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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5
   6from sqlglot import exp
   7from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   8from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
   9from sqlglot.time import format_time
  10from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  11
  12logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  13
  14
  15class Generator:
  16    """
  17    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  18
  19    Args:
  20        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  21            Default: False.
  22        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  23            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  24            True or 'always': Always quote.
  25            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  26        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  27            Default: False.
  28        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  29            Default: 2.
  30        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  33            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  34            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  35            False: Disables function name normalization.
  36        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  37            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  38        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  39            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  40            Default: 3
  41        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  42            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  43            Default: False
  44        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  45            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  46            line length.
  47            Default: 80
  48        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  49            Default: True
  50    """
  51
  52    TRANSFORMS = {
  53        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  54            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  55        ),
  56        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  57            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  58        ),
  59        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  60        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  61        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  63        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  65        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  70        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  71        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  73        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  75        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  76        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  77        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  78        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  81        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  82        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  83        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  84        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  85        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  86        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  87        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  88        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  90        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  91        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  92        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93    }
  94
  95    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
  96    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
  97
  98    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
  99    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 100
 101    # Always do union distinct or union all
 102    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 103
 104    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 105    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 106
 107    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 108    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 109
 110    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 111    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 112
 113    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 114    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 115
 116    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 117    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 118
 119    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 120    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 123    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 124
 125    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 126    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 127
 128    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 129    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 130
 131    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 132    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 133
 134    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 135    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 136
 137    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 138    JOIN_HINTS = True
 139
 140    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 141    TABLE_HINTS = True
 142
 143    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 144    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 145
 146    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 147    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 148
 149    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 150        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 151        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 152        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 153        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 154        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 155        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 156        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 157    }
 158
 159    STAR_MAPPING = {
 160        "except": "EXCEPT",
 161        "replace": "REPLACE",
 162    }
 163
 164    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 165        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 166        "seconds": "second",
 167        "minutes": "minute",
 168        "hours": "hour",
 169        "days": "day",
 170        "weeks": "week",
 171        "months": "month",
 172        "quarters": "quarter",
 173        "years": "year",
 174    }
 175
 176    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 177
 178    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 179
 180    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 181
 182    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 183        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 184        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 185        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 186        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 187        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 188        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 189        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 190        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 191        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 192        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 193        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 194        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 195        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 196        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 197        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 198        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 199        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 200        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 201        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 202        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 203        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 204        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 205        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 206        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 207        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 208        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 209        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 210        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 211        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 212        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 213        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 214        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 215        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 216        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 217        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 218        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 219        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 227        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 228        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 229        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 230        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 232        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 234        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 235        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 236        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 237        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 238    }
 239
 240    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 241    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 242
 243    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 244    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 245        exp.Select,
 246        exp.From,
 247        exp.Where,
 248        exp.With,
 249    )
 250
 251    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 252    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 253        exp.Column,
 254        exp.Literal,
 255        exp.Neg,
 256        exp.Paren,
 257    )
 258
 259    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 260
 261    # Autofilled
 262    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 263    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 264    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 265    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 266    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 267    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 268    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 269    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 270    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 271
 272    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 273
 274    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 275    QUOTE_START = "'"
 276    QUOTE_END = "'"
 277    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 278    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 279    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 280    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 281
 282    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 283    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 284    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 285    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 286    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 287    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 288    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 289    RAW_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 290    RAW_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 291
 292    __slots__ = (
 293        "pretty",
 294        "identify",
 295        "normalize",
 296        "pad",
 297        "_indent",
 298        "normalize_functions",
 299        "unsupported_level",
 300        "max_unsupported",
 301        "leading_comma",
 302        "max_text_width",
 303        "comments",
 304        "unsupported_messages",
 305        "_escaped_quote_end",
 306        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 307        "_cache",
 308    )
 309
 310    def __init__(
 311        self,
 312        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 313        identify: str | bool = False,
 314        normalize: bool = False,
 315        pad: int = 2,
 316        indent: int = 2,
 317        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 318        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 319        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 320        leading_comma: bool = False,
 321        max_text_width: int = 80,
 322        comments: bool = True,
 323    ):
 324        import sqlglot
 325
 326        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 327        self.identify = identify
 328        self.normalize = normalize
 329        self.pad = pad
 330        self._indent = indent
 331        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 332        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 333        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 334        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 335        self.comments = comments
 336
 337        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 338        self.normalize_functions = (
 339            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 340        )
 341
 342        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 343        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 344        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 345        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 346
 347    def generate(
 348        self,
 349        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 350        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 351    ) -> str:
 352        """
 353        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 354
 355        Args:
 356            expression: The syntax tree.
