3041        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3042    ) -> str:
3043        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3044
3045    def or_sql(
3046        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3047    ) -> str:
3048        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3049
3050    def xor_sql(
3051        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3052    ) -> str:
3053        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3054
3055    def connector_sql(
3056        self,
3057        expression: exp.Connector,
3058        op: str,
3059        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3060    ) -> str:
3061        if stack is not None:
3062            if expression.expressions:
3063                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3064            else:
3065                stack.append(expression.right)
3066                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3067                    for comment in expression.comments:
3068                        if comment:
3069                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3070                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3071            return op
3072
3073        stack = [expression]
3074        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3075        ops = set()
3076
3077        while stack:
3078            node = stack.pop()
3079            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3080                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3081            else:
3082                sql = self.sql(node)
3083                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3084                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3085                else:
3086                    sqls.append(sql)
3087
3088        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3089        return sep.join(sqls)
3090
3091    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3092        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3093
3094    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3095        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3096
3097    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3098        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3099
3100    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3101        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3102
3103    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3104        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3105
3106    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3107        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3108
3109    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3110        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3111        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3112        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3113        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3114        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3115        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3116        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3117
3118    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3119        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3120        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3121
3122    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3123        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3124            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3125        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3126
3127    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3128        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3129
3130    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3131        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3132        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3133        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3134        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3135        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3136        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3137
3138    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3139        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3140        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3141        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3142        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3143        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3144        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3145        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3146        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3147        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3148
3149    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3150        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3151        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3152        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3153        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3154
3155        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3156            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3157
3158        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3159
3160    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3161        return "BEGIN"
3162
3163    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3164        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3165        if chain is not None:
3166            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3167
3168        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3169
3170    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3171        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3172        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3173        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3174
3175    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3176        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3177
3178        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3179        if dtype:
3180            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3181            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3182            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3183            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3184            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3185
3186        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3187        if default:
3188            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3189
3190        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3191        if comment:
3192            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3193
3194        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3195        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3196
3197        if not drop and not allow_null:
3198            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3199
3200        if allow_null is not None:
3201            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3202            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3203
3204        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3205
3206    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3207        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3208        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3209            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3210        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3211
3212    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3213        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3214        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3215        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3216        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3217        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3218
3219    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3220        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3221            # Remove db from tables
3222            expression = expression.transform(
3223                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3224            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3225        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3226        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3227
3228    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3229        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3230        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3231        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3232        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3233
3234    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3235        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3236        return f"SET {exprs}"
3237
3238    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3239        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3240
3241        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3242            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3243        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3244            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3245        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3246            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3247        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3248            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3249        else:
3250            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3251
3252        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3253        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3254        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3255        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3256        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3257        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3258        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3259        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3260
3261        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3262
3263    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3264        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3265            return self.expressions(
3266                expression,
3267                key="actions",
3268                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3269                skip_first=True,
3270            )
3271        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3272
3273    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3274        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3275        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3276        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3277
3278    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3279        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3280
3281    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3282        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3283
3284        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3285            case = exp.case()
3286            for arg in expression.expressions:
3287                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3288            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3289
3290        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3291
3292        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3293        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3294        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3295
3296    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3297        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3298
3299    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3300        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3301
3302    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3303        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3304        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3305        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3306        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3307
3308    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3309        return self.sql(
3310            exp.Cast(
3311                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3312                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3313            )
3314        )
3315
3316    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3317        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3318            return self.func(
3319                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3320            )
3321        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3322
3323    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3324        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3325
3326        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3327            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3328
3329        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3330            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3331                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3332
3333        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3334            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3335                return self.sql(
3336                    exp.cast(
3337                        l / r,
3338                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3339                    )
3340                )
3341
3342        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3343
3344    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3345        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3346
3347    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3348        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3349
3350    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3351        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3352
3353    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3354        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3355
3356    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3357        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3358
3359    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3360        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3361
3362    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3363        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3364
3365    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3366        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3367
3368    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3369        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3370
3371    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3372        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3373
3374    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3375        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3376
3377    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3378        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3379            return self.sql(
3380                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3381            )
3382        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3383
3384    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3385        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3386
3387    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3388        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3389
3390    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3391        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3392
3393    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3394        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3395
3396    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3397        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3398
3399    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3400        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3401
3402    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3403        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3404
3405    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3406        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3407
3408    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3409        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3410
3411    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3412        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3413
3414    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3415        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3416
3417    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3418        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3419
3420    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3421        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3422
3423    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3424        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3425            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3426            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3427
3428        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3429
3430    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3431        this = expression.this
3432        expr = expression.expression
3433
3434        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3435            this, expr = expr, this
3436        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3437            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3438                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3439
3440            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3441
3442        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3443
3444    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3445        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3446        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3447        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3448        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3449        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3450
3451    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3452        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3453        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3454        binary_type = type(expression)
3455
3456        while stack:
3457            node = stack.pop()
3458
3459            if type(node) is binary_type:
3460                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3461                if op_func:
3462                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3463
3464                stack.append(node.right)
3465                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3466                stack.append(node.left)
3467            else:
3468                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3469
3470        return "".join(sqls)
3471
3472    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3473        args = []
3474
3475        for key in expression.arg_types:
3476            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3477
3478            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3479                for value in arg_value:
3480                    args.append(value)
3481            elif arg_value is not None:
3482                args.append(arg_value)
3483
3484        if self.normalize_functions:
3485            name = expression.sql_name()
3486        else:
3487            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3488
3489        return self.func(name, *args)
3490
3491    def func(
3492        self,
3493        name: str,
3494        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3495        prefix: str = "(",
3496        suffix: str = ")",
3497        normalize: bool = True,
3498    ) -> str:
3499        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3500        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3501
3502    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3503        arg_sqls = tuple(
3504            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3505        )
3506        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3507            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3508        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3509
3510    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3511        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3512
3513    def format_time(
3514        self,
3515        expression: exp.Expression,
3516        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3517        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3518    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3519        return format_time(
3520            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3521            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3522            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3523        )
3524
3525    def expressions(
3526        self,
3527        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3528        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3529        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3530        flat: bool = False,
3531        indent: bool = True,
3532        skip_first: bool = False,
3533        skip_last: bool = False,
3534        sep: str = ", ",
3535        prefix: str = "",
3536        dynamic: bool = False,
3537        new_line: bool = False,
3538    ) -> str:
3539        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3540
3541        if not expressions:
3542            return ""
3543
3544        if flat:
3545            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3546
3547        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3548        result_sqls = []
3549
3550        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3551            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3552            if not sql:
3553                continue
3554
3555            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3556
3557            if self.pretty:
3558                if self.leading_comma:
3559                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3560                else:
3561                    result_sqls.append(
3562                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3563                    )
3564            else:
3565                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3566
3567        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3568            if new_line:
3569                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3570                result_sqls.append("")
3571            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3572        else:
3573            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3574
3575        return (
3576            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3577            if indent
3578            else result_sql
3579        )
3580
3581    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3582        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3583        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3584        if flat:
3585            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3586        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3587
3588    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3589        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3590        if not property_name:
3591            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3592        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3593
3594    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3595        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3596
3597    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3598        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3599
3600    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3601        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3602        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3603        expressions = (
3604            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3605        )
3606        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3607
3608    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3609        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3610        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3611        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3612
3613    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3614        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3615
3616    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3617        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3618        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3619        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3620        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3621
3622        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3623        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3624            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3625            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3626            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3627            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3628        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3629            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3630                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3631            else:
3632                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3633        else:
3634            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3635        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3636
3637    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3638        table = expression.this
3639        table_alias = ""
3640
3641        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3642        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3643            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3644            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3645
3646        this = self.sql(table)
3647        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3648        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3649        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3650        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3651        if returning:
3652            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
3653
3654        sep = self.sep()
3655
3656        return self.prepend_ctes(
3657            expression,
3658            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
3659        )
3660
3661    @unsupported_args("format")
3662    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3663        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3664
3665    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3666        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3667            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3668            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3669
3670        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3671        if not fmt:
3672            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3673            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3674
3675        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3676
3677    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3678        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3679        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3680        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3681        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3682        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3683
3684    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3685        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3686        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3687        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3688        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3689
3690    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3691        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3692
3693    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3694        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3695
3696    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3697    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3698        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3699        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3700        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3701        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3702        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3703        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3704        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3705
3706    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3707        return ""
3708
3709    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3710        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3711        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3712        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3713        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3714        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3715
3716    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3718        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3719
3720        if having:
3721            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3722
3723        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3724
3725    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3726        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3727        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3728        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3729        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3730        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3731        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3732        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3733        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3734        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3735        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3736        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3737        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3738        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3739
3740    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3741        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3742        if key_block_size:
3743            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3744
3745        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3746        if using:
3747            return f"USING {using}"
3748
3749        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3750        if parser:
3751            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3752
3753        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3754        if comment:
3755            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3756
3757        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3758        if visible is not None:
3759            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3760
3761        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3762        if engine_attr:
3763            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3764
3765        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3766        if secondary_engine_attr:
3767            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3768
3769        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3770        return ""
3771
3772    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3773        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3774        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3775
3776    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3777        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3778        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3780        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3781        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3782        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3783        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3784        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3785        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3786        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3787        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3788
3789    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3790        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3791            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3792
3793        case = exp.Case().when(
3794            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3795            expression.args["true"],
3796            copy=False,
3797        )
3798        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3799        if else_cond:
3800            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3801
3802        return self.sql(case)
3803
3804    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3805        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3806        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3807        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3808        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3809        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3810        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3811
3812    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3813        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3814
3815    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3816        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3817
3818    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3819        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3820        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3821        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3822        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3823        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3824        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3825
3826    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3827        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3828        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3829        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3830
3831    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3832        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3833        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3834        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3835
3836    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3837        arg = expression.this
3838        if not arg.type:
3839            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3840
3841            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3842
3843        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3844            return self.sql(arg)
3845
3846        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3847        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3848
3849    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3850        this = expression.this
3851        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3852            return self.sql(this)
3853
3854        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3855
3856    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3857        this = expression.this
3858        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3859            return self.sql(this)
3860
3861        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3862
3863    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3864        this = expression.this
3865        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3866
3867        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3868            return self.sql(
3869                exp.cast(
3870                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3871                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3872                )
3873            )
3874
3875        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3876            return self.sql(this)
3877
3878        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3879
3880    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3881        return self.sql(
3882            exp.func(
3883                "DATEDIFF",
3884                expression.this,
3885                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3886                "day",
3887            )
3888        )
3889
3890    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3891        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3892            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3893
3894        unit = expression.text("unit")
3895        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3896            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3897
3898        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3899
3900    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3901        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3902
3903        return self.func(
3904            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3905        )
3906
3907    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3908        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3909            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3910            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3911            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3912            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3913
3914        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3915
3916        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3917        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3918            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3919
3920        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3921
3922    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3923        expression.set(
3924            "expressions",
3925            [
3926                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3927                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3928                else e
3929                for e in expression.expressions
3930            ],
3931        )
3932
3933        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3934
3935    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3936        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3937        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3938
3939        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3940
3941    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3942        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3943        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3944
3945        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3946
3947        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3948        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3949
3950        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3951        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3952
3953        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3954        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3955
3956        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3957        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3958
3959        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3960
3961    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3962    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3963    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3964        to = expression.this
3965        value = expression.expression
3966        style = expression.args.get("style")
3967        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3968        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3969
3970        if not to or not value:
3971            return ""
3972
3973        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3974        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3975            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3976
3977        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3978        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3979
3980        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3981        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3982            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3983
3984            style_value = style.name
3985            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3986            if not converted_style:
3987                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3988
3989            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3990
3991            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3992                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3993            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3994                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3995            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3996                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3997            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3998                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3999
4000        if not transformed:
4001            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4002
4003        return self.sql(transformed)
4004
4005    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4006        this = expression.this
4007        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4008            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4009            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4010
4011        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4012            return f".{this}"
4013
4014        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4015        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
4016
4017    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4018        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4019        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4020
4021    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4022        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4023            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4024
4025            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4026
4027        return expression
4028
4029    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4030        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4031            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4032            mods = sorted(
4033                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4034                key=lambda x: 0
4035                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4036                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4037            )
4038
4039            if mods:
4040                mod = mods[0]
4041                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4042                this.meta["inline"] = True
4043                mod.this.replace(this)
4044                return self.sql(expression.this)
4045
4046            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4047
4048            if agg_func:
4049                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4050
4051        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4052
4053    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4054        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4055        if self.pretty:
4056            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4057        return string
4058
4059    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4060        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4061
4062        if expression.expressions:
4063            upper = option.upper()
4064
4065            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4066            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4067
4068            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4069            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4070            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4071            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4072
4073        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4074
4075        if not value:
4076            return option
4077
4078        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4079
4080        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4081
4082    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4083        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4084        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4085            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4086            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4087            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4088        else:
4089            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4090            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4091            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4092
4093        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4094        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4095
4096        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4097        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4098
4099        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4100        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4101
4102        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4103        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4104
4105        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4106
4107    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4108        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4109        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4110
4111        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4112        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4113        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4114        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4115
4116        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4117        params = self.expressions(
4118            expression,
4119            key="params",
4120            sep=sep,
4121            new_line=True,
4122            skip_last=True,
4123            skip_first=True,
4124            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4125        )
4126
4127        if params:
4128            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4129                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4130            elif not self.pretty:
4131                params = f" {params}"
4132
4133        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4134
4135    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4136        return ""
4137
4138    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4139        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4140        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4141        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4142        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4143        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4144
4145        if filter_col or retention_period:
4146            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4147
4148        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4149
4150    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4151        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4152    ) -> str:
4153        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4154        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4155        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4156        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4157
4158    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4159        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4160        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4161        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4162
4163    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4164        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4165
4166    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4167        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4168        expr = expression.expression
4169
4170        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4171            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4172            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4173        else:
4174            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4175
4176        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4177
4178    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4179        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4180            return self.sql(expression.this)
4181
4182        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4183
4184    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4185        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4186        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4187
4188        if lower and upper:
4189            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4190        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4191
4192    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4193        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4194        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4195        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4196        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4197        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4198        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4199
4200        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4201
4202    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4203        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4204
4205        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4206        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4207            fill_pattern = "' '"
4208
4209        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4210
4211    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4212        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4213        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4214
4215    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4216        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4217
4218        parent = expression.parent
4219        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4220            parent = parent.parent
4221
4222        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4223            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4224
4225        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4226            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4227
4228        return self.sql(generate_series)
4229
4230    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4231        exprs = expression.expressions
4232        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4233            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4234        else:
4235            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4236
4237        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4238
4239    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4240        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4241            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4242
4243        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4244        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4245        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4246
4247        if source_tz and timestamp:
4248            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4249                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4250            )
4251
4252        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4253
4254        return self.sql(expr)
4255
4256    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4257        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4258        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4259
4260        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4261
4262        if _with is None:
4263            with_sql = ""
4264        elif not _with:
4265            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4266        else:
4267            with_sql = " WITH"
4268
4269        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4270
4271        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4272
4273    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4274        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4275            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4276
4277        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4278        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4279        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4280
4281        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4282        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4283
4284        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4285
4286    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4287        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4288        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4289        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4290        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4291        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4292
4293    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4294        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4295        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4296        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4297        return res
4298
4299    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4300        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4301        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4302        empty = (
4303            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4304            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4305            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4306        )
4307
4308        error = expression.args.get("error")
4309        error = (
4310            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4311            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4312            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4313        )
4314
4315        if error and empty:
4316            error = (
4317                f"{empty} {error}"
4318                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4319                else f"{error} {empty}"
4320            )
4321            empty = ""
4322
4323        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4324
4325        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4326
4327    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4328        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4329        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4330
4331        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4332        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4333
4334        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4335        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4336
4337        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4338
4339        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4340
4341    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4342        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4343
4344        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4345            parent = expression.parent
4346            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4347                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4348                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4349            else:
4350                # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4351                this = expression.this
4352                this_sql = (
4353                    self.expressions(this)
4354                    if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4355                    else self.sql(expression, "this")
4356                )
4357                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4358
4359        return array_agg
4360
4361    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4362        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4363        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4364
4365        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4366
4367    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4368        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4369
4370        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4371        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4372
4373        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4374        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4375
4376        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4377
4378        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4379
4380        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4381
4382    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4383        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4384        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4385        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4386
4387        return f"{this}{columns}"
4388
4389    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4390        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4391
4392        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4393        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4394
4395        return f"{kind}{this}"
4396
4397    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4398        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4399        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4400            func = f"*{func}"
4401
4402        return func
4403
4404    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4405        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4406        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4407        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4408        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4409        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4410
4411        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
def unsupported_args( *args: Union[str, Tuple[str, str]]) -> Callable[[Callable[[~G, ~E], str]], Callable[[~G, ~E], str]]:
30def unsupported_args(
31    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
32) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
33    """
34    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
35    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
36    """
37    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
38    for arg in args:
39        if isinstance(arg, str):
40            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
41        else:
42            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
43
44    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
45        @wraps(func)
46        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
47            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
48            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
49
50            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
51                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
52                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
53                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
54                    )
55                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
56
57            return func(generator, expression)
58
59        return _func
60
61    return decorator

Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an Expression subclass as unsupported. It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).