 357            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 358                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 359
 360        Returns:
 361            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 362        """
 363        if cache is not None:
 364            self._cache = cache
 365
 366        self.unsupported_messages = []
 367        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 368        self._cache = None
 369
 370        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 371            return sql
 372
 373        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 374            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 375                logger.warning(msg)
 376        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 377            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 378
 379        if self.pretty:
 380            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 381        return sql
 382
 383    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 384        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 385            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 386        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 387
 388    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 389        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 390
 391    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 392        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 393
 394    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 395        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 396        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 397        return comment
 398
 399    def maybe_comment(
 400        self,
 401        sql: str,
 402        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 403        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 404    ) -> str:
 405        comments = (
 406            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 407            if self.comments
 408            else None
 409        )
 410
 411        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 412            return sql
 413
 414        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 415        comments_sql = sep.join(
 416            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 417        )
 418
 419        if not comments_sql:
 420            return sql
 421
 422        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 423            return (
 424                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 425                if sql[0].isspace()
 426                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 427            )
 428
 429        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 430
 431    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 432        this_sql = self.indent(
 433            self.sql(expression)
 434            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 435            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 436            level=1,
 437            pad=0,
 438        )
 439        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 440
 441    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 442        original = self.identify
 443        self.identify = False
 444        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 445        self.identify = original
 446        return result
 447
 448    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 449        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 450            return name.upper()
 451        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 452            return name.lower()
 453        return name
 454
 455    def indent(
 456        self,
 457        sql: str,
 458        level: int = 0,
 459        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 460        skip_first: bool = False,
 461        skip_last: bool = False,
 462    ) -> str:
 463        if not self.pretty:
 464            return sql
 465
 466        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 467        lines = sql.split("\n")
 468
 469        return "\n".join(
 470            line
 471            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 472            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 473            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 474        )
 475
 476    def sql(
 477        self,
 478        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 479        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 480        comment: bool = True,
 481    ) -> str:
 482        if not expression:
 483            return ""
 484
 485        if isinstance(expression, str):
 486            return expression
 487
 488        if key:
 489            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
 490
 491        if self._cache is not None:
 492            expression_id = hash(expression)
 493
 494            if expression_id in self._cache:
 495                return self._cache[expression_id]
 496
 497        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 498
 499        if callable(transform):
 500            sql = transform(self, expression)
 501        elif transform:
 502            sql = transform
 503        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 504            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 505
 506            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 507                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 508            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 509                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 510            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 511                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 512            else:
 513                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 514        else:
 515            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 516
 517        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 518
 519        if self._cache is not None:
 520            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 521        return sql
 522
 523    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 524        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 525        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 526        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 527
 528    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 529        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 530        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 531        options = expression.args.get("options")
 532        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 533        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 534        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 535        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 536        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 537
 538    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 539        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 540            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 541        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 542        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 543
 544    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 545        return ".".join(
 546            self.sql(part)
 547            for part in (
 548                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 549                expression.args.get("db"),
 550                expression.args.get("table"),
 551                expression.args.get("this"),
 552            )
 553            if part
 554        )
 555
 556    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 557        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 558        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 559        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 560        return f"{position}{this}"
 561
 562    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 563        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 564        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 565        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 566        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 567        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 568        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 569        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 570        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 571
 572        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 573
 574    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 575        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 576        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 577        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 578
 579    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 580        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 581
 582    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 583        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 584            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 585        else:
 586            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 587
 588        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 589
 590    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 591        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 592    ) -> str:
 593        this = ""
 594        if expression.this is not None:
 595            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 596            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 597
 598        start = expression.args.get("start")
 599        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 600        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 601        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 602        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 603        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 604        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 605        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 606        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 607        cycle_sql = ""
 608
 609        if cycle is not None:
 610            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 611            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 612
 613        sequence_opts = ""
 614        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 615            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 616            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 617
 618        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 619        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 620
 621        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 622
 623    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 624        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 625
 626    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 627        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 628        if desc is not None:
 629            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 630        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 631
 632    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 633        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 634        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 635        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 636
 637    def createable_sql(
 638        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 639    ) -> str:
 640        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 641
 642    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 643        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 644        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 645        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 646
 647        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 648
 649        properties_sql = ""
 650        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 651            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 652        ):
 653            properties_sql = self.sql(
 654                exp.Properties(
 655                    expressions=[
 656                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 657                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 658                    ]
 659                )
 660            )
 661
 662        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 663        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 664        if expression_sql:
 665            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 666
 667            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 668                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 669                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 670                        exp.Properties(
 671                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 672                        ),
 673                        wrapped=False,
 674                    )
 675                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 676                else:
 677                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 678
 679        postindex_props_sql = ""
 680        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 681            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 682                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 683                wrapped=False,
 684                prefix=" ",
 685            )
 686
 687        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 688        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 689        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 690
 691        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 692        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 693
 694        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 695        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 696            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 697                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 698                sep=" ",
 699                prefix=" ",
 700                wrapped=False,
 701            )
 702
 703        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 704
 705        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 706        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 707            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 708                exp.Properties(
 709                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 710                ),
 711                sep=" ",
 712                prefix=" ",
 713                wrapped=False,
 714            )
 715
 716        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 717        no_schema_binding = (
 718            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 719        )
 720
 721        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 722        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 723
 724        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 725        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 726
 727    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 728        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 729        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 730
 731        if when:
 732            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 733            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 734            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 735
 736        return f"CLONE {this}"
 737
 738    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 739        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 740
 741    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 742        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 743        if with_:
 744            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 745        return sql
 746
 747    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 748        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 749        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 750
 751        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 752
 753    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 754        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 755        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 756
 757    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 758        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 759        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 760        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 761        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 762
 763    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 764        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 765        if self.BIT_START:
 766            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 767        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 768
 769    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 771        if self.HEX_START:
 772            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 773        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 774
 775    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 776        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 777        if self.BYTE_START:
 778            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 779        return this
 780
 781    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 782        string = expression.this
 783        if self.RAW_START:
 784            return f"{self.RAW_START}{self.escape_str(expression.this)}{self.RAW_END}"
 785        string = self.escape_str(string.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 786        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 787
 788    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 789        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 790        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 791        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 792        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 793
 794    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 795        type_value = expression.this
 796        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 797        nested = ""
 798        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 799        values = ""
 800        if interior:
 801            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 802                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 803                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 804                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 805                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 806                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 807            else:
 808                nested = f"({interior})"
 809
 810        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 811
 812    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 813        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 814        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 815        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 816        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 817
 818    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 820        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 821        using_sql = (
 822            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
 823            if expression.args.get("using")
 824            else ""
 825        )
 826        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
 827        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 828        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 829        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
 830        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 831
 832    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 834        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 835        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 836        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 837        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 838        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 839        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 840        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 841        return (
 842            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 843        )
 844
 845    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 846        return self.prepend_ctes(
 847            expression,
 848            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 849        )
 850
 851    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 852        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 853
 854    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 855        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 856        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 857        count = expression.args.get("count")
 858        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 859        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 860            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 861        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 862        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 863
 864    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 865        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 866        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 867        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 868
 869    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 870        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
 871            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 872        return ""
 873
 874    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 875        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 876        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 877        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 878        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
 879        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 880        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 881        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 882        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 883        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 884        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 885        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 886        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 887        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 888        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 889
 890    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 891        text = expression.name
 892        lower = text.lower()
 893        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 894        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 895        if (
 896            expression.quoted
 897            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 898            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 899            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 900        ):
 901            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 902        return text
 903
 904    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 905        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 906        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 907        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 908        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 909        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 910
 911    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 912        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 913        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 914
 915    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 916        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 917
 918    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 919        root_properties = []
 920        with_properties = []
 921
 922        for p in expression.expressions:
 923            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 924            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 925                with_properties.append(p)
 926            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 927                root_properties.append(p)
 928
 929        return self.root_properties(
 930            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 931        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 932
 933    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 934        if properties.expressions:
 935            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 936        return ""
 937
 938    def properties(
 939        self,
 940        properties: exp.Properties,
 941        prefix: str = "",
 942        sep: str = ", ",
 943        suffix: str = "",
 944        wrapped: bool = True,
 945    ) -> str:
 946        if properties.expressions:
 947            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 948            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 949            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 950        return ""
 951
 952    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 953        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 954
 955    def locate_properties(
 956        self, properties: exp.Properties
 957    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 958        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 959            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 960        }
 961
 962        for p in properties.expressions:
 963            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 964            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 965                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 966            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 967                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 968            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 969                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 970            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 971                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 972            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 973                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 974            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 975                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 976            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 977                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 978            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 979                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 980
 981        return properties_locs
 982
 983    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 984        property_cls = expression.__class__
 985        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 986            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
 987
 988        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
 989        if not property_name:
 990            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
 991
 992        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 993
 994    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
 995        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
 996        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
 997        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
 998
 999    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1000        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1001        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1002        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1003
1004    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1005        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1006        local = expression.args.get("local")
1007        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1008        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1009        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1010        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1011        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1012
1013    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1014        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1015        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1016        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1017
1018    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1019        if expression.args.get("default"):
1020            property = "DEFAULT"
1021        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1022            property = "ON"
1023        else:
1024            property = "OFF"
1025        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1026
1027    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1028        if expression.args.get("no"):
1029            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1030        if expression.args.get("default"):
1031            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1032
1033        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1034        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1035
1036    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1037        default = expression.args.get("default")
1038        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1039        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1040        if default or minimum or maximum:
1041            if default:
1042                prop = "DEFAULT"
1043            elif minimum:
1044                prop = "MINIMUM"
1045            else:
1046                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1047            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1048        units = expression.args.get("units")
1049        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1050        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1051
1052    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1053        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1054        always = expression.args.get("always")
1055        default = expression.args.get("default")
1056        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1057        never = expression.args.get("never")
1058
1059        if autotemp is not None:
1060            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1061        elif always:
1062            prop = "ALWAYS"
1063        elif default:
1064            prop = "DEFAULT"
1065        elif manual:
1066            prop = "MANUAL"
1067        elif never:
1068            prop = "NEVER"
1069        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1070
1071    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1072        no = expression.args.get("no")
1073        no = " NO" if no else ""
1074        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1075        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1076
1077        for_ = ""
1078        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1079            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1080        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1081            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1082        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1083            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1084        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1085
1086    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1087        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1088        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1089        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1090        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1091        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1092        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1093
1094    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1095        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1096        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1097        statistics_sql = ""
1098        if statistics is not None:
1099            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1100        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1101
1102    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1103        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1104
1105        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1106            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1107        else:
1108            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1109
1110        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1111        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1112        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1113
1114        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1115        partition_sql = (
1116            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1117        )
1118        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1119        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1120        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1121        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1122        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1123        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1124        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1125
1126    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1127        return self.prepend_ctes(
1128            expression,
1129            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1130        )
1131
1132    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1133        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1134
1135    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1136        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1137
1138    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1139        return expression.name.upper()
1140
1141    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1142        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1143        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1144        if constraint:
1145            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1146        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1147        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1148        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1149        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1150        if expressions:
1151            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1152        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1153
1154    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1155        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1156
1157    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1158        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1159        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1160        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1161        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1162        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1163        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1164        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1165        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1166        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1167        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1168        null = expression.args.get("null")
1169        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1170        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1171
1172    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1173        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1174
1175    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1176        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1177        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1178        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1179        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1180
1181    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1182        table = ".".join(
1183            part
1184            for part in [
1185                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1186                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1187                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1188            ]
1189            if part
1190        )
1191
1192        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1193        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1194        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1195        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1196        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1197        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1198        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1199        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1200        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1201        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1202
1203        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1204
1205    def tablesample_sql(
1206        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1207    ) -> str:
1208        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1209            table = expression.this.copy()
1210            table.set("alias", None)
1211            this = self.sql(table)
1212            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1213        else:
1214            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1215            alias = ""
1216        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1217        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1218        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1219        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1220        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1221        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1222        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1223        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1224        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1225        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1226        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1227        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1228        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1229            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1230        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1231        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1232        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1233        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1234