class Generator:
  75class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  76    """
  77    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  78
  79    Args:
  80        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  81            Default: False.
  82        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  83            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  84            True or 'always': Always quote.
  85            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  86        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  87            Default: False.
  88        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  89            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  90            Default: 2.
  91        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  92            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  93            Default: 2.
  94        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  95            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  96            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  97            False: Disables function name normalization.
  98        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  99            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
 100        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 101            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 102            Default: 3
 103        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 104            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 105            Default: False
 106        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 107            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 108            line length.
 109            Default: 80
 110        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 111            Default: True
 112    """
 113
 114    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 115        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 116        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 117        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 118        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 119        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 120        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 123        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 124        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 126        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 128        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 129        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 133        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 135        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 136        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 137        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 139        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 140        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 141        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 142        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 143        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 144        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 145        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 146        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 147        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 148        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 150        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 151        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 152        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 153        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 154        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 155        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 156        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 157        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 158        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 159        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 160        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 161        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 162        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 163        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 164        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 165        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 166        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 168        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 169        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 170        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 171        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 172        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 173            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 174        ),
 175        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 176        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 177        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 178        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 179        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 180        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 181        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 182        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 183        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 184        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 185        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 186        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 187        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 188        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 189        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 190        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 191        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 192        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 193        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 194        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 195        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 196        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 197        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 198        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 199        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 200        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 201        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 202        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 203        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 205        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 206    }
 207
 208    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 209    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 210    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 211    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 212
 213    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 214    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 215    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 216
 217    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 218    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 219
 220    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 221    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 222
 223    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 224    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 225
 226    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 227    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 228
 229    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 230    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 231
 232    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 233    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 234
 235    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 236    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 237
 238    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 239    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 240
 241    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 242    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 243
 244    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 245    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 246
 247    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 248    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 249
 250    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 251    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 252
 253    # Whether join hints should be generated
 254    JOIN_HINTS = True
 255
 256    # Whether table hints should be generated
 257    TABLE_HINTS = True
 258
 259    # Whether query hints should be generated
 260    QUERY_HINTS = True
 261
 262    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 263    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 264
 265    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 266    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 267
 268    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 269    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 270
 271    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 272    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 273
 274    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 275    RETURNING_END = True
 276
 277    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 278    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 279
 280    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 281    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 282
 283    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 284    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 285
 286    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 287    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 288
 289    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 290    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 291    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 292    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 293
 294    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 295    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 296
 297    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 298    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 299
 300    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 301    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 302
 303    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 304    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 305
 306    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 307    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 308
 309    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 310    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 311
 312    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 313    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 314
 315    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 316    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 317
 318    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 319    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 320
 321    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 322    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 323
 324    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 325    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 326
 327    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 328    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 329
 330    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 331    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 332
 333    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 334    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 335
 336    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 337    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 338
 339    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 340    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 341
 342    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 343    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 344
 345    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 346    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 347
 348    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 349    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 350
 351    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 352    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 353
 354    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 355    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 356
 357    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 358    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 359
 360    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 361    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 362
 363    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 364    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 365
 366    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 367    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 368
 369    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 370    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 371    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 372
 373    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 374    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 375
 376    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 377    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 378
 379    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 380    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 381
 382    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 383    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 384
 385    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 386    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 387
 388    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 389    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 390
 391    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 392    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 393    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 394    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 395
 396    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 397    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 398
 399    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 400    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 401
 402    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 403    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 404
 405    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 406    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 407
 408    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 409    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 410
 411    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 412    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 413
 414    # The HEX function name
 415    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 416
 417    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 418    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 419
 420    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 421    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 422
 423    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 424    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 425
 426    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 427    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 428
 429    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 430    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 431
 432    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 433    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 434
 435    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 436    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 437
 438    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 439        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 440        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 441        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 442        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 443        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 444        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 445        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 446        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 447        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 448        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 449    }
 450
 451    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 452        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 453        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 454        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 455        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 456        "DAYS": "DAY",
 457        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 458        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 459        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 460        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 461    }
 462
 463    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 464        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 465        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 466        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 467        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 468            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 469            if e.args.get("windows")
 470            else ""
 471        ),
 472        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 473    }
 474
 475    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 476
 477    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 478
 479    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 480    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 481
 482    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 483        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 485        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 489        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 491        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 498        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 500        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 503        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 508        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 509        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 510        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 511        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 512        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 513        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 514        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 515        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 516        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 517        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 518        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 519        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 524        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 525        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 526        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 527        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 528        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 529        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 530        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 531        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 532        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 533        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 534        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 535        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 536        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 539        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 541        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 542        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 543        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 544        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 545        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 546        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 547        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 548        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 549        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 550        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 551        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 552        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 553        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 554        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 555        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 556        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 557        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 558        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 559        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 560        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 561        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 563        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 564        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 565        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 566        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 567        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 568        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 569        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 570    }
 571
 572    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 573    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 574
 575    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 576    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 577        exp.Command,
 578        exp.Create,
 579        exp.Delete,
 580        exp.Drop,
 581        exp.From,
 582        exp.Insert,
 583        exp.Join,
 584        exp.MultitableInserts,
 585        exp.Select,
 586        exp.SetOperation,
 587        exp.Update,
 588        exp.Where,
 589        exp.With,
 590    )
 591
 592    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 593    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 594        exp.Binary,
 595        exp.SetOperation,
 596    )
 597
 598    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 599    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 600        exp.Column,
 601        exp.Literal,
 602        exp.Neg,
 603        exp.Paren,
 604    )
 605
 606    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 607        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 608        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 609        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 610        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 611    }
 612
 613    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 614    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 615
 616    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 617
 618    __slots__ = (
 619        "pretty",
 620        "identify",
 621        "normalize",
 622        "pad",
 623        "_indent",
 624        "normalize_functions",
 625        "unsupported_level",
 626        "max_unsupported",
 627        "leading_comma",
 628        "max_text_width",
 629        "comments",
 630        "dialect",
 631        "unsupported_messages",
 632        "_escaped_quote_end",
 633        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 634        "_next_name",
 635        "_identifier_start",
 636        "_identifier_end",
 637    )
 638
 639    def __init__(
 640        self,
 641        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 642        identify: str | bool = False,
 643        normalize: bool = False,
 644        pad: int = 2,
 645        indent: int = 2,
 646        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 647        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 648        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 649        leading_comma: bool = False,
 650        max_text_width: int = 80,
 651        comments: bool = True,
 652        dialect: DialectType = None,
 653    ):
 654        import sqlglot
 655        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 656
 657        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 658        self.identify = identify
 659        self.normalize = normalize
 660        self.pad = pad
 661        self._indent = indent
 662        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 663        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 664        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 665        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 666        self.comments = comments
 667        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 668
 669        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 670        self.normalize_functions = (
 671            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 672        )
 673
 674        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 675        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 676            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 677        )
 678        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 679
 680        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 681
 682        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 683        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 684
 685    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 686        """
 687        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 688
 689        Args:
 690            expression: The syntax tree.
 691            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 692                it is safer to copy.
 693
 694        Returns:
 695            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 696        """
 697        if copy:
 698            expression = expression.copy()
 699
 700        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 701
 702        self.unsupported_messages = []
 703        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 704
 705        if self.pretty:
 706            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 707
 708        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 709            return sql
 710
 711        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 712            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 713                logger.warning(msg)
 714        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 715            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 716
 717        return sql
 718
 719    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 720        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 721        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 722
 723        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 724            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 725
 726            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 727
 728        return expression
 729
 730    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 731        if (
 732            not expression.parent
 733            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 734            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 735        ):
 736            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 737
 738            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 739        return expression
 740
 741    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 742        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 743            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 744        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 745
 746    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 747        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 748
 749    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 750        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 751
 752    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 753        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 754        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 755        return comment
 756
 757    def maybe_comment(
 758        self,
 759        sql: str,
 760        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 761        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 762        separated: bool = False,
 763    ) -> str:
 764        comments = (
 765            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 766            if self.comments
 767            else None
 768        )
 769
 770        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 771            return sql
 772
 773        comments_sql = " ".join(
 774            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 775        )
 776
 777        if not comments_sql:
 778            return sql
 779
 780        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 781
 782        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 783            return (
 784                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 785                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 786                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 787            )
 788
 789        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 790
 791    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 792        this_sql = (
 793            self.sql(expression)
 794            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 795            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 796        )
 797        if not this_sql:
 798            return "()"
 799
 800        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 801        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 802
 803    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 804        original = self.identify
 805        self.identify = False
 806        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 807        self.identify = original
 808        return result
 809
 810    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 811        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 812            return name.upper()
 813        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 814            return name.lower()
 815        return name
 816
 817    def indent(
 818        self,
 819        sql: str,
 820        level: int = 0,
 821        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 822        skip_first: bool = False,
 823        skip_last: bool = False,
 824    ) -> str:
 825        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 826            return sql
 827
 828        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 829        lines = sql.split("\n")
 830
 831        return "\n".join(
 832            (
 833                line
 834                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 835                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 836            )
 837            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 838        )
 839
 840    def sql(
 841        self,
 842        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 843        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 844        comment: bool = True,
 845    ) -> str:
 846        if not expression:
 847            return ""
 848
 849        if isinstance(expression, str):
 850            return expression
 851
 852        if key:
 853            value = expression.args.get(key)
 854            if value:
 855                return self.sql(value)
 856            return ""
 857
 858        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 859
 860        if callable(transform):
 861            sql = transform(self, expression)
 862        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 863            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 864
 865            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 866                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 867            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 868                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 869            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 870                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 871            else:
 872                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 873        else:
 874            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 875
 876        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 877
 878    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 879        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 880        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 881        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 882
 883    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 884        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 885        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 886        options = expression.args.get("options")
 887        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 888        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 889        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 890        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 891        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 892
 893    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 894        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 895            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 896        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 897        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 898
 899    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 900        return ".".join(
 901            self.sql(part)
 902            for part in (
 903                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 904                expression.args.get("db"),
 905                expression.args.get("table"),
 906                expression.args.get("this"),
 907            )
 908            if part
 909        )
 910
 911    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 912        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 913
 914        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 915            join_mark = ""
 916            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 917
 918        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 919
 920    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 922        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 923        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 924        return f"{position}{this}"
 925
 926    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 927        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 928        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 929        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 930        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 931        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 932        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 933        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 934        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 935
 936        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 937            kind = ""
 938
 939        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 940
 941    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 942        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 943        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 944        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 945
 946    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 948        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 949            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 950        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 951            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 952        else:
 953            persisted = ""
 954        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 955
 956    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 957        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 958
 959    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 960        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 961            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 962        else:
 963            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 964
 965        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 966
 967    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 968        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 969    ) -> str:
 970        this = ""
 971        if expression.this is not None:
 972            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 973            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 974
 975        start = expression.args.get("start")
 976        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 977        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 978        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 979        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 980        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 981        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 982        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 983        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 984        cycle_sql = ""
 985
 986        if cycle is not None:
 987            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 988            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 989
 990        sequence_opts = ""
 991        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 992            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 993            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 994
 995        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 996        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 997
 998        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 999
1000    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1001        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1002    ) -> str:
1003        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1004        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1005        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1006
1007    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1008        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1009    ) -> str:
1010        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1011
1012    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1013        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1014
1015    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1016        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1017
1018    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1019        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1020        if desc is not None:
1021            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1022        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1023
1024    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1026        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1027        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1028        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1029        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1030        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1031        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1032        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1033
1034    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1035        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1036
1037    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1038        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1039        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1040        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1041        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1042
1043        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1044
1045        properties_sql = ""
1046        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1047            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1048        ):
1049            properties_sql = self.sql(
1050                exp.Properties(
1051                    expressions=[
1052                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1053                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1054                    ]
1055                )
1056            )
1057
1058            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1059                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1060            elif not self.pretty:
1061                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1062                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1063
1064        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1065        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1066
1067        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1068        if expression_sql:
1069            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1070
1071            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1072                postalias_props_sql = ""
1073                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1074                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1075                        exp.Properties(
1076                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1077                        ),
1078                        wrapped=False,
1079                    )
1080                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1081                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1082
1083        postindex_props_sql = ""
1084        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1085            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1086                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1087                wrapped=False,
1088                prefix=" ",
1089            )
1090
1091        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1092        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1093        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1094
1095        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1096        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1097        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1098
1099        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1100        if clustered is None:
1101            clustered_sql = ""
1102        elif clustered:
1103            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1104        else:
1105            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1106
1107        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1108        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1109            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1110                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1111                sep=" ",
1112                prefix=" ",
1113                wrapped=False,
1114            )
1115
1116        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1117
1118        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1119        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1120            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1121                exp.Properties(
1122                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1123                ),
1124                sep=" ",
1125                prefix=" ",
1126                wrapped=False,
1127            )
1128
1129        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1130        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1131        no_schema_binding = (
1132            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1133        )
1134
1135        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1136        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1137
1138        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1139        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1140
1141    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1142        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1143        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1144        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1145        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1146        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1147        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1148        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1149        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1150        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1151        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1152
1153        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1154        if cache is None:
1155            cache_str = ""
1156        elif cache is True:
1157            cache_str = " CACHE"
1158        else:
1159            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1160
1161        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1162        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1163
1164        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1165
1166    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1167        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1168        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1169        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1170        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1171
1172    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1173        style = expression.args.get("style")
1174        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1175        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1176        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1177        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1178
1179    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1180        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1181        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1182
1183    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1184        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1185        if with_:
1186            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1187        return sql
1188
1189    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1190        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1191        recursive = (
1192            "RECURSIVE "
1193            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1194            else ""
1195        )
1196
1197        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1198
1199    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1200        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1201
1202        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1203        if materialized is False:
1204            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1205        elif materialized:
1206            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1207
1208        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1209
1210    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1211        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1212        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1213        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1214