1235    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1236        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1237
1238        if expression.this:
1239            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1240            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1241            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1242            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1243            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1244            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1245
1246        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1247        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1248        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1249        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1250        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1251        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1252
1253    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1254        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1255
1256    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1257        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1258        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1259        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1260        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1261        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1262        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1263        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1264        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1265
1266    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1267        args = self.expressions(expression)
1268        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1269        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1270        values = (
1271            f"({values})"
1272            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1273            else values
1274        )
1275        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1276
1277    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1278        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1279
1280    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1281        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1282        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1283        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1284
1285    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1286        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1287
1288    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1289        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1290        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1291        grouping_sets = (
1292            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1293        )
1294
1295        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1296        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1297            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1298        else:
1299            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1300            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1301
1302        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1303        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1304            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1305        else:
1306            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1307            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1308
1309        groupings = csv(
1310            grouping_sets,
1311            cube_sql,
1312            rollup_sql,
1313            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1314            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1315        )
1316
1317        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1318            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1319
1320        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1321
1322    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1323        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1324        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1325
1326    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1327        op_sql = " ".join(
1328            op
1329            for op in (
1330                expression.method,
1331                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1332                expression.side,
1333                expression.kind,
1334                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1335            )
1336            if op
1337        )
1338        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1339        using = expression.args.get("using")
1340
1341        if not on_sql and using:
1342            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1343
1344        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1345
1346        if on_sql:
1347            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1348            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1349            if using:
1350                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1351            else:
1352                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1353        elif not op_sql:
1354            return f", {this_sql}"
1355
1356        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1357        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1358
1359    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1360        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1361        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1362        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1363
1364    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1365        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1366
1367        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1368            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1369
1370        if expression.args.get("view"):
1371            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1372            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1373            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1374            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1375            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1376            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1377
1378        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1379        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1380        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1381
1382    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1383        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1384        args = ", ".join(
1385            sql
1386            for sql in (
1387                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1388                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1389            )
1390            if sql
1391        )
1392        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {args}"
1393
1394    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1395        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1396        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1397
1398    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1399        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1400        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1401        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1402        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1403        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1404        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1405        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1406        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1407
1408    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1409        expressions = (
1410            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1411        )
1412        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1413        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1414
1415    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1416        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1417
1418    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1419        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1420            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1421            return ""
1422
1423        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1424        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1425        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1426        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1427
1428        if wait is not None:
1429            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1430                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1431            else:
1432                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1433
1434        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1435
1436    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1437        text = expression.this or ""
1438        if expression.is_string:
1439            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1440        return text
1441
1442    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1443        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1444        if self.pretty:
1445            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1446        return text
1447
1448    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1449        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1450        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1451        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1452        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1453        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1454        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1455        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1456        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1457        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1458        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1459        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1460
1461    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1462        return "NULL"
1463
1464    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1465        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1466
1467    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1468        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1469        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1470        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1471
1472    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1473        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1474
1475    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1476        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1477
1478    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1479        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1480
1481    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1482        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1483        asc = not desc
1484
1485        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1486        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1487        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1488        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1489        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1490
1491        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1492        nulls_sort_change = ""
1493        if nulls_first and (
1494            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1495        ):
1496            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1497        elif (
1498            nulls_last
1499            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1500            and not nulls_are_last
1501        ):
1502            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1503
1504        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1505            self.unsupported(
1506                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1507            )
1508            nulls_sort_change = ""
1509
1510        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1511
1512    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1513        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1514        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1515        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1516        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1517        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1518        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1519        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1520        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1521        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1522        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1523        definition_sqls = [
1524            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1525            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1526        ]
1527        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1528        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1529        body = "".join(
1530            (
1531                partition,
1532                order,
1533                measures,
1534                rows,
1535                after,
1536                pattern,
1537                define,
1538            )
1539        )
1540        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1541        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1542        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1543
1544    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1545        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1546
1547        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1548            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1549        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1550            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1551
1552        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1553
1554        return csv(
1555            *sqls,
1556            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1557            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1558            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1559            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1560            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1561            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1562            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1563            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1564            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit),
1565            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1566            sep="",
1567        )
1568
1569    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1570        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1571    ) -> t.List[str]:
1572        return [
1573            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1574            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1575        ]
1576
1577    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1578        return [
1579            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1580            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1581            if expression.args.get("windows")
1582            else "",
1583        ]
1584
1585    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1586        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1587        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1588        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1589
1590    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1591        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1592        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1593        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1594        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1595        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1596
1597        if kind:
1598            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1599                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1600            else:
1601                if kind == "STRUCT":
1602                    expressions = self.expressions(
1603                        sqls=[
1604                            self.sql(
1605                                exp.Struct(
1606                                    expressions=[
1607                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1608                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1609                                        )
1610                                        for e in expression.expressions
1611                                    ]
1612                                )
1613                            )
1614                        ]
1615                    )
1616                kind = ""
1617
1618        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1619        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1620            expression,
1621            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1622            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1623            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1624        )
1625        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1626
1627    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1628        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1629        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1630        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1631        return f"{this}{sql}"
1632
1633    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1634        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1635
1636    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1637        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1638        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1639        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1640        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1641        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1642
1643    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1644        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1645        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1646        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1647
1648    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1649        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1650        kind = expression.text("kind")
1651        if kind:
1652            kind = f"{kind}."