1215        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1216            columns = ""
1217            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1218
1219        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1220            alias = self._next_name()
1221
1222        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1223
1224    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1225        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1226        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1227            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1228        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1229
1230    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1231        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1232        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1233            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1234        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1235
1236    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1237        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1238        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1239            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1240        return this
1241
1242    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1243        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1244        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1245
1246        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1247            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1248            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1249        else:
1250            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1251            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1252
1253        if escape:
1254            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1255            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1256        else:
1257            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1258            escape_sql = ""
1259
1260        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1261            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1262
1263        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1264
1265    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1266        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1267        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1268
1269    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1270        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1271        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1272        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1273        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1274
1275    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1276        nested = ""
1277        values = ""
1278        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1279
1280        type_value = expression.this
1281        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1282            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1283        else:
1284            type_sql = (
1285                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1286                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1287                else type_value
1288            )
1289
1290        if interior:
1291            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1292                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1293                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1294                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1295                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1296                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1297            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1298                nested = f" {interior}"
1299            else:
1300                nested = f"({interior})"
1301
1302        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1303        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1304            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1305            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1306        ):
1307            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1308
1309        return type_sql
1310
1311    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1312        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1313        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1314        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1315        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1316
1317    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1318        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1319        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1320        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1321        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1322        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1323        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1324        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1325        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1326        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1327        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1328        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1329        if self.RETURNING_END:
1330            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1331        else:
1332            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1333        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1334
1335    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1336        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1337        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1338        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1339        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1340        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1341        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1342        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1343        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1344        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1345        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1346        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1347        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1348        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1349        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1350        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1351
1352    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1353        op_type = type(expression)
1354        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1355
1356        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1357        if (
1358            distinct is False
1359            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1360            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1361        ):
1362            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1363
1364        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1365
1366        if distinct is None:
1367            distinct = default_distinct
1368            if distinct is None:
1369                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1370
1371        if distinct is default_distinct:
1372            kind = ""
1373        else:
1374            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1375
1376        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1377        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1378
1379    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1380        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1381            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1382            order = expression.args.get("order")
1383
1384            if limit or order:
1385                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1386                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1387                )
1388
1389                if limit:
1390                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1391                if order:
1392                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1393                return self.sql(select)
1394
1395        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1396        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1397
1398        while stack:
1399            node = stack.pop()
1400
1401            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1402                stack.append(node.expression)
1403                stack.append(
1404                    self.maybe_comment(
1405                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1406                    )
1407                )
1408                stack.append(node.this)
1409            else:
1410                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1411
1412        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1413        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1414        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1415
1416    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1417        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1418        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1419        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1420        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1421        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1422            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1423        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1424        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1425
1426    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1427        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1428            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1429            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1430            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1431
1432        agg = expression.this
1433        agg_arg = agg.this
1434        cond = expression.expression.this
1435        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1436        return self.sql(agg)
1437
1438    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1439        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1440            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1441            return ""
1442
1443        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1444
1445    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1446        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1447        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1448        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1449        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1450        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1451        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1452        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1453        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1454        if include:
1455            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1456        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1457        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1458        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1459        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1460        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1461        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1462
1463        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1464
1465    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1466        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1467        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1468        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1469        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1470        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1471        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1472        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1473
1474        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1475
1476        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1477        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1478
1479    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1480        text = expression.name
1481        lower = text.lower()
1482        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1483        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1484        if (
1485            expression.quoted
1486            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1487            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1488            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1489        ):
1490            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1491        return text
1492
1493    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1494        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1495        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1496            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1497
1498        return text
1499
1500    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1501        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1502        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1503            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1504        return text
1505
1506    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1507        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1508        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1509        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1510        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1511        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1512
1513    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1514        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1515        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1516
1517    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1518        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1519
1520    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1521        root_properties = []
1522        with_properties = []
1523
1524        for p in expression.expressions:
1525            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1526            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1527                with_properties.append(p)
1528            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1529                root_properties.append(p)
1530
1531        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1532        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1533
1534        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1535            with_props = " " + with_props
1536
1537        return root_props + with_props
1538
1539    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1540        if properties.expressions:
1541            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1542        return ""
1543
1544    def properties(
1545        self,
1546        properties: exp.Properties,
1547        prefix: str = "",
1548        sep: str = ", ",
1549        suffix: str = "",
1550        wrapped: bool = True,
1551    ) -> str:
1552        if properties.expressions:
1553            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1554            if expressions:
1555                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1556                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1557        return ""
1558
1559    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1560        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1561
1562    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1563        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1564        for p in properties.expressions:
1565            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1566            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1567                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1568            else:
1569                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1570
1571        return properties_locs
1572
1573    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1574        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1575            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1576        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1577
1578    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1579        property_cls = expression.__class__
1580        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1581            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1582
1583        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1584        if not property_name:
1585            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1586
1587        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1588
1589    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1590        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1591            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1592            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1593
1594            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1595            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1596                like = f"({like})"
1597
1598            return like
1599
1600        if expression.expressions:
1601            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1602
1603        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1604        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1605
1606    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1607        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1608        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1609        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1610
1611    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1612        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1613        local = expression.args.get("local")
1614        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1615        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1616        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1617        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1618        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1619
1620    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1621        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1622        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1623        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1624
1625    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1626        if expression.args.get("default"):
1627            property = "DEFAULT"
1628        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1629            property = "ON"
1630        else:
1631            property = "OFF"
1632        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1633
1634    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1635        if expression.args.get("no"):
1636            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1637        if expression.args.get("default"):
1638            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1639
1640        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1641        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1642
1643    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1644        default = expression.args.get("default")
1645        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1646        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1647        if default or minimum or maximum:
1648            if default:
1649                prop = "DEFAULT"
1650            elif minimum:
1651                prop = "MINIMUM"
1652            else:
1653                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1654            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1655        units = expression.args.get("units")
1656        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1657        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1658
1659    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1660        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1661        always = expression.args.get("always")
1662        default = expression.args.get("default")
1663        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1664        never = expression.args.get("never")
1665
1666        if autotemp is not None:
1667            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1668        elif always:
1669            prop = "ALWAYS"
1670        elif default:
1671            prop = "DEFAULT"
1672        elif manual:
1673            prop = "MANUAL"
1674        elif never:
1675            prop = "NEVER"
1676        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1677
1678    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1679        no = expression.args.get("no")
1680        no = " NO" if no else ""
1681        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1682        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1683        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1684        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1685        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1686
1687    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1688        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1689            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1690        if expression.this:
1691            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1692            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1693            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1694
1695        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1696        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1697        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1698
1699    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1700        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1701
1702        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1703        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1704            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1705        else:
1706            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1707
1708        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1709
1710    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1711        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1712        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1713        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1714        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1715        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1716        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1717        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1718
1719    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1720        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1721        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1722        statistics_sql = ""
1723        if statistics is not None:
1724            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1725        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1726
1727    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1728        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1729        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1730        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1731        data_consistency = (
1732            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1733        )
1734        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1735        retention_period = (
1736            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1737        )
1738
1739        if this:
1740            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1741        else:
1742            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1743
1744        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1745
1746        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1747
1748    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1749        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1750        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1751
1752        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1753            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1754        else:
1755            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1756
1757        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1758        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1759        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1760        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1761        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1762        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1763        if is_function:
1764            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1765        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1766
1767        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1768        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1769        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1770        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1771        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1772        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1773        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1774        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1775
1776        if self.RETURNING_END:
1777            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1778        else:
1779            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1780
1781        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1782        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1783        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1784        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1785
1786        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1787        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1788
1789        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1790        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1791
1792    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1793        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1794
1795    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1796        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1797        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1799        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1800        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1801
1802    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1803        return expression.name
1804
1805    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1806        return expression.name
1807
1808    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1809        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1810
1811        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1812        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1813
1814        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1815        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1816        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1817
1818        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1819        if expressions:
1820            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1821            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1822
1823        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1824
1825    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1826        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1827
1828    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1829        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1830        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1831        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1832        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1833        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1834        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1835        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1836        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1837        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1838        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1839        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1840        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1841        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1842
1843    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1844        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1845
1846    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1847        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1848        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1849        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1850        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1851
1852    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1854        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1855        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1856        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1857
1858    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1859        return ".".join(
1860            self.sql(part)
1861            for part in (
1862                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1863                expression.args.get("db"),
1864                expression.args.get("this"),
1865            )
1866            if part is not None
1867        )
1868
1869    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1870        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1871        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1872        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1873        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1874        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1875        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1876        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1877        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1878
1879        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1880        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1881            sample_pre_alias = sample
1882            sample_post_alias = ""
1883        else:
1884            sample_pre_alias = ""
1885            sample_post_alias = sample
1886
1887        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1888        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1889        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1890        joins = self.indent(
1891            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1892        )
1893        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1894
1895        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1896        if file_format:
1897            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1898            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1899            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1900
1901        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1902        if ordinality:
1903            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1904            alias = ""
1905
1906        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1907        if when:
1908            table = f"{table} {when}"
1909
1910        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1911        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1912
1913        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1914        if rows_from:
1915            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1916
1917        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1918
1919    def tablesample_sql(
1920        self,
1921        expression: exp.TableSample,
1922        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1923    ) -> str:
1924        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1925        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1926        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1927        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1928        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1929        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1930        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1931        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1932        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1933
1934        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1935        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1936            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1937
1938        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1939        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1940            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1941
1942        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1943        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1944            expr = f"({expr})"
1945
1946        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1947
1948    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1949        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1950
1951        if expression.this:
1952            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1953            if not expressions:
1954                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1955
1956            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1957            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1958            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1959            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1960            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1961
1962        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1963        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1964        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1965
1966        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1967
1968        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1969        if include_nulls is not None:
1970            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1971        else:
1972            nulls = ""
1973
1974        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1975        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1976        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1977
1978    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1979        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1980        kind = expression.text("kind")
1981        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1982        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1983
1984    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1985        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1986
1987    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1988        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1989        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1990        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1991        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1992        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1993        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1994        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1995        if self.RETURNING_END:
1996            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1997        else:
1998            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1999        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2000        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2001
2002    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2003        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2004
2005        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2006        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2007            args = self.expressions(expression)
2008            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2009            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2010            values = (
2011                f"({values})"
2012                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2013                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2014                else values
2015            )
2016            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2017
2018        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2019        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2020        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2021
2022        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2023
2024        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2025            row = tup.expressions
2026
2027            if i == 0 and column_names:
2028                row = [
2029                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2030                ]
2031
2032            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2033
2034        if self.pretty:
2035            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2036            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2037            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2038            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2039            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2040
2041        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2042        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2043        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2044
2045    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2046        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2047
2048    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2049    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2050        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2051        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2052        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2053
2054    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2055        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2056
2057    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2058        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2059        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2060
2061    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2062        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2063        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2064
2065    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2066        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2067        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2068
2069    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2070        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2071        if group_by_all is True:
2072            modifier = " ALL"
2073        elif group_by_all is False:
2074            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2075        else:
2076            modifier = ""
2077
2078        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2079
2080        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2081        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2082        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2083
2084        groupings = csv(
2085            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2086            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2087            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2088            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2089            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2090        )
2091
2092        if (
2093            expression.expressions
2094            and groupings
2095            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2096        ):
2097            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2098
2099        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2100
2101    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2102        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2103        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2104
2105    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2106        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2107        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2108        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2109        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2110        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2111        return start + connect
2112
2113    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2114        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2115
2116    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2117        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2118            side = None
2119        else:
2120            side = expression.side
2121
2122        op_sql = " ".join(
2123            op
2124            for op in (
2125                expression.method,
2126                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2127                side,
2128                expression.kind,
2129                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2130            )
2131            if op
2132        )
2133        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2134        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2135        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2136        using = expression.args.get("using")
2137
2138        if not on_sql and using:
2139            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2140
2141        this = expression.this
2142        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2143
2144        if on_sql:
2145            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2146            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2147            if using:
2148                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2149            else:
2150                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2151        elif not op_sql:
2152            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2153                return f" {this_sql}"
2154
2155            return f", {this_sql}"
2156
2157        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2158            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2159
2160        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2161
2162    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2163        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2164        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2165        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2166
2167    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2168        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2169
2170        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2171        if cross_apply is True:
2172            op = "INNER JOIN "
2173        elif cross_apply is False:
2174            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2175        else:
2176            op = ""
2177
2178        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2179
2180    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2181        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2182
2183        if expression.args.get("view"):
2184            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2185            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2186            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2187            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2188            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2189            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2190
2191        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2192        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2193        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2194
2195    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2196        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2197
2198        args = [
2199            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2200            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2201            if e
2202        ]
2203
2204        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2205        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2206        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2207        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2208
2209        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2210
2211    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2212        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2213        value = expression.expression
2214        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2215        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2216        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2217        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2218
2219    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2220        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2221        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2222        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2223        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2224        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2225        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2226        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2227        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2228
2229    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2230        expressions = (
2231            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2232        )
2233        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2234        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2235
2236    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2237        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2238
2239    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2240        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2241            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2242            return ""
2243
2244        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2245        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2246        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2247        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2248
2249        if wait is not None:
2250            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2251                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2252            else:
2253                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2254
2255        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2256
2257    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2258        text = expression.this or ""
2259        if expression.is_string:
2260            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2261        return text
2262
2263    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2264        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2265            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2266            text = "".join(
2267                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2268            )
2269
2270        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2271            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2272        )
2273
2274    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2275        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2276        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2277        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2278        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2279        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2280        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2281        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2282        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2283        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2284        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2285        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2286
2287    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2288        return "NULL"
2289
2290    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2291        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2292
2293    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2294        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2295        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2296        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2297        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2298
2299    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2300        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2301        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2302        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2303        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2304        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2305        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2306        interpolated_values = [
2307            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2308            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2309        ]
2310        interpolate = (
2311            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2312        )
2313        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2314
2315    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2316        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2317
2318    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2319        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2320
2321    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2322        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2323
2324    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2325        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2326        asc = not desc
2327
2328        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2329        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2330        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2331        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2332        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2333
2334        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2335
2336        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2337        nulls_sort_change = ""
2338        if nulls_first and (
2339            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2340        ):
2341            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2342        elif (
2343            nulls_last
2344            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2345            and not nulls_are_last
2346        ):
2347            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2348
2349        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2350        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2351            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2352            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2353                self.unsupported(
2354                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2355                )
2356                nulls_sort_change = ""
2357            elif (
2358                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
2359                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
2360                and (
2361                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2362                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2363                )
2364            ):
2365                self.unsupported(
2366                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2367                )
2368                nulls_sort_change = ""
2369            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2370                if expression.this.is_int:
2371                    self.unsupported(
2372                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2373                    )
2374                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2375                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2376                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2377                nulls_sort_change = ""
2378
2379        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2380        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2381
2382        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2383
2384    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2385        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2386        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2387
2388        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2389
2390        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2391
2392    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2393        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2394        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2395        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2396        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2397        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2398        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2399        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2400        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2401        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2402        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2403        definition_sqls = [
2404            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2405            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2406        ]
2407        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2408        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2409        body = "".join(
2410            (
2411                partition,
2412                order,
2413                measures,
2414                rows,
2415                after,
2416                pattern,
2417                define,
2418            )
2419        )
2420        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2421        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2422        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2423
2424    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2425        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2426
2427        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2428            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2429        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2430            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2431
2432        return csv(
2433            *sqls,
2434            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2435            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2436            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2437            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2438            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2439            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2440            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2441            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2442            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2443            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2444            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2445            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2446            self.options_modifier(expression),
2447            sep="",
2448        )
2449
2450    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2451        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2452        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2453
2454    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2455        return ""
2456
2457    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2458        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2459    ) -> t.List[str]:
2460        return [
2461            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2462            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2463        ]
2464
2465    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2466        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2467        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2468        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2469
2470    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2471        into = expression.args.get("into")
2472        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2473            into.pop()
2474
2475        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2476        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2477        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2478        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2479
2480        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2481        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2482            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2483            limit.pop()
2484        else:
2485            top = ""
2486
2487        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2488
2489        if kind:
2490            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2491                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2492            else:
2493                if kind == "STRUCT":
2494                    expressions = self.expressions(
2495                        sqls=[
2496                            self.sql(
2497                                exp.Struct(
2498                                    expressions=[
2499                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2500                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2501                                        else e
2502                                        for e in expression.expressions
2503                                    ]
2504                                )
2505                            )
2506                        ]
2507                    )
2508                kind = ""
2509
2510        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2511        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2512        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2513        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2514        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2515            expression,
2516            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2517            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2518            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2519        )
2520
2521        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2522
2523        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2524            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2525                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2526            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2527                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2528            else:
2529                table_kind = ""
2530            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2531
2532        return sql
2533
2534    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2535        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2536        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2537        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2538
2539    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2540        if expression.expressions:
2541            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2542        return ""
2543
2544    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2545        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2546        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2547        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2548        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2549        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2550        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2551        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2552
2553    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2554        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2555        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2556
2557    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2558        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2559        kind = expression.text("kind")
2560        if kind:
2561            kind = f"{kind}."
2562        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2563
2564    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2565        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2566
2567    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2568        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2569        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2570        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2571        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2572            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2573
2574            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2575            expression.set("sample", None)
2576
2577        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2578        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2579        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2580
2581    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2582        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2583        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2584
2585    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2586        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2587
2588        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2589        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2590
2591        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2592            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2593                alias.append("columns", offset)
2594
2595        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2596            columns = alias.columns
2597            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2598        else:
2599            alias = self.sql(alias)
2600
2601        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2602        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2603            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2604        else:
2605            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2606                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2607            elif offset:
2608                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2609            else:
2610                suffix = alias
2611
2612        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2613
2614    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2615        return ""
2616
2617    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2618        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2619        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2620
2621    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2622        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2623        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2624        order = expression.args.get("order")
2625        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2626        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2627        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2628        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2629
2630        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2631
2632        first = expression.args.get("first")
2633        if first is None:
2634            first = ""
2635        else:
2636            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2637
2638        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2639            return f"{this} {alias}"
2640
2641        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2642        return f"{this} ({args})"
2643
2644    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2645        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2646        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2647
2648    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2649        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2650        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2651        end = (
2652            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2653            or "CURRENT ROW"
2654        )
2655        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2656
2657    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2658        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2659        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2660        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2661
2662    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2663        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2664        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2665        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2666        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2667
2668    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2669        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2670    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2671        return apply_index_offset(
2672            expression.this,
2673            expression.expressions,
2674            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2675        )
2676
2677    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2678        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2679        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2680        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2681
2682    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2683        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2684
2685    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2686        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2687        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2688            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2689                this = self.wrap(this)
2690            return f"ANY{this}"
2691        return f"ANY {this}"
2692
2693    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2694        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2695
2696    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2697        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2698        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2699
2700        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2701            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2702            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2703
2704        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2705
2706        if default:
2707            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2708
2709        statements.append("END")
2710
2711        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2712            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2713
2714        return " ".join(statements)
2715
2716    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2718        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2719        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2720
2721    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2722        order = expression.args.get("order")
2723        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2724        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2725
2726    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2727        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2728        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2729        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2730
2731    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2732        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2733
2734        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2735            func_name = "LTRIM"
2736        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2737            func_name = "RTRIM"
2738        else:
2739            func_name = "TRIM"
2740
2741        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2742
2743    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2744        args = expression.expressions
2745        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2746            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2747
2748        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2749            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2750
2751        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2752            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2753
2754        return args
2755
2756    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2757        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2758
2759        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2760        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2761            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2762
2763        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2764
2765    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2766        return self.func(
2767            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2768        )
2769
2770    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2771        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2772        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2773
2774    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2775        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2776        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2777        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2778        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2779        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2780        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2781        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2782        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2783
2784    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2785        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2786        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2787        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2788        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2789
2790    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2791        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2792
2793    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2794        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2795        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2796        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2797
2798    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2799        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2800
2801    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2802        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2803
2804        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2805            path = self.escape_str(path)
2806
2807        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2808            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2809
2810        return path
2811
2812    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2813        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2814            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2815            if not callable(transform):
2816                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2817                return ""
2818
2819            return transform(self, expression)
2820
2821        if isinstance(expression, int):
2822            return str(expression)
2823
2824        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2825            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2826            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2827        else:
2828            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2829            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2830
2831        return escaped
2832
2833    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2834        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2835
2836    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2837        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2838        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2839
2840        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2841        if unique_keys is not None:
2842            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2843        else:
2844            unique_keys = ""
2845
2846        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2847        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2848        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2849        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2850
2851        return self.func(
2852            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2853            *expression.expressions,
2854            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2855        )
2856
2857    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2858        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2859
2860    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2861        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2862        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2863        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2864        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2865        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2866        return self.func(
2867            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2868        )
2869
2870    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2872        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2873        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2874        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2875        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2876        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2877        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2878        return self.func(
2879            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2880            this,
2881            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2882        )
2883
2884    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2885        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2886        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2887        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2888
2889        if nested_schema:
2890            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2891
2892        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2893        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2894        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2895        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2896
2897    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2898        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2899
2900    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2902        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2903        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2904        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2905        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2906        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2907        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2908        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2909        return self.func(
2910            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2911        )
2912
2913    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2914        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2915        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2916        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2917        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2918        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2919        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2920
2921    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2922        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2923        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2924        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2925        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2926        with_ = (
2927            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2928            if expressions
2929            else ""
2930        )
2931        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2932
2933    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2934        query = expression.args.get("query")
2935        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2936        field = expression.args.get("field")
2937        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2938
2939        if query:
2940            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2941        elif unnest:
2942            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2943        elif field:
2944            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2945        else:
2946            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2947
2948        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2949
2950    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2951        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2952
2953    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2954        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2955        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2956            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2957        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2958
2959        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2960            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2961            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2962
2963        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2964        if this:
2965            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2966            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2967
2968        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2969
2970    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2971        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2972
2973    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2974        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2975        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2976        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2977        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2978        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2979        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2980
2981    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2982        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
2983        parent = expression.parent
2984        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
2985        return self.func(
2986            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
2987        )
2988
2989    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2990        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2991        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2992
2993    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2994        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2995        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2996        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2997        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2998
2999    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3000        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3001
3002    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3003        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3004        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3005        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3006
3007    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3008        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3009
3010        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3011        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3012
3013        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3014            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3015        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3016            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3017
3018        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3019
3020    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3021        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3022
3023    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3024        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3025        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3026        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3027
3028    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3030        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3031        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3032
3033    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3034        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3035        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3036        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3037
3038    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3039        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3040
3041    def and_sql(
3042        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3043    ) -> str:
3044        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3045
3046    def or_sql(
3047        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3048    ) -> str:
3049        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3050
3051    def xor_sql(
3052        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3053    ) -> str:
3054        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3055
3056    def connector_sql(
3057        self,
3058        expression: exp.Connector,
3059        op: str,
3060        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3061    ) -> str:
3062        if stack is not None:
3063            if expression.expressions:
3064                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3065            else:
3066                stack.append(expression.right)
3067                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3068                    for comment in expression.comments:
3069                        if comment:
3070                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3071                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3072            return op
3073
3074        stack = [expression]
3075        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3076        ops = set()
3077
3078        while stack:
3079            node = stack.pop()
3080            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3081                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3082            else:
3083                sql = self.sql(node)
3084                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3085                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3086                else:
3087                    sqls.append(sql)
3088
3089        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3090        return sep.join(sqls)
3091
3092    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3093        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3094
3095    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3096        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3097
3098    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3099        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3100
3101    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3102        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3103
3104    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3105        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3106
3107    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3108        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3109
3110    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3111        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3112        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3113        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3114        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3115        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3116        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3117        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3118
3119    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3120        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3121        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3122
3123    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3124        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3125            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3126        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3127
3128    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3129        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3130
3131    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3132        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3133        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3134        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3135        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3136        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3137        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3138
3139    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3140        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3141        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3142        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3143        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3144        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3145        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3146        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3147        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3148        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3149
3150    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3151        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3152        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3153        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3154        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3155
3156        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3157            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3158
3159        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3160
3161    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3162        return "BEGIN"
3163
3164    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3165        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3166        if chain is not None:
3167            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3168
3169        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3170
3171    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3172        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3173        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3174        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3175
3176    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3177        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3178
3179        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3180        if dtype:
3181            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3182            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3183            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3184            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3185            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3186
3187        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3188        if default:
3189            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3190
3191        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3192        if comment:
3193            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3194
3195        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3196        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3197
3198        if not drop and not allow_null:
3199            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3200
3201        if allow_null is not None:
3202            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3203            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3204
3205        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3206
3207    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3208        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3209        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3210            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3211        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3212
3213    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3214        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3216        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3217        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3218        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3219
3220    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3221        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3222            # Remove db from tables
3223            expression = expression.transform(
3224                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3225            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3226        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3227        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3228
3229    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3230        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3231        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3232        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3233        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3234
3235    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3236        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3237        return f"SET {exprs}"
3238
3239    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3240        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3241
3242        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3243            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3244        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3245            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3246        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3247            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3248        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3249            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3250        else:
3251            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3252
3253        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3254        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3255        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3256        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3257        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3258        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3259        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3260        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3261
3262        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3263
3264    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3265        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3266            return self.expressions(
3267                expression,
3268                key="actions",
3269                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3270                skip_first=True,
3271            )
3272        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3273
3274    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3275        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3276        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3277        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3278
3279    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3280        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3281
3282    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3283        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3284
3285        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3286            case = exp.case()
3287            for arg in expression.expressions:
3288                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3289            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3290
3291        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3292
3293        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3294        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3295        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3296
3297    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3298        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3299
3300    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3301        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3302
3303    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3304        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3305        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3306        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3307        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3308
3309    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3310        return self.sql(
3311            exp.Cast(
3312                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3313                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3314            )
3315        )
3316
3317    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3318        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3319            return self.func(
3320                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3321            )
3322        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3323
3324    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3325        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3326
3327        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3328            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3329
3330        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3331            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3332                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3333
3334        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3335            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3336                return self.sql(
3337                    exp.cast(
3338                        l / r,
3339                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3340                    )
3341                )
3342
3343        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3344