1653        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1654
1655    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1656        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1657
1658    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1659        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1660        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1661
1662        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1663        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1664
1665        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1666        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1667
1668    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1669        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1670        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1671
1672    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1673        return self.prepend_ctes(
1674            expression,
1675            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1676        )
1677
1678    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1679        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1680        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1681        return f"UNION{kind}"
1682
1683    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1684        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1685        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1686        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1687            columns = alias.columns
1688            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1689        else:
1690            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1691        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1692        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1693        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1694        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1695        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1696
1697    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1698        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1699        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1700
1701    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1702        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1703        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1704        order = expression.args.get("order")
1705        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1706        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1707        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1708        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1709
1710        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1711
1712        first = expression.args.get("first")
1713        if first is None:
1714            first = ""
1715        else:
1716            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1717
1718        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1719            return f"{this} {alias}"
1720
1721        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1722        return f"{this} ({args})"
1723
1724    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1725        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1726        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1727
1728    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1729        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1730        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1731        end = (
1732            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1733            or "CURRENT ROW"
1734        )
1735        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1736
1737    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1739        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1740        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1741
1742    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1743        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1744        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1745        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1746        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1747
1748    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1749        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1750        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1751
1752        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1753
1754    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1755        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1756
1757    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1758        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1759
1760    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1761        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1762        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1763            this = self.wrap(this)
1764        return f"ANY {this}"
1765
1766    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1767        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1768
1769    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1771        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1772
1773        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1774            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1775            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1776
1777        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1778
1779        if default:
1780            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1781
1782        statements.append("END")
1783
1784        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1785            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1786
1787        return " ".join(statements)
1788
1789    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1790        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1791        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1792        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1793
1794    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1795        order = expression.args.get("order")
1796        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1797        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1798
1799    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1800        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1801        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1802        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1803
1804    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1805        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1806
1807        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1808            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1809        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1810            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1811        else:
1812            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1813
1814    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1815        expressions = expression.expressions
1816        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1817            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1818        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1819
1820    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1821        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1822        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1823
1824    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1825        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1826        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1827        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1828        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1829        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1830        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1831        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1832        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1833
1834    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1835        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1836        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1837        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1838        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1839
1840    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1841        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1842
1843    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1844        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1845        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1846        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1847
1848    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1849        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1850
1851    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1852        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1853        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1854        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1855        if unique_keys is not None:
1856            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1857        else:
1858            unique_keys = ""
1859        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1860        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1861        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1862        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1863        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1864        return self.func(
1865            "JSON_OBJECT",
1866            *expression.expressions,
1867            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1868        )
1869
1870    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1872        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1873        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1874        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1875        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1876        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1877
1878    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1880        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1881        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1882        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1883        with_ = (
1884            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1885            if expressions
1886            else ""
1887        )
1888        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1889
1890    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1891        query = expression.args.get("query")
1892        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1893        field = expression.args.get("field")
1894        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1895
1896        if query:
1897            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1898        elif unnest:
1899            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1900        elif field:
1901            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1902        else:
1903            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1904
1905        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1906
1907    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1908        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1909
1910    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1911        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1912        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1913            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1914        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1915
1916        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1917            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1918            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1919
1920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1921        if this:
1922            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1923            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1924
1925        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1926
1927    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1928        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1929
1930    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1931        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1932        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1933        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1934        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1935        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1936        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1937
1938    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1939        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1940
1941    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1942        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1943            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1944        else:
1945            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1946            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1947
1948        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1949
1950    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1951        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1952        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1953        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1954        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1955
1956    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1957        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1958
1959    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1960        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1961        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1962        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
1963
1964    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1965        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1966
1967    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1969        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1970        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
1971
1972    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1973        return self.binary(expression, "+")
1974
1975    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1976        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
1977
1978    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1979        if not self.pretty:
1980            return self.binary(expression, op)
1981
1982        sqls = tuple(
1983            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1984            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1985        )
1986
1987        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
1988        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
1989
1990    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1991        return self.binary(expression, "&")
1992
1993    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1994        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
1995
1996    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1997        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1998
1999    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2000        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2001
2002    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2003        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2004
2005    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2006        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2007
2008    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2009        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2010        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2011        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2012
2013    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2014        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2015        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2016
2017    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2018        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2019
2020    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2021        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2022
2023    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2024        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2025        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2026        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2027        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2028        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2029
2030    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2031        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2032        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2033        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2034        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2035        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2036        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2037        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2038        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2039        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2040
2041    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2042        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2043        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2044        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2045        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2046
2047        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2048            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2049
2050        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2051
2052    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2053        return "BEGIN"
2054
2055    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2056        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2057        if chain is not None:
2058            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2059
2060        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2061
2062    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2063        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2064        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2065        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2066
2067    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2068        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2069
2070        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2071        if dtype:
2072            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2073            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2074            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2075            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2076            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2077
2078        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2079        if default:
2080            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2081
2082        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2083            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2084
2085        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2086
2087    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2088        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2089            # Remove db from tables
2090            expression = expression.transform(
2091                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2092            )
2093        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2094        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2095
2096    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2097        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2098
2099        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2100            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2101        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2102            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2103        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2104            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2105        else:
2106            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2107
2108        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2109        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2110
2111    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2112        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2113        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2114        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2115
2116    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2117        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2118        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2119        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2120
2121        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2122        if enforced is not None:
2123            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2124
2125        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2126
2127    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2128        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2129        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2130
2131        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2132        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2133        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2134
2135    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2136        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2137
2138    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2139        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2140
2141    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2142        return self.sql(
2143            exp.Cast(
2144                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2145                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2146            )
2147        )
2148
2149    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2150        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2151
2152    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2153        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2154            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2155        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2156
2157    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2158        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2159
2160    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2161        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2162
2163    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2164        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2165
2166    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2167        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2168
2169    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2170        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2171
2172    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2173        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2174
2175    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2176        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2177
2178    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2179        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2180
2181    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2182        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2183
2184    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2185        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2186
2187    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2188        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2189
2190    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2191        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2192            return self.sql(
2193                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2194            )
2195        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2196
2197    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2198        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2199
2200    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2201        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2202
2203    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2204        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2205
2206    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2207        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2208
2209    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2210        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2211
2212    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2213        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2214
2215    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2216        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2217
2218    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2219        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2220
2221    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2222        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2223
2224    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2225        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2226
2227    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2228        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2229
2230    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2231        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2232
2233    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2234        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2235
2236    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2237        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2238
2239    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2240        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2241        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2242        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2243        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2244        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2245
2246    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2247        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2248        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2249
2250    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2251        args = []
2252        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2253            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2254                for value in arg_value:
2255                    args.append(value)
2256            else:
2257                args.append(arg_value)
2258
2259        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2260
2261    def func(
2262        self,
2263        name: str,
2264        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2265        prefix: str = "(",
2266        suffix: str = ")",
2267    ) -> str:
2268        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2269
2270    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2271        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2272        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2273            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2274        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2275
2276    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2277        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2278
2279    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2280        return format_time(
2281            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2282        )
2283
2284    def expressions(
2285        self,
2286        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2287        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2288        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2289        flat: bool = False,
2290        indent: bool = True,
2291        sep: str = ", ",
2292        prefix: str = "",
2293    ) -> str:
2294        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2295
2296        if not expressions:
2297            return ""
2298
2299        if flat:
2300            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2301
2302        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2303
2304        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2305        pad = " " * self.pad
2306        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2307
2308        result_sqls = []
2309        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2310            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2311            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2312
2313            if self.pretty:
2314                if self.leading_comma:
2315                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2316                else:
2317                    result_sqls.append(
2318                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2319                    )
2320            else:
2321                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2322
2323        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2324        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
2325
2326    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2327        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2328        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2329        if flat:
2330            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2331        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2332
2333    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2334        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2335        if not property_name:
2336            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2337        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2338
2339    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2340        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2341        op = self.seg(op)
2342        return self.query_modifiers(
2343            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2344        )
2345
2346    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2347        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2348
2349    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2350        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2351
2352    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2353        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2354        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2355        expressions = (
2356            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2357        )
2358        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2359
2360    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2361        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2362        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2363        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2364
2365    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2366        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2367
2368    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2369        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2370        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2371        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2372        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2373
2374        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2375        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2376            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2377            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2378                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2379        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2380            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2381                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2382            else:
2383                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2384        else:
2385            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2386        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2387
2388    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2389        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2390        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2391        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2392        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2393
2394    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2395        if expression.args.get("format"):
2396            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2397
2398        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2399
2400    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2401        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2402        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2403        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2404        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2405        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2406
2407    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2408        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2409        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2410        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2411        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2412
2413    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2414        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2415
2416    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2417        return ""
2418
2419    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2420        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2421        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2422        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2423        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2424        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2425
2426
2427def cached_generator(
2428    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2429) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2430    """Returns a cached generator."""