3345    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3346        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3347
3348    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3349        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3350
3351    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3352        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3353
3354    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3355        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3356
3357    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3358        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3359
3360    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3361        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3362
3363    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3364        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3365
3366    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3367        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3368
3369    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3370        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3371
3372    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3373        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3374
3375    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3376        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3377
3378    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3379        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3380            return self.sql(
3381                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3382            )
3383        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3384
3385    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3386        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3387
3388    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3389        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3390
3391    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3392        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3393
3394    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3395        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3396
3397    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3398        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3399
3400    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3401        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3402
3403    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3404        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3405
3406    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3407        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3408
3409    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3410        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3411
3412    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3413        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3414
3415    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3416        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3417
3418    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3419        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3420
3421    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3422        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3423
3424    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3425        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3426            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3427            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3428
3429        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3430
3431    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3432        this = expression.this
3433        expr = expression.expression
3434
3435        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3436            this, expr = expr, this
3437        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3438            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3439                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3440
3441            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3442
3443        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3444
3445    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3446        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3447        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3449        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3450        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3451
3452    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3453        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3454        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3455        binary_type = type(expression)
3456
3457        while stack:
3458            node = stack.pop()
3459
3460            if type(node) is binary_type:
3461                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3462                if op_func:
3463                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3464
3465                stack.append(node.right)
3466                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3467                stack.append(node.left)
3468            else:
3469                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3470
3471        return "".join(sqls)
3472
3473    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3474        args = []
3475
3476        for key in expression.arg_types:
3477            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3478
3479            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3480                for value in arg_value:
3481                    args.append(value)
3482            elif arg_value is not None:
3483                args.append(arg_value)
3484
3485        if self.normalize_functions:
3486            name = expression.sql_name()
3487        else:
3488            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3489
3490        return self.func(name, *args)
3491
3492    def func(
3493        self,
3494        name: str,
3495        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3496        prefix: str = "(",
3497        suffix: str = ")",
3498        normalize: bool = True,
3499    ) -> str:
3500        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3501        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3502
3503    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3504        arg_sqls = tuple(
3505            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3506        )
3507        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3508            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3509        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3510
3511    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3512        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3513
3514    def format_time(
3515        self,
3516        expression: exp.Expression,
3517        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3518        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3519    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3520        return format_time(
3521            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3522            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3523            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3524        )
3525
3526    def expressions(
3527        self,
3528        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3529        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3530        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3531        flat: bool = False,
3532        indent: bool = True,
3533        skip_first: bool = False,
3534        skip_last: bool = False,
3535        sep: str = ", ",
3536        prefix: str = "",
3537        dynamic: bool = False,
3538        new_line: bool = False,
3539    ) -> str:
3540        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3541
3542        if not expressions:
3543            return ""
3544
3545        if flat:
3546            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3547
3548        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3549        result_sqls = []
3550
3551        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3552            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3553            if not sql:
3554                continue
3555
3556            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3557
3558            if self.pretty:
3559                if self.leading_comma:
3560                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3561                else:
3562                    result_sqls.append(
3563                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3564                    )
3565            else:
3566                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3567
3568        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3569            if new_line:
3570                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3571                result_sqls.append("")
3572            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3573        else:
3574            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3575
3576        return (
3577            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3578            if indent
3579            else result_sql
3580        )
3581
3582    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3583        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3584        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3585        if flat:
3586            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3587        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3588
3589    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3590        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3591        if not property_name:
3592            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3593        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3594
3595    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3596        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3597
3598    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3599        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3600
3601    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3602        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3603        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3604        expressions = (
3605            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3606        )
3607        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3608
3609    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3610        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3611        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3612        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3613
3614    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3615        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3616
3617    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3618        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3619        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3620        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3621        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3622
3623        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3624        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3625            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3626            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3627            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3628            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3629        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3630            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3631                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3632            else:
3633                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3634        else:
3635            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3636        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3637
3638    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3639        table = expression.this
3640        table_alias = ""
3641
3642        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3643        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3644            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3645            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3646
3647        this = self.sql(table)
3648        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3649        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3650        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3651        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3652        if returning:
3653            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
3654
3655        sep = self.sep()
3656
3657        return self.prepend_ctes(
3658            expression,
3659            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
3660        )
3661
3662    @unsupported_args("format")
3663    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3664        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3665
3666    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3667        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3668            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3669            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3670
3671        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3672        if not fmt:
3673            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3674            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3675
3676        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3677
3678    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3679        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3680        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3681        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3682        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3683        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3684
3685    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3686        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3687        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3688        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3689        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3690
3691    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3692        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3693
3694    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3695        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3696
3697    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3698    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3699        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3700        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3701        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3702        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3703        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3704        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3705        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3706
3707    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3708        return ""
3709
3710    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3711        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3712        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3713        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3714        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3715        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3716
3717    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3718        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3719        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3720
3721        if having:
3722            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3723
3724        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3725
3726    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3727        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3728        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3729        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3730        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3731        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3732        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3733        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3734        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3735        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3736        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3737        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3738        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3739        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3740
3741    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3742        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3743        if key_block_size:
3744            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3745
3746        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3747        if using:
3748            return f"USING {using}"
3749
3750        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3751        if parser:
3752            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3753
3754        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3755        if comment:
3756            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3757
3758        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3759        if visible is not None:
3760            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3761
3762        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3763        if engine_attr:
3764            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3765
3766        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3767        if secondary_engine_attr:
3768            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3769
3770        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3771        return ""
3772
3773    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3774        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3775        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3776
3777    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3778        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3779        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3780        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3781        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3782        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3783        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3784        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3785        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3786        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3787        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3788        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3789
3790    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3791        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3792            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3793
3794        case = exp.Case().when(
3795            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3796            expression.args["true"],
3797            copy=False,
3798        )
3799        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3800        if else_cond:
3801            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3802
3803        return self.sql(case)
3804
3805    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3807        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3808        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3809        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3810        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3811        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3812
3813    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3814        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3815
3816    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3817        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3818
3819    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3820        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3821        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3822        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3823        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3824        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3825        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3826
3827    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3828        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3829        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3830        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3831
3832    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3834        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3835        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3836
3837    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3838        arg = expression.this
3839        if not arg.type:
3840            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3841
3842            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3843
3844        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3845            return self.sql(arg)
3846
3847        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3848        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3849
3850    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3851        this = expression.this
3852        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3853            return self.sql(this)
3854
3855        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3856
3857    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3858        this = expression.this
3859        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3860            return self.sql(this)
3861
3862        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3863
3864    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3865        this = expression.this
3866        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3867
3868        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3869            return self.sql(
3870                exp.cast(
3871                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3872                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3873                )
3874            )
3875
3876        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3877            return self.sql(this)
3878
3879        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3880
3881    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3882        return self.sql(
3883            exp.func(
3884                "DATEDIFF",
3885                expression.this,
3886                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3887                "day",
3888            )
3889        )
3890
3891    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3892        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3893            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3894
3895        unit = expression.text("unit")
3896        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3897            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3898
3899        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3900
3901    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3902        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3903
3904        return self.func(
3905            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3906        )
3907
3908    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3909        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3910            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3911            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3912            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3913            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3914
3915        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3916
3917        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3918        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3919            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3920
3921        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3922
3923    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3924        expression.set(
3925            "expressions",
3926            [
3927                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3928                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3929                else e
3930                for e in expression.expressions
3931            ],
3932        )
3933
3934        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3935
3936    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3937        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3938        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3939
3940        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3941
3942    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3943        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3944        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3945
3946        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3947
3948        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3949        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3950
3951        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3952        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3953
3954        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3955        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3956
3957        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3958        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3959
3960        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3961
3962    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3963    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3964    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3965        to = expression.this
3966        value = expression.expression
3967        style = expression.args.get("style")
3968        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3969        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3970
3971        if not to or not value:
3972            return ""
3973
3974        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3975        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3976            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3977
3978        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3979        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3980
3981        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3982        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3983            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3984
3985            style_value = style.name
3986            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3987            if not converted_style:
3988                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3989
3990            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3991
3992            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3993                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3994            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3995                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3996            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3997                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3998            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3999                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4000
4001        if not transformed:
4002            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4003
4004        return self.sql(transformed)
4005
4006    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4007        this = expression.this
4008        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4009            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4010            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4011
4012        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4013            return f".{this}"
4014
4015        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4016        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
4017
4018    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4019        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4020        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4021
4022    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4023        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4024            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4025
4026            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4027
4028        return expression
4029
4030    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4031        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4032            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4033            mods = sorted(
4034                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4035                key=lambda x: 0
4036                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4037                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4038            )
4039
4040            if mods:
4041                mod = mods[0]
4042                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4043                this.meta["inline"] = True
4044                mod.this.replace(this)
4045                return self.sql(expression.this)
4046
4047            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4048
4049            if agg_func:
4050                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4051
4052        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4053
4054    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4055        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4056        if self.pretty:
4057            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4058        return string
4059
4060    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4061        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4062
4063        if expression.expressions:
4064            upper = option.upper()
4065
4066            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4067            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4068
4069            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4070            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4071            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4072            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4073
4074        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4075
4076        if not value:
4077            return option
4078
4079        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4080
4081        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4082
4083    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4084        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4085        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4086            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4087            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4088            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4089        else:
4090            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4091            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4092            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4093
4094        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4095        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4096
4097        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4098        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4099
4100        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4101        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4102
4103        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4104        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4105
4106        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4107
4108    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4109        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4110        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4111
4112        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4113        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4114        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4115        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4116
4117        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4118        params = self.expressions(
4119            expression,
4120            key="params",
4121            sep=sep,
4122            new_line=True,
4123            skip_last=True,
4124            skip_first=True,
4125            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4126        )
4127
4128        if params:
4129            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4130                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4131            elif not self.pretty:
4132                params = f" {params}"
4133
4134        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4135
4136    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4137        return ""
4138
4139    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4140        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4141        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4142        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4143        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4144        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4145
4146        if filter_col or retention_period:
4147            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4148
4149        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4150
4151    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4152        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4153    ) -> str:
4154        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4155        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4156        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4157        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4158
4159    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4160        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4161        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4162        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4163
4164    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4165        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4166
4167    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4169        expr = expression.expression
4170
4171        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4172            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4173            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4174        else:
4175            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4176
4177        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4178
4179    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4180        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4181            return self.sql(expression.this)
4182
4183        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4184
4185    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4186        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4187        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4188
4189        if lower and upper:
4190            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4191        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4192
4193    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4194        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4195        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4196        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4197        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4198        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4199        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4200
4201        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4202
4203    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4204        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4205
4206        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4207        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4208            fill_pattern = "' '"
4209
4210        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4211
4212    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4213        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4214        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4215
4216    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4217        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4218
4219        parent = expression.parent
4220        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4221            parent = parent.parent
4222
4223        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4224            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4225
4226        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4227            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4228
4229        return self.sql(generate_series)
4230
4231    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4232        exprs = expression.expressions
4233        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4234            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4235        else:
4236            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4237
4238        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4239
4240    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4241        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4242            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4243
4244        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4245        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4246        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4247
4248        if source_tz and timestamp:
4249            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4250                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4251            )
4252
4253        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4254
4255        return self.sql(expr)
4256
4257    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4258        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4259        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4260
4261        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4262
4263        if _with is None:
4264            with_sql = ""
4265        elif not _with:
4266            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4267        else:
4268            with_sql = " WITH"
4269
4270        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4271
4272        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4273
4274    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4275        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4276            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4277
4278        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4279        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4280        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4281
4282        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4283        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4284
4285        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4286
4287    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4288        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4289        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4290        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4291        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4292        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4293
4294    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4295        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4296        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4297        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4298        return res
4299
4300    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4301        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4302        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4303        empty = (
4304            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4305            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4306            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4307        )
4308
4309        error = expression.args.get("error")
4310        error = (
4311            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4312            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4313            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4314        )
4315
4316        if error and empty:
4317            error = (
4318                f"{empty} {error}"
4319                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4320                else f"{error} {empty}"
4321            )
4322            empty = ""
4323
4324        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4325
4326        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4327
4328    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4329        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4330        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4331
4332        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4333        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4334
4335        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4336        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4337
4338        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4339
4340        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4341
4342    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4343        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4344
4345        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4346            parent = expression.parent
4347            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4348                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4349                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4350            else:
4351                # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4352                this = expression.this
4353                this_sql = (
4354                    self.expressions(this)
4355                    if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4356                    else self.sql(expression, "this")
4357                )
4358                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4359
4360        return array_agg
4361
4362    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4363        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4364        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4365
4366        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4367
4368    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4369        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4370
4371        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4372        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4373
4374        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4375        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4376
4377        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4378
4379        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4380
4381        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4382
4383    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4384        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4385        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4386        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4387
4388        return f"{this}{columns}"
4389
4390    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4391        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4392
4393        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4394        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4395
4396        return f"{kind}{this}"
4397
4398    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4399        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4400        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4401            func = f"*{func}"
4402
4403        return func
4404
4405    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4406        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4407        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4408        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4409        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4410        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4411
4412        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
639    def __init__(
640        self,
641        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
642        identify: str | bool = False,
643        normalize: bool = False,
644        pad: int = 2,
645        indent: int = 2,
646        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
647        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
648        max_unsupported: int = 3,
649        leading_comma: bool = False,
650        max_text_width: int = 80,
651        comments: bool = True,
652        dialect: DialectType = None,
653    ):
654        import sqlglot
655        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
656
657        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
658        self.identify = identify
659        self.normalize = normalize
660        self.pad = pad
661        self._indent = indent
662        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
663        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
664        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
665        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
666        self.comments = comments
667        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
668
669        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
670        self.normalize_functions = (
671            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
672        )
673
674        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
675        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
676            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
677        )
678        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
679
680        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
681
682        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
683        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ArrayContainsAll'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ArrayOverlaps'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ConnectByRoot'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Except'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Intersect'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Operator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PivotAny'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Stream'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TagColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Uuid'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
PARSE_JSON_NAME: Optional[str] = 'PARSE_JSON'
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
685    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
686        """
687        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
688
689        Args:
690            expression: The syntax tree.
691            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
692                it is safer to copy.