2431    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2432    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2433    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  22            Default: False.
  23        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  24            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  25            True or 'always': Always quote.
  26            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  27        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  28            Default: False.
  29        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  30            Default: 2.
  31        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  32            Default: 2.
  33        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  34            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  35            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  36            False: Disables function name normalization.
  37        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  38            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  39        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  40            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  41            Default: 3
  42        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  43            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  44            Default: False
  45        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  46            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  47            line length.
  48            Default: 80
  49        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  50            Default: True
  51    """
  52
  53    TRANSFORMS = {
  54        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  55            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  56        ),
  57        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  58            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  59        ),
  60        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  61        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  64        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  65        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  66        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  71        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  72        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  75        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  76        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  77        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  78        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  79        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  82        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  83        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  84        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  85        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  86        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  87        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  88        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  89        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  91        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  92        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  93        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94    }
  95
  96    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
  97    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
  98
  99    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 100    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 101
 102    # Always do union distinct or union all
 103    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 104
 105    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 106    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 107
 108    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 109    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 110
 111    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 112    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 113
 114    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 115    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 116
 117    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 118    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 119
 120    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 121    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 122
 123    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 124    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 125
 126    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 127    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 128
 129    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 130    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 131
 132    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 133    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 134
 135    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 136    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 137
 138    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 139    JOIN_HINTS = True
 140
 141    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 142    TABLE_HINTS = True
 143
 144    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 145    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 146
 147    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 148    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 149
 150    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 151        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 152        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 153        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 154        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 155        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 156        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 157        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 158    }
 159
 160    STAR_MAPPING = {
 161        "except": "EXCEPT",
 162        "replace": "REPLACE",
 163    }
 164
 165    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 166        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 167        "seconds": "second",
 168        "minutes": "minute",
 169        "hours": "hour",
 170        "days": "day",
 171        "weeks": "week",
 172        "months": "month",
 173        "quarters": "quarter",
 174        "years": "year",
 175    }
 176
 177    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 178
 179    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 180
 181    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 182
 183    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 184        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 185        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 186        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 187        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 188        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 189        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 190        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 191        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 192        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 193        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 194        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 195        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 196        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 197        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 198        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 199        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 200        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 201        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 202        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 203        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 204        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 205        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 206        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 207        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 208        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 209        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 210        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 211        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 212        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 213        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 214        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 215        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 216        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 217        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 218        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 219        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 220        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 227        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 228        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 229        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 231        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 233        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 235        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 236        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 237        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 238        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 239    }
 240
 241    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 242    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 243
 244    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 245    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 246        exp.Select,
 247        exp.From,
 248        exp.Where,
 249        exp.With,
 250    )
 251
 252    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 253    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 254        exp.Column,
 255        exp.Literal,
 256        exp.Neg,
 257        exp.Paren,
 258    )
 259
 260    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 261
 262    # Autofilled
 263    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 264    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 265    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 266    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 267    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 268    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 269    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 270    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 271    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 272
 273    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 274
 275    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 276    QUOTE_START = "'"
 277    QUOTE_END = "'"
 278    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 279    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 280    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 281    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 282
 283    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 284    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 285    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 286    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 287    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 288    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 289    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 290    RAW_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 291    RAW_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 292
 293    __slots__ = (
 294        "pretty",
 295        "identify",
 296        "normalize",
 297        "pad",
 298        "_indent",
 299        "normalize_functions",
 300        "unsupported_level",
 301        "max_unsupported",
 302        "leading_comma",
 303        "max_text_width",
 304        "comments",
 305        "unsupported_messages",
 306        "_escaped_quote_end",
 307        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 308        "_cache",
 309    )
 310
 311    def __init__(
 312        self,
 313        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 314        identify: str | bool = False,
 315        normalize: bool = False,
 316        pad: int = 2,
 317        indent: int = 2,
 318        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 319        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 320        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 321        leading_comma: bool = False,
 322        max_text_width: int = 80,
 323        comments: bool = True,
 324    ):
 325        import sqlglot
 326
 327        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 328        self.identify = identify
 329        self.normalize = normalize
 330        self.pad = pad
 331        self._indent = indent
 332        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 333        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 334        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 335        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 336        self.comments = comments
 337
 338        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 339        self.normalize_functions = (
 340            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 341        )
 342
 343        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 344        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 345        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 346        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 347
 348    def generate(
 349        self,
 350        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 351        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 352    ) -> str:
 353        """
 354        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 355
 356        Args:
 357            expression: The syntax tree.