693
694        Returns:
695            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
696        """
697        if copy:
698            expression = expression.copy()
699
700        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
701
702        self.unsupported_messages = []
703        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
704
705        if self.pretty:
706            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
707
708        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
709            return sql
710
711        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
712            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
713                logger.warning(msg)
714        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
715            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
716
717        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
719    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
720        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
721        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
722
723        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
724            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
725
726            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
727
728        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
741    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
742        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
743            raise UnsupportedError(message)
744        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
746    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
747        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
749    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
750        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
752    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
753        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
754        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
755        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
757    def maybe_comment(
758        self,
759        sql: str,
760        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
761        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
762        separated: bool = False,
763    ) -> str:
764        comments = (
765            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
766            if self.comments
767            else None
768        )
769
770        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
771            return sql
772
773        comments_sql = " ".join(
774            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
775        )
776
777        if not comments_sql:
778            return sql
779
780        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
781
782        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
783            return (
784                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
785                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
786                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
787            )
788
789        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
791    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
792        this_sql = (
793            self.sql(expression)
794            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
795            else self.sql(expression, "this")
796        )
797        if not this_sql:
798            return "()"
799
800        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
801        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
803    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
804        original = self.identify
805        self.identify = False
806        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
807        self.identify = original
808        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
810    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
811        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
812            return name.upper()
813        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
814            return name.lower()
815        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
817    def indent(
818        self,
819        sql: str,
820        level: int = 0,
821        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
822        skip_first: bool = False,
823        skip_last: bool = False,
824    ) -> str:
825        if not self.pretty or not sql:
826            return sql
827
828        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
829        lines = sql.split("\n")
830
831        return "\n".join(
832            (
833                line
834                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
835                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
836            )
837            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
838        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
840    def sql(
841        self,
842        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
843        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
844        comment: bool = True,
845    ) -> str:
846        if not expression:
847            return ""
848
849        if isinstance(expression, str):
850            return expression
851
852        if key:
853            value = expression.args.get(key)
854            if value:
855                return self.sql(value)
856            return ""
857
858        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
859
860        if callable(transform):
861            sql = transform(self, expression)
862        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
863            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
864
865            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
866                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
867            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
868                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
869            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
870                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
871            else:
872                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
873        else:
874            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
875
876        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
878    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
879        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
880        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
881        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
883    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
884        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
885        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
886        options = expression.args.get("options")
887        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
888        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
889        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
890        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
891        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
893    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
894        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
895            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
896        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
897        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
899    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
900        return ".".join(
901            self.sql(part)
902            for part in (
903                expression.args.get("catalog"),
904                expression.args.get("db"),
905                expression.args.get("table"),
906                expression.args.get("this"),
907            )
908            if part
909        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
911    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
912        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
913
914        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
915            join_mark = ""
916            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
917
918        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
920    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
922        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
923        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
924        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
926    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
927        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
928        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
929        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
930        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
931        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
932        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
933        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
934        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
935
936        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
937            kind = ""
938
939        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
941    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
942        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
943        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
944        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
946    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
948        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
949            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
950        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
951            persisted = " PERSISTED"
952        else:
953            persisted = ""
954        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
956    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
957        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
959    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
960        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
961            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
962        else:
963            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
964
965        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
967    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
968        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
969    ) -> str:
970        this = ""
971        if expression.this is not None:
972            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
973            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
974
975        start = expression.args.get("start")
976        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
977        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
978        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
979        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
980        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
981        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
982        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
983        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
984        cycle_sql = ""
985
986        if cycle is not None:
987            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
988            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
989
990        sequence_opts = ""
991        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
992            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
993            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
994
995        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
996        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
997
998        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
1000    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1001        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1002    ) -> str:
1003        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1004        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1005        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
1007    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1008        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1009    ) -> str:
1010        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1012    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1013        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1015    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1016        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1018    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1019        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1020        if desc is not None:
1021            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1022        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1024    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1026        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1027        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1028        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1029        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1030        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1031        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1032        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
1034    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1035        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
1037    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1038        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1039        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1040        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1041        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1042
1043        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1044
1045        properties_sql = ""
1046        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1047            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1048        ):
1049            properties_sql = self.sql(
1050                exp.Properties(
1051                    expressions=[
1052                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1053                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1054                    ]
1055                )
1056            )
1057
1058            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1059                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1060            elif not self.pretty:
1061                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1062                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1063
1064        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1065        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1066
1067        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1068        if expression_sql:
1069            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1070
1071            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1072                postalias_props_sql = ""
1073                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1074                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1075                        exp.Properties(
1076                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1077                        ),
1078                        wrapped=False,
1079                    )
1080                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1081                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1082
1083        postindex_props_sql = ""
1084        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1085            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1086                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1087                wrapped=False,
1088                prefix=" ",
1089            )
1090
1091        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1092        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1093        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1094
1095        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1096        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1097        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1098
1099        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1100        if clustered is None:
1101            clustered_sql = ""
1102        elif clustered:
1103            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1104        else:
1105            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1106
1107        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1108        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1109            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1110                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1111                sep=" ",
1112                prefix=" ",
1113                wrapped=False,
1114            )
1115
1116        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1117
1118        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1119        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1120            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1121                exp.Properties(
1122                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1123                ),
1124                sep=" ",
1125                prefix=" ",
1126                wrapped=False,
1127            )
1128
1129        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1130        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1131        no_schema_binding = (
1132            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1133        )
1134
1135        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1136        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1137
1138        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1139        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1141    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1142        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1143        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1144        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1145        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1146        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1147        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1148        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1149        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1150        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1151        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1152
1153        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1154        if cache is None:
1155            cache_str = ""
1156        elif cache is True:
1157            cache_str = " CACHE"
1158        else:
1159            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1160
1161        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1162        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1163
1164        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1166    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1167        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1168        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1169        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1170        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1172    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1173        style = expression.args.get("style")
1174        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1175        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1176        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1177        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1179    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1180        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1181        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1183    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1184        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1185        if with_:
1186            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1187        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1189    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1190        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1191        recursive = (
1192            "RECURSIVE "
1193            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1194            else ""
1195        )
1196
1197        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1199    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1200        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1201
1202        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1203        if materialized is False:
1204            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1205        elif materialized:
1206            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1207
1208        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1210    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1211        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1212        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1213        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1214
1215        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1216            columns = ""
1217            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1218
1219        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1220            alias = self._next_name()
1221
1222        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1224    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1225        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1226        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1227            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1228        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1230    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1231        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1232        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1233            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1234        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1236    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1237        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1238        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1239            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1240        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1242    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1243        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1244        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1245
1246        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1247            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1248            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1249        else:
1250            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1251            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1252
1253        if escape:
1254            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1255            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1256        else:
1257            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1258            escape_sql = ""
1259
1260        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1261            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1262
1263        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1265    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1266        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1267        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1269    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1270        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1271        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1272        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1273        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1275    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1276        nested = ""
1277        values = ""
1278        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1279
1280        type_value = expression.this
1281        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1282            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1283        else:
1284            type_sql = (
1285                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1286                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1287                else type_value
1288            )
1289
1290        if interior:
1291            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1292                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1293                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1294                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1295                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1296                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1297            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1298                nested = f" {interior}"
1299            else:
1300                nested = f"({interior})"
1301
1302        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1303        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1304            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1305            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1306        ):
1307            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1308
1309        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1311    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1312        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1313        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1314        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1315        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1317    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1318        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1319        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1320        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1321        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1322        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1323        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1324        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1325        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1326        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1327        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1328        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1329        if self.RETURNING_END:
1330            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1331        else:
1332            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1333        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1335    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1336        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1337        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1338        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1339        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1340        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1341        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1342        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1343        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1344        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1345        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1346        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1347        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1348        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1349        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1350        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
1352    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1353        op_type = type(expression)
1354        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1355
1356        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1357        if (
1358            distinct is False
1359            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1360            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1361        ):
1362            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1363
1364        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1365
1366        if distinct is None:
1367            distinct = default_distinct
1368            if distinct is None:
1369                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1370
1371        if distinct is default_distinct:
1372            kind = ""
1373        else:
1374            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1375
1376        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1377        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
1379    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1380        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1381            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1382            order = expression.args.get("order")
1383
1384            if limit or order:
1385                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1386                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1387                )
1388
1389                if limit:
1390                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1391                if order:
1392                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1393                return self.sql(select)
1394
1395        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1396        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1397
1398        while stack:
1399            node = stack.pop()
1400
1401            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1402                stack.append(node.expression)
1403                stack.append(
1404                    self.maybe_comment(
1405                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1406                    )
1407                )
1408                stack.append(node.this)
1409            else:
1410                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1411
1412        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1413        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1414        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1416    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1417        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1418        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1419        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1420        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1421        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1422            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1423        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1424        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1426    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1427        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1428            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1429            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1430            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1431
1432        agg = expression.this
1433        agg_arg = agg.this
1434        cond = expression.expression.this
1435        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1436        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1438    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1439        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1440            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1441            return ""
1442
1443        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1445    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1446        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1447        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1448        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1449        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1450        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1451        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1452        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1453        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1454        if include:
1455            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1456        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1457        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1458        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1459        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1460        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1461        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1462
1463        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1465    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1466        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1467        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1468        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1469        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1470        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1471        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1472        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1473
1474        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1475
1476        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1477        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1479    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1480        text = expression.name
1481        lower = text.lower()
1482        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1483        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1484        if (
1485            expression.quoted
1486            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1487            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1488            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1489        ):
1490            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1491        return text
def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str:
1493    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1494        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1495        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1496            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1497
1498        return text
def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str:
1500    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1501        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1502        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1503            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1504        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1506    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1507        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1508        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1509        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1510        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1511        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1513    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1514        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1515        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1517    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1518        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1520    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1521        root_properties = []
1522        with_properties = []
1523
1524        for p in expression.expressions:
1525            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1526            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1527                with_properties.append(p)
1528            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1529                root_properties.append(p)
1530
1531        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1532        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1533
1534        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1535            with_props = " " + with_props
1536
1537        return root_props + with_props
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1539    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1540        if properties.expressions:
1541            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1542        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1544    def properties(
1545        self,
1546        properties: exp.Properties,
1547        prefix: str = "",
1548        sep: str = ", ",
1549        suffix: str = "",
1550        wrapped: bool = True,
1551    ) -> str:
1552        if properties.expressions:
1553            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1554            if expressions:
1555                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1556                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1557        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1559    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1560        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1562    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1563        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1564        for p in properties.expressions:
1565            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1566            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1567                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1568            else:
1569                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1570
1571        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1573    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1574        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1575            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1576        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1578    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1579        property_cls = expression.__class__
1580        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1581            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1582
1583        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1584        if not property_name:
1585            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1586
1587        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1589    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1590        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1591            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1592            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1593
1594            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1595            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1596                like = f"({like})"
1597
1598            return like
1599
1600        if expression.expressions:
1601            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1602
1603        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1604        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1606    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1607        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1608        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1609        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1611    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1612        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1613        local = expression.args.get("local")
1614        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1615        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1616        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1617        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1618        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1620    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1621        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1622        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1623        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1625    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1626        if expression.args.get("default"):
1627            property = "DEFAULT"
1628        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1629            property = "ON"
1630        else:
1631            property = "OFF"
1632        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1634    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1635        if expression.args.get("no"):
1636            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1637        if expression.args.get("default"):
1638            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1639
1640        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1641        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1643    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1644        default = expression.args.get("default")
1645        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1646        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1647        if default or minimum or maximum:
1648            if default:
1649                prop = "DEFAULT"
1650            elif minimum:
1651                prop = "MINIMUM"
1652            else:
1653                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1654            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1655        units = expression.args.get("units")
1656        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1657        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1659    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1660        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1661        always = expression.args.get("always")
1662        default = expression.args.get("default")
1663        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1664        never = expression.args.get("never")
1665
1666        if autotemp is not None:
1667            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1668        elif always:
1669            prop = "ALWAYS"
1670        elif default:
1671            prop = "DEFAULT"
1672        elif manual:
1673            prop = "MANUAL"
1674        elif never:
1675            prop = "NEVER"
1676        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1678    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1679        no = expression.args.get("no")
1680        no = " NO" if no else ""
1681        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1682        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1683        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1684        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1685        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1687    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1688        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1689            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1690        if expression.this:
1691            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1692            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1693            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1694
1695        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1696        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1697        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1699    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1700        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1701
1702        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1703        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1704            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1705        else:
1706            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1707
1708        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1710    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1711        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1712        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1713        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1714        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1715        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1716        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1717        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1719    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1720        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1721        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1722        statistics_sql = ""
1723        if statistics is not None:
1724            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1725        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1727    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1728        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1729        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1730        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1731        data_consistency = (
1732            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1733        )
1734        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1735        retention_period = (
1736            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1737        )
1738
1739        if this:
1740            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1741        else:
1742            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1743
1744        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1745
1746        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1748    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1749        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1750        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1751
1752        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1753            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1754        else:
1755            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1756
1757        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1758        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1759        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1760        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1761        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1762        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1763        if is_function:
1764            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1765        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1766
1767        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1768        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1769        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1770        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1771        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1772        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1773        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1774        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1775
1776        if self.RETURNING_END:
1777            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1778        else:
1779            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1780
1781        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1782        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1783        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1784        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1785
1786        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1787        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1788
1789        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1790        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1792    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1793        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1795    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1796        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1797        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1799        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1800        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1802    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1803        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1805    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1806        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1808    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1809        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1810
1811        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1812        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1813
1814        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1815        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1816        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1817
1818        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1819        if expressions:
1820            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1821            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1822
1823        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1825    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1826        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1828    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1829        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1830        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1831        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1832        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1833        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1834        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1835        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1836        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1837        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1838        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1839        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1840        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1841        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1843    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1844        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1846    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1847        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1848        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1849        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1850        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1852    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1854        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1855        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1856        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1858    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1859        return ".".join(
1860            self.sql(part)
1861            for part in (
1862                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1863                expression.args.get("db"),
1864                expression.args.get("this"),
1865            )
1866            if part is not None
1867        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1869    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1870        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1871        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1872        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1873        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1874        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1875        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1876        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1877        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1878
1879        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1880        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1881            sample_pre_alias = sample
1882            sample_post_alias = ""
1883        else:
1884            sample_pre_alias = ""
1885            sample_post_alias = sample
1886
1887        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1888        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1889        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1890        joins = self.indent(
1891            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1892        )
1893        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1894
1895        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1896        if file_format:
1897            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1898            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1899            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1900
1901        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1902        if ordinality:
1903            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1904            alias = ""
1905
1906        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1907        if when:
1908            table = f"{table} {when}"
1909
1910        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1911        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1912
1913        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1914        if rows_from:
1915            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1916
1917        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1919    def tablesample_sql(
1920        self,
1921        expression: exp.TableSample,
1922        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1923    ) -> str:
1924        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1925        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1926        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1927        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1928        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1929        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1930        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1931        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1932        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1933
1934        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1935        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1936            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1937
1938        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1939        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1940            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1941
1942        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1943        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1944            expr = f"({expr})"
1945
1946        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1948    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1949        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1950
1951        if expression.this:
1952            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1953            if not expressions:
1954                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1955
1956            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1957            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1958            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1959            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1960            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1961
1962        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1963        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1964        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1965
1966        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1967
1968        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1969        if include_nulls is not None:
1970            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1971        else:
1972            nulls = ""
1973
1974        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1975        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1976        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1978    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1979        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1980        kind = expression.text("kind")
1981        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1982        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1984    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1985        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1987    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1988        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1989        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1990        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1991        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1992        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1993        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1994        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1995        if self.RETURNING_END:
1996            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1997        else:
1998            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1999        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2000        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2002    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2003        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2004
2005        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2006        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2007            args = self.expressions(expression)
2008            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2009            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2010            values = (
2011                f"({values})"
2012                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2013                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2014                else values
2015            )
2016            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2017
2018        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2019        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2020        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2021
2022        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2023
2024        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2025            row = tup.expressions
2026
2027            if i == 0 and column_names:
2028                row = [
2029                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2030                ]
2031
2032            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2033
2034        if self.pretty:
2035            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2036            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2037            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2038            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2039            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2040
2041        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2042        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2043        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
2045    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2046        return self.sql(expression, "this")
@unsupported_args('expressions')
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
2048    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2049    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2050        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2051        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2052        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
2054    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2055        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GroupingSets) -> str:
2057    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2058        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2059        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
def rollup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollup) -> str:
2061    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2062        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2063        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
def cube_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cube) -> str:
2065    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2066        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2067        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
2069    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2070        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2071        if group_by_all is True:
2072            modifier = " ALL"
2073        elif group_by_all is False:
2074            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2075        else:
2076            modifier = ""
2077
2078        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2079
2080        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2081        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2082        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2083
2084        groupings = csv(
2085            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2086            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2087            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2088            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2089            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2090        )
2091
2092        if (
2093            expression.expressions
2094            and groupings
2095            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2096        ):
2097            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2098
2099        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
2101    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2102        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2103        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
2105    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2106        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2107        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2108        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2109        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2110        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2111        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
2113    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2114        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
2116    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2117        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2118            side = None
2119        else:
2120            side = expression.side
2121
2122        op_sql = " ".join(
2123            op
2124            for op in (
2125                expression.method,
2126                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2127                side,
2128                expression.kind,
2129                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2130            )
2131            if op
2132        )
2133        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2134        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2135        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2136        using = expression.args.get("using")
2137
2138        if not on_sql and using:
2139            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2140
2141        this = expression.this
2142        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2143
2144        if on_sql:
2145            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2146            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2147            if using:
2148                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2149            else:
2150                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2151        elif not op_sql:
2152            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2153                return f" {this_sql}"
2154
2155            return f", {this_sql}"
2156
2157        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2158            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2159
2160        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
2162    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2163        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2164        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2165        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2167    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2168        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2169
2170        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2171        if cross_apply is True:
2172            op = "INNER JOIN "
2173        elif cross_apply is False:
2174            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2175        else:
2176            op = ""
2177
2178        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2180    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2181        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2182
2183        if expression.args.get("view"):
2184            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2185            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2186            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2187            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2188            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2189            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2190
2191        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2192        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2193        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2195    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2196        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2197
2198        args = [
2199            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2200            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2201            if e
2202        ]
2203
2204        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2205        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2206        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2207        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2208
2209        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
2211    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2212        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2213        value = expression.expression
2214        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2215        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2216        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2217        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
2219    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2220        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2221        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2222        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2223        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2224        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2225        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2226        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2227        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2229    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2230        expressions = (
2231            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2232        )
2233        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2234        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2236    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2237        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2239    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2240        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2241            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2242            return ""
2243
2244        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2245        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2246        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2247        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2248
2249        if wait is not None:
2250            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2251                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2252            else:
2253                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2254
2255        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2257    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2258        text = expression.this or ""
2259        if expression.is_string:
2260            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2261        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2263    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2264        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2265            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2266            text = "".join(
2267                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2268            )
2269
2270        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2271            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2272        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2274    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2275        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2276        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2277        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2278        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2279        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2280        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2281        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2282        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2283        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2284        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2285        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2287    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2288        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2290    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2291        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2293    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2294        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2295        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2296        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2297        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2299    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2300        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2301        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2302        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2303        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2304        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2305        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2306        interpolated_values = [
2307            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2308            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2309        ]
2310        interpolate = (
2311            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2312        )
2313        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2315    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2316        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2318    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2319        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2321    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2322        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2324    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2325        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2326        asc = not desc
2327
2328        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2329        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2330        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2331        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2332        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2333
2334        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2335
2336        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2337        nulls_sort_change = ""
2338        if nulls_first and (
2339            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2340        ):
2341            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2342        elif (
2343            nulls_last
2344            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2345            and not nulls_are_last
2346        ):
2347            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2348
2349        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2350        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2351            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2352            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2353                self.unsupported(
2354                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2355                )
2356                nulls_sort_change = ""
2357            elif (
2358                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
2359                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
2360                and (
2361                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2362                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2363                )
2364            ):
2365                self.unsupported(
2366                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2367                )
2368                nulls_sort_change = ""
2369            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2370                if expression.this.is_int:
2371                    self.unsupported(
2372                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2373                    )
2374                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2375                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2376                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2377                nulls_sort_change = ""
2378
2379        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2380        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2381
2382        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2384    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2385        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2386        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2387
2388        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2389
2390        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2392    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2393        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2394        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2395        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2396        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2397        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2398        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2399        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2400        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2401        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2402        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2403        definition_sqls = [
2404            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2405            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2406        ]
2407        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2408        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2409        body = "".join(
2410            (
2411                partition,
2412                order,
2413                measures,
2414                rows,
2415                after,
2416                pattern,
2417                define,
2418            )
2419        )
2420        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2421        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2422        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2424    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2425        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2426
2427        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2428            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2429        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2430            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2431
2432        return csv(
2433            *sqls,
2434            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2435            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2436            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2437            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2438            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2439            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2440            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2441            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2442            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2443            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2444            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2445            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2446            self.options_modifier(expression),
2447            sep="",
2448        )
def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str:
2450    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2451        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2452        return f" {options}" if options else ""
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2454    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2455        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2457    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2458        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2459    ) -> t.List[str]:
2460        return [
2461            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2462            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2463        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2465    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2466        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2467        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2468        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2470    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2471        into = expression.args.get("into")
2472        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2473            into.pop()
2474
2475        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2476        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2477        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2478        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2479
2480        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2481        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2482            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2483            limit.pop()
2484        else:
2485            top = ""
2486
2487        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2488
2489        if kind:
2490            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2491                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2492            else:
2493                if kind == "STRUCT":
2494                    expressions = self.expressions(
2495                        sqls=[
2496                            self.sql(
2497                                exp.Struct(
2498                                    expressions=[
2499                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2500                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2501                                        else e
2502                                        for e in expression.expressions
2503                                    ]
2504                                )
2505                            )
2506                        ]
2507                    )
2508                kind = ""
2509
2510        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2511        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2512        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2513        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2514        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2515            expression,
2516            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2517            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2518            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2519        )
2520
2521        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2522
2523        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2524            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2525                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2526            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2527                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2528            else:
2529                table_kind = ""
2530            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2531
2532        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2534    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2535        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2536        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2537        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2539    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2540        if expression.expressions:
2541            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2542        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2544    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2545        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2546        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2547        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2548        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2549        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2550        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2551        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2553    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2554        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2555        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2557    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2558        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2559        kind = expression.text("kind")
2560        if kind:
2561            kind = f"{kind}."
2562        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2564    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2565        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2567    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2568        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2569        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2570        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2571        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2572            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2573
2574            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2575            expression.set("sample", None)
2576
2577        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2578        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2579        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2581    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2582        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2583        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2585    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2586        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2587
2588        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2589        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2590
2591        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2592            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2593                alias.append("columns", offset)
2594
2595        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2596            columns = alias.columns
2597            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2598        else:
2599            alias = self.sql(alias)
2600
2601        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2602        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2603            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2604        else:
2605            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2606                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2607            elif offset:
2608                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2609            else:
2610                suffix = alias
2611
2612        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2614    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2615        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2617    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2618        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2619        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2621    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2622        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2623        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2624        order = expression.args.get("order")
2625        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2626        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2627        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2628        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2629
2630        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2631
2632        first = expression.args.get("first")
2633        if first is None:
2634            first = ""
2635        else:
2636            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2637
2638        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2639            return f"{this} {alias}"
2640
2641        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2642        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2644    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2645        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2646        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2648    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2649        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2650        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2651        end = (
2652            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2653            or "CURRENT ROW"
2654        )
2655        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2657    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2658        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2659        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2660        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2662    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2663        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2664        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2665        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2666        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket, index_offset: Optional[int] = None) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2668    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2669        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2670    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2671        return apply_index_offset(
2672            expression.this,
2673            expression.expressions,
2674            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2675        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2677    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2678        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2679        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2680        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2682    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2683        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2685    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2686        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2687        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2688            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2689                this = self.wrap(this)
2690            return f"ANY{this}"
2691        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2693    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2694        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2696    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2697        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2698        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2699
2700        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2701            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2702            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2703
2704        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2705
2706        if default:
2707            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2708
2709        statements.append("END")
2710
2711        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2712            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2713
2714        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2716    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2718        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2719        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2721    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2722        order = expression.args.get("order")
2723        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2724        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2726    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2727        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2728        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2729        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2731    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2732        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2733
2734        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2735            func_name = "LTRIM"
2736        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2737            func_name = "RTRIM"
2738        else:
2739            func_name = "TRIM"
2740
2741        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2743    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2744        args = expression.expressions
2745        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2746            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2747
2748        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2749            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2750
2751        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2752            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2753
2754        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2756    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2757        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2758
2759        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2760        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2761            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2762
2763        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2765    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2766        return self.func(
2767            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2768        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2770    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2771        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2772        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2774    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2775        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2776        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2777        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2778        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2779        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2780        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2781        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2782        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2784    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2785        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2786        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2787        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2788        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2790    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2791        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2793    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2794        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2795        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2796        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2798    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2799        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2801    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2802        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2803
2804        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2805            path = self.escape_str(path)
2806
2807        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2808            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2809
2810        return path
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2812    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2813        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2814            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2815            if not callable(transform):
2816                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2817                return ""
2818
2819            return transform(self, expression)
2820
2821        if isinstance(expression, int):
2822            return str(expression)
2823
2824        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2825            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2826            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2827        else:
2828            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2829            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2830
2831        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2833    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2834        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2836    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2837        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2838        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2839
2840        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2841        if unique_keys is not None:
2842            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2843        else:
2844            unique_keys = ""
2845
2846        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2847        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2848        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2849        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2850
2851        return self.func(
2852            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2853            *expression.expressions,
2854            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2855        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2857    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2858        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2860    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2861        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2862        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2863        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2864        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2865        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2866        return self.func(
2867            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2868        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2870    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2872        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2873        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2874        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2875        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2876        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2877        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2878        return self.func(
2879            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2880            this,
2881            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2882        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2884    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2885        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2886        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2887        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2888
2889        if nested_schema:
2890            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2891
2892        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2893        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2894        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2895        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2897    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2898        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2900    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2902        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2903        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2904        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2905        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2906        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2907        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2908        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2909        return self.func(
2910            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2911        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2913    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2914        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2915        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2916        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2917        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2918        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2919        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2921    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2922        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2923        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2924        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2925        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2926        with_ = (
2927            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2928            if expressions
2929            else ""
2930        )
2931        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2933    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2934        query = expression.args.get("query")
2935        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2936        field = expression.args.get("field")
2937        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2938
2939        if query:
2940            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2941        elif unnest:
2942            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2943        elif field:
2944            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2945        else:
2946            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2947
2948        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2950    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2951        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2953    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2954        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2955        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2956            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2957        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2958
2959        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2960            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2961            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2962
2963        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2964        if this:
2965            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2966            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2967
2968        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2970    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2971        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2973    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2974        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2975        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2976        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2977        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2978        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2979        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2981    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2982        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
2983        parent = expression.parent
2984        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
2985        return self.func(
2986            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
2987        )
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2989    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2990        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2991        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2993    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2994        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2995        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2996        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2997        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2999    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3000        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
3002    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3003        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3004        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3005        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
3007    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3008        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3009
3010        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3011        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3012
3013        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3014            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3015        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3016            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3017
3018        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
3020    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3021        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3023    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3024        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3025        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3026        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3028    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3030        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3031        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3033    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3034        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3035        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3036        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
3038    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3039        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3041    def and_sql(
3042        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3043    ) -> str:
3044        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3046    def or_sql(
3047        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3048    ) -> str:
3049        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3051    def xor_sql(
3052        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3053    ) -> str:
3054        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3056    def connector_sql(
3057        self,
3058        expression: exp.Connector,
3059        op: str,
3060        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3061    ) -> str:
3062        if stack is not None:
3063            if expression.expressions:
3064                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3065            else:
3066                stack.append(expression.right)
3067                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3068                    for comment in expression.comments:
3069                        if comment:
3070                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3071                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3072            return op
3073
3074        stack = [expression]
3075        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3076        ops = set()
3077
3078        while stack:
3079            node = stack.pop()
3080            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3081                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3082            else:
3083                sql = self.sql(node)
3084                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3085                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3086                else:
3087                    sqls.append(sql)
3088
3089        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3090        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3092    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3093        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3095    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3096        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3098    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3099        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3101    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3102        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3104    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3105        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3107    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3108        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3110    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3111        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3112        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3113        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3114        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3115        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3116        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3117        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
3119    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3120        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3121        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
3123    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3124        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3125            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3126        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
3128    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3129        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
3131    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3132        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3133        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3134        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3135        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3136        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3137        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3139    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3140        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3141        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3142        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3143        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3144        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3145        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3146        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3147        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3148        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3150    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3151        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3152        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3153        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3154        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3155
3156        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3157            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3158
3159        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
3161    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3162        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
3164    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3165        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3166        if chain is not None:
3167            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3168
3169        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
3171    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3172        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3173        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3174        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
3176    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3177        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3178
3179        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3180        if dtype:
3181            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3182            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3183            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3184            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3185            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3186
3187        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3188        if default:
3189            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3190
3191        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3192        if comment:
3193            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3194
3195        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3196        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3197
3198        if not drop and not allow_null:
3199            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3200
3201        if allow_null is not None:
3202            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3203            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3204
3205        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3207    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3208        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3209        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3210            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3211        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3213    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3214        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3216        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3217        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3218        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
3220    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3221        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3222            # Remove db from tables
3223            expression = expression.transform(
3224                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3225            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3226        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3227        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3229    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3230        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3231        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3232        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3233        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str:
3235    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3236        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3237        return f"SET {exprs}"
def alter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3239    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3240        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3241
3242        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3243            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3244        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3245            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3246        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3247            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3248        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3249            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3250        else:
3251            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3252
3253        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3254        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3255        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3256        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3257        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3258        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3259        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3260        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3261
3262        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3264    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3265        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3266            return self.expressions(
3267                expression,
3268                key="actions",
3269                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3270                skip_first=True,
3271            )
3272        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3274    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3275        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3276        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3277        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3279    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3280        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3282    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3283        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3284
3285        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3286            case = exp.case()
3287            for arg in expression.expressions:
3288                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3289            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3290
3291        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3292
3293        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3294        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3295        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3297    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3298        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3300    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3301        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3303    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3304        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3305        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3306        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3307        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3309    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3310        return self.sql(
3311            exp.Cast(
3312                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3313                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3314            )
3315        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3317    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3318        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3319            return self.func(
3320                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3321            )
3322        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3324    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3325        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3326
3327        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3328            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3329
3330        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3331            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3332                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3333
3334        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3335            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3336                return self.sql(
3337                    exp.cast(
3338                        l / r,
3339                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3340                    )
3341                )
3342
3343        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3345    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3346        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3348    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3349        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3351    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3352        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3354    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3355        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3357    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3358        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3360    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3361        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3363    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3364        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3366    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3367        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3369    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3370        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3372    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3373        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3375    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3376        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3378    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3379        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3380            return self.sql(
3381                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3382            )
3383        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3385    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3386        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3388    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3389        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3391    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3392        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3394    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3395        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3397    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3398        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3400    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3401        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3403    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3404        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3406    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3407        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3409    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3410        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3412    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3413        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3415    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3416        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3418    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3419        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3421    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3422        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3424    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3425        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3426            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3427            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3428
3429        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3431    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3432        this = expression.this
3433        expr = expression.expression
3434
3435        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3436            this, expr = expr, this
3437        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3438            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3439                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3440
3441            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3442
3443        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3445    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3446        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3447        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3449        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3450        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3452    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3453        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3454        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3455        binary_type = type(expression)
3456
3457        while stack:
3458            node = stack.pop()
3459
3460            if type(node) is binary_type:
3461                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3462                if op_func:
3463                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3464
3465                stack.append(node.right)
3466                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3467                stack.append(node.left)
3468            else:
3469                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3470
3471        return "".join(sqls)
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3473    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3474        args = []
3475
3476        for key in expression.arg_types:
3477            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3478
3479            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3480                for value in arg_value:
3481                    args.append(value)
3482            elif arg_value is not None:
3483                args.append(arg_value)
3484
3485        if self.normalize_functions:
3486            name = expression.sql_name()
3487        else:
3488            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3489
3490        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')', normalize: bool = True) -> str:
3492    def func(
3493        self,
3494        name: str,
3495        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3496        prefix: str = "(",
3497        suffix: str = ")",
3498        normalize: bool = True,
3499    ) -> str:
3500        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3501        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3503    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3504        arg_sqls = tuple(
3505            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3506        )
3507        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3508            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3509        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3511    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3512        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3514    def format_time(
3515        self,
3516        expression: exp.Expression,
3517        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3518        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3519    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3520        return format_time(
3521            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3522            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3523            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3524        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3526    def expressions(
3527        self,
3528        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3529        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3530        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3531        flat: bool = False,
3532        indent: bool = True,
3533        skip_first: bool = False,
3534        skip_last: bool = False,
3535        sep: str = ", ",
3536        prefix: str = "",
3537        dynamic: bool = False,
3538        new_line: bool = False,
3539    ) -> str:
3540        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3541
3542        if not expressions:
3543            return ""
3544
3545        if flat:
3546            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3547
3548        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3549        result_sqls = []
3550
3551        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3552            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3553            if not sql:
3554                continue
3555
3556            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3557
3558            if self.pretty:
3559                if self.leading_comma:
3560                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3561                else:
3562                    result_sqls.append(
3563                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3564                    )
3565            else:
3566                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3567
3568        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3569            if new_line:
3570                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3571                result_sqls.append("")
3572            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3573        else:
3574            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3575
3576        return (
3577            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3578            if indent
3579            else result_sql
3580        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3582    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3583        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3584        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3585        if flat:
3586            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3587        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3589    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3590        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3591        if not property_name:
3592            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3593        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3595    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3596        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3598    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3599        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3601    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3602        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3603        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3604        expressions = (
3605            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3606        )
3607        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3609    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3610        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3611        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3612        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3614    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3615        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3617    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3618        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3619        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3620        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3621        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3622
3623        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3624        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3625            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3626            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3627            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3628            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3629        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3630            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3631                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3632            else:
3633                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3634        else:
3635            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3636        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3638    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3639        table = expression.this
3640        table_alias = ""
3641
3642        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3643        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3644            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3645            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3646
3647        this = self.sql(table)
3648        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3649        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3650        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3651        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3652        if returning:
3653            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
3654
3655        sep = self.sep()
3656
3657        return self.prepend_ctes(
3658            expression,
3659            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
3660        )
@unsupported_args('format')
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3662    @unsupported_args("format")
3663    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3664        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3666    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3667        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3668            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3669            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3670
3671        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3672        if not fmt:
3673            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3674            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3675
3676        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3678    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3679        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3680        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3681        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3682        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3683        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3685    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3686        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3687        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3688        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3689        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3691    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3692        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3694    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3695        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3698    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3699        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3700        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3701        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3702        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3703        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3704        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3705        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3707    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3708        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3710    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3711        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3712        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3713        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3714        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3715        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3717    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3718        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3719        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3720
3721        if having:
3722            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3723
3724        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3726    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3727        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3728        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3729        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3730        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3731        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3732        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3733        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3734        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3735        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3736        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3737        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3738        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3739        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3741    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3742        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3743        if key_block_size:
3744            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3745
3746        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3747        if using:
3748            return f"USING {using}"
3749
3750        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3751        if parser:
3752            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3753
3754        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3755        if comment:
3756            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3757
3758        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3759        if visible is not None:
3760            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3761
3762        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3763        if engine_attr:
3764            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3765
3766        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3767        if secondary_engine_attr:
3768            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3769
3770        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3771        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3773    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3774        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3775        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3777    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3778        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3779        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3780        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3781        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3782        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3783        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3784        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3785        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3786        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3787        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3788        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3790    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3791        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3792            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3793
3794        case = exp.Case().when(
3795            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3796            expression.args["true"],
3797            copy=False,
3798        )
3799        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3800        if else_cond:
3801            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3802
3803        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3805    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3807        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3808        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3809        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3810        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3811        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3813    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3814        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3816    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3817        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3819    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3820        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3821        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3822        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3823        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3824        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3825        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3827    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3828        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3829        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3830        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3832    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3834        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3835        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3837    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3838        arg = expression.this
3839        if not arg.type:
3840            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3841
3842            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3843
3844        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3845            return self.sql(arg)
3846
3847        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3848        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3850    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3851        this = expression.this
3852        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3853            return self.sql(this)
3854
3855        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3857    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3858        this = expression.this
3859        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3860            return self.sql(this)
3861
3862        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3864    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3865        this = expression.this
3866        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3867
3868        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3869            return self.sql(
3870                exp.cast(
3871                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3872                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3873                )
3874            )
3875
3876        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3877            return self.sql(this)
3878
3879        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3881    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3882        return self.sql(
3883            exp.func(
3884                "DATEDIFF",
3885                expression.this,
3886                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3887                "day",
3888            )
3889        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3891    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3892        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3893            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3894
3895        unit = expression.text("unit")
3896        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3897            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3898
3899        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3901    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3902        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3903
3904        return self.func(
3905            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3906        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3908    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3909        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3910            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3911            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3912            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3913            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3914
3915        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3916
3917        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3918        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3919            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3920
3921        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3923    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3924        expression.set(
3925            "expressions",
3926            [
3927                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3928                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3929                else e
3930                for e in expression.expressions
3931            ],
3932        )
3933
3934        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3936    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3937        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3938        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3939
3940        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3942    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3943        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3944        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3945
3946        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3947
3948        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3949        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3950
3951        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3952        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3953
3954        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3955        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3956
3957        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3958        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3959
3960        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3964    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3965        to = expression.this
3966        value = expression.expression
3967        style = expression.args.get("style")
3968        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3969        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3970
3971        if not to or not value:
3972            return ""
3973
3974        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3975        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3976            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3977
3978        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3979        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3980
3981        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3982        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3983            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3984
3985            style_value = style.name
3986            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3987            if not converted_style:
3988                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3989
3990            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3991
3992            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3993                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3994            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3995                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3996            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3997                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3998            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3999                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4000
4001        if not transformed:
4002            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4003
4004        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
4060    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4061        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4062
4063        if expression.expressions:
4064            upper = option.upper()
4065
4066            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4067            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4068
4069            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4070            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4071            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4072            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4073
4074        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4075
4076        if not value:
4077            return option
4078
4079        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4080
4081        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
4083    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4084        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4085        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4086            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4087            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4088            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4089        else:
4090            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4091            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4092            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4093
4094        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4095        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4096
4097        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4098        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4099
4100        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4101        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4102
4103        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4104        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4105
4106        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
4108    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4109        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4110        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4111
4112        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4113        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4114        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4115        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4116
4117        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4118        params = self.expressions(
4119            expression,
4120            key="params",
4121            sep=sep,
4122            new_line=True,
4123            skip_last=True,
4124            skip_first=True,
4125            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4126        )
4127
4128        if params:
4129            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4130                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4131            elif not self.pretty:
4132                params = f" {params}"
4133
4134        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
4136    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4137        return ""
def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4139    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4140        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4141        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4142        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4143        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4144        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4145
4146        if filter_col or retention_period:
4147            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4148
4149        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str:
4151    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4152        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4153    ) -> str:
4154        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4155        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4156        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4157        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str:
4159    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4160        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4161        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4162        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4164    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4165        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4167    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4169        expr = expression.expression
4170
4171        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4172            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4173            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4174        else:
4175            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4176
4177        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
def parsejson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ParseJSON) -> str:
4179    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4180        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4181            return self.sql(expression.this)
4182
4183        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
def rand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rand) -> str:
4185    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4186        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4187        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4188
4189        if lower and upper:
4190            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4191        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
def changes_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Changes) -> str:
4193    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4194        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4195        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4196        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4197        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4198        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4199        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4200
4201        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
def pad_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pad) -> str:
4203    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4204        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4205
4206        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4207        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4208            fill_pattern = "' '"
4209
4210        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
def summarize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Summarize) -> str:
4212    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4213        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4214        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4216    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4217        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4218
4219        parent = expression.parent
4220        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4221            parent = parent.parent
4222
4223        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4224            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4225
4226        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4227            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4228
4229        return self.sql(generate_series)
def arrayconcat_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayConcat, name: str = 'ARRAY_CONCAT') -> str:
4231    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4232        exprs = expression.expressions
4233        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4234            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4235        else:
4236            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4237
4238        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4240    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4241        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4242            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4243
4244        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4245        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4246        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4247
4248        if source_tz and timestamp:
4249            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4250                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4251            )
4252
4253        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4254
4255        return self.sql(expr)
def json_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSON) -> str:
4257    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4258        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4259        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4260
4261        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4262
4263        if _with is None:
4264            with_sql = ""
4265        elif not _with:
4266            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4267        else:
4268            with_sql = " WITH"
4269
4270        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4271
4272        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONValue) -> str:
4274    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4275        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4276            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4277
4278        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4279        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4280        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4281
4282        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4283        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4284
4285        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4287    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4288        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4289        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4290        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4291        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4292        return f"{condition}{insert}"
def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4294    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4295        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4296        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4297        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4298        return res
def oncondition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCondition) -> str:
4300    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4301        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4302        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4303        empty = (
4304            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4305            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4306            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4307        )
4308
4309        error = expression.args.get("error")
4310        error = (
4311            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4312            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4313            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4314        )
4315
4316        if error and empty:
4317            error = (
4318                f"{empty} {error}"
4319                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4320                else f"{error} {empty}"
4321            )
4322            empty = ""
4323
4324        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4325
4326        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONExists) -> str:
4328    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4329        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4330        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4331
4332        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4333        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4334
4335        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4336        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4337
4338        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4339
4340        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4342    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4343        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4344
4345        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4346            parent = expression.parent
4347            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4348                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4349                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4350            else:
4351                # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4352                this = expression.this
4353                this_sql = (
4354                    self.expressions(this)
4355                    if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4356                    else self.sql(expression, "this")
4357                )
4358                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4359
4360        return array_agg
def apply_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Apply) -> str:
4362    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4363        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4364        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4365
4366        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
def grant_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Grant) -> str:
4368    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4369        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4370
4371        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4372        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4373
4374        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4375        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4376
4377        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4378
4379        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4380
4381        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GrantPrivilege):
4383    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4384        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4385        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4386        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4387
4388        return f"{this}{columns}"
def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GrantPrincipal):
4390    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4391        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4392
4393        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4394        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4395
4396        return f"{kind}{this}"
def columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Columns):
4398    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4399        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4400        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4401            func = f"*{func}"
4402
4403        return func
def overlay_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlay):
4405    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4406        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4407        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4408        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4409        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4410        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4411
4412        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"