 358            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 359                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 360
 361        Returns:
 362            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 363        """
 364        if cache is not None:
 365            self._cache = cache
 366
 367        self.unsupported_messages = []
 368        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 369        self._cache = None
 370
 371        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 372            return sql
 373
 374        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 375            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 376                logger.warning(msg)
 377        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 378            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 379
 380        if self.pretty:
 381            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 382        return sql
 383
 384    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 385        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 386            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 387        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 388
 389    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 390        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 391
 392    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 393        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 394
 395    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 396        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 397        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 398        return comment
 399
 400    def maybe_comment(
 401        self,
 402        sql: str,
 403        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 404        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 405    ) -> str:
 406        comments = (
 407            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 408            if self.comments
 409            else None
 410        )
 411
 412        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 413            return sql
 414
 415        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 416        comments_sql = sep.join(
 417            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 418        )
 419
 420        if not comments_sql:
 421            return sql
 422
 423        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 424            return (
 425                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 426                if sql[0].isspace()
 427                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 428            )
 429
 430        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 431
 432    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 433        this_sql = self.indent(
 434            self.sql(expression)
 435            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 436            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 437            level=1,
 438            pad=0,
 439        )
 440        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 441
 442    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 443        original = self.identify
 444        self.identify = False
 445        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 446        self.identify = original
 447        return result
 448
 449    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 450        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 451            return name.upper()
 452        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 453            return name.lower()
 454        return name
 455
 456    def indent(
 457        self,
 458        sql: str,
 459        level: int = 0,
 460        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 461        skip_first: bool = False,
 462        skip_last: bool = False,
 463    ) -> str:
 464        if not self.pretty:
 465            return sql
 466
 467        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 468        lines = sql.split("\n")
 469
 470        return "\n".join(
 471            line
 472            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 473            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 474            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 475        )
 476
 477    def sql(
 478        self,
 479        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 480        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 481        comment: bool = True,
 482    ) -> str:
 483        if not expression:
 484            return ""
 485
 486        if isinstance(expression, str):
 487            return expression
 488
 489        if key:
 490            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
 491
 492        if self._cache is not None:
 493            expression_id = hash(expression)
 494
 495            if expression_id in self._cache:
 496                return self._cache[expression_id]
 497
 498        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 499
 500        if callable(transform):
 501            sql = transform(self, expression)
 502        elif transform:
 503            sql = transform
 504        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 505            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 506
 507            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 508                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 509            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 510                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 511            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 512                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 513            else:
 514                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 515        else:
 516            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 517
 518        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 519
 520        if self._cache is not None:
 521            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 522        return sql
 523
 524    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 525        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 526        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 527        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 528
 529    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 530        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 531        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 532        options = expression.args.get("options")
 533        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 534        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 535        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 536        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 537        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 538
 539    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 540        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 541            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 542        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 543        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 544
 545    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 546        return ".".join(
 547            self.sql(part)
 548            for part in (
 549                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 550                expression.args.get("db"),
 551                expression.args.get("table"),
 552                expression.args.get("this"),
 553            )
 554            if part
 555        )
 556
 557    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 558        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 559        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 560        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 561        return f"{position}{this}"
 562
 563    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 564        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 565        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 566        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 567        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 568        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 569        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 570        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 571        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 572
 573        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 574
 575    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 577        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 578        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 579
 580    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 581        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 582
 583    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 584        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 585            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 586        else:
 587            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 588
 589        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 590
 591    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 592        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 593    ) -> str:
 594        this = ""
 595        if expression.this is not None:
 596            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 597            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 598
 599        start = expression.args.get("start")
 600        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 601        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 602        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 603        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 604        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 605        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 606        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 607        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 608        cycle_sql = ""
 609
 610        if cycle is not None:
 611            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 612            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 613
 614        sequence_opts = ""
 615        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 616            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 617            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 618
 619        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 620        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 621
 622        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 623
 624    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 625        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 626
 627    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 628        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 629        if desc is not None:
 630            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 631        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 632
 633    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 634        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 635        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 636        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 637
 638    def createable_sql(
 639        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 640    ) -> str:
 641        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 642
 643    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 644        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 645        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 646        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 647
 648        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 649
 650        properties_sql = ""
 651        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 652            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 653        ):
 654            properties_sql = self.sql(
 655                exp.Properties(
 656                    expressions=[
 657                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 658                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 659                    ]
 660                )
 661            )
 662
 663        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 664        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 665        if expression_sql:
 666            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 667
 668            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 669                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 670                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 671                        exp.Properties(
 672                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 673                        ),
 674                        wrapped=False,
 675                    )
 676                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 677                else:
 678                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 679
 680        postindex_props_sql = ""
 681        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 682            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 683                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 684                wrapped=False,
 685                prefix=" ",
 686            )
 687
 688        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 689        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 690        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 691
 692        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 693        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 694
 695        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 696        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 697            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 698                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 699                sep=" ",
 700                prefix=" ",
 701                wrapped=False,
 702            )
 703
 704        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 705
 706        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 707        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 708            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 709                exp.Properties(
 710                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 711                ),
 712                sep=" ",
 713                prefix=" ",
 714                wrapped=False,
 715            )
 716
 717        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 718        no_schema_binding = (
 719            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 720        )
 721
 722        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 723        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 724
 725        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 726        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 727
 728    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 729        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 730        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 731
 732        if when:
 733            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 734            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 735            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 736
 737        return f"CLONE {this}"
 738
 739    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 740        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 741
 742    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 743        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 744        if with_:
 745            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 746        return sql
 747
 748    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 749        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 750        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 751
 752        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 753
 754    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 755        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 756        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 757
 758    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 759        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 760        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 761        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 762        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 763
 764    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 765        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 766        if self.BIT_START:
 767            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 768        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 769
 770    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 771        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 772        if self.HEX_START:
 773            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 774        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 775
 776    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 777        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 778        if self.BYTE_START:
 779            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 780        return this
 781
 782    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 783        string = expression.this
 784        if self.RAW_START:
 785            return f"{self.RAW_START}{self.escape_str(expression.this)}{self.RAW_END}"
 786        string = self.escape_str(string.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 787        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 788
 789    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 790        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 791        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 792        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 793        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 794
 795    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 796        type_value = expression.this
 797        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 798        nested = ""
 799        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 800        values = ""
 801        if interior:
 802            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 803                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 804                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 805                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 806                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 807                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 808            else:
 809                nested = f"({interior})"
 810
 811        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 812
 813    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 814        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 815        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 816        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 817        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 818
 819    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 821        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 822        using_sql = (
 823            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
 824            if expression.args.get("using")
 825            else ""
 826        )
 827        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
 828        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 829        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 830        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
 831        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 832
 833    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 834        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 835        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 836        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 837        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 838        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 839        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 840        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 841        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 842        return (
 843            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 844        )
 845
 846    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 847        return self.prepend_ctes(
 848            expression,
 849            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 850        )
 851
 852    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 853        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 854
 855    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 856        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 857        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 858        count = expression.args.get("count")
 859        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 860        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 861            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 862        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 863        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 864
 865    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 867        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 868        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 869
 870    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 871        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
 872            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 873        return ""
 874
 875    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 876        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 877        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 878        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 879        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
 880        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 881        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 882        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 883        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 884        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 885        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 886        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 887        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 888        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 889        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 890
 891    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 892        text = expression.name
 893        lower = text.lower()
 894        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 895        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 896        if (
 897            expression.quoted
 898            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 899            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 900            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 901        ):
 902            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 903        return text
 904
 905    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 906        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 907        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 908        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 909        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 910        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 911
 912    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 913        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 914        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 915
 916    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 917        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 918
 919    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 920        root_properties = []
 921        with_properties = []
 922
 923        for p in expression.expressions:
 924            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 925            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 926                with_properties.append(p)
 927            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 928                root_properties.append(p)
 929
 930        return self.root_properties(
 931            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 932        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 933
 934    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 935        if properties.expressions:
 936            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 937        return ""
 938
 939    def properties(
 940        self,
 941        properties: exp.Properties,
 942        prefix: str = "",
 943        sep: str = ", ",
 944        suffix: str = "",
 945        wrapped: bool = True,
 946    ) -> str:
 947        if properties.expressions:
 948            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 949            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 950            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 951        return ""
 952
 953    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 954        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 955
 956    def locate_properties(
 957        self, properties: exp.Properties
 958    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 959        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 960            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 961        }
 962
 963        for p in properties.expressions:
 964            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 965            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 966                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 967            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 968                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 969            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 970                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 971            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 972                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 973            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 974                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 975            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 976                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 977            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 978                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 979            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 980                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 981
 982        return properties_locs
 983
 984    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 985        property_cls = expression.__class__
 986        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 987            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
 988
 989        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
 990        if not property_name:
 991            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
 992
 993        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 994
 995    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
 996        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
 997        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
 998        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
 999
1000    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1001        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1002        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1003        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1004
1005    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1006        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1007        local = expression.args.get("local")
1008        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1009        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1010        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1011        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1012        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1013
1014    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1015        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1016        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1017        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1018
1019    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1020        if expression.args.get("default"):
1021            property = "DEFAULT"
1022        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1023            property = "ON"
1024        else:
1025            property = "OFF"
1026        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1027
1028    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1029        if expression.args.get("no"):
1030            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1031        if expression.args.get("default"):
1032            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1033
1034        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1035        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1036
1037    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1038        default = expression.args.get("default")
1039        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1040        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1041        if default or minimum or maximum:
1042            if default:
1043                prop = "DEFAULT"
1044            elif minimum:
1045                prop = "MINIMUM"
1046            else:
1047                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1048            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1049        units = expression.args.get("units")
1050        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1051        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1052
1053    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1054        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1055        always = expression.args.get("always")
1056        default = expression.args.get("default")
1057        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1058        never = expression.args.get("never")
1059
1060        if autotemp is not None:
1061            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1062        elif always:
1063            prop = "ALWAYS"
1064        elif default:
1065            prop = "DEFAULT"
1066        elif manual:
1067            prop = "MANUAL"
1068        elif never:
1069            prop = "NEVER"
1070        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1071
1072    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1073        no = expression.args.get("no")
1074        no = " NO" if no else ""
1075        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1076        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1077
1078        for_ = ""
1079        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1080            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1081        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1082            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1083        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1084            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1085        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1086
1087    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1088        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1089        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1090        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1091        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1092        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1093        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1094
1095    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1096        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1097        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1098        statistics_sql = ""
1099        if statistics is not None:
1100            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1101        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1102
1103    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1104        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1105
1106        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1107            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1108        else:
1109            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1110
1111        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1112        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1113        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1114
1115        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1116        partition_sql = (
1117            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1118        )
1119        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1120        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1121        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1122        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1123        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1124        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1125        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1126
1127    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1128        return self.prepend_ctes(
1129            expression,
1130            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1131        )
1132
1133    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1134        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1135
1136    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1137        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1138
1139    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1140        return expression.name.upper()
1141
1142    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1143        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1144        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1145        if constraint:
1146            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1147        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1148        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1149        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1150        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1151        if expressions:
1152            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1153        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1154
1155    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1156        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1157
1158    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1159        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1160        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1161        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1162        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1163        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1164        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1165        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1166        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1167        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1168        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1169        null = expression.args.get("null")
1170        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1171        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1172
1173    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1174        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1175
1176    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1177        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1178        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1179        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1180        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1181
1182    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1183        table = ".".join(
1184            part
1185            for part in [
1186                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1187                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1188                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1189            ]
1190            if part
1191        )
1192
1193        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1194        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1195        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1196        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1197        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1198        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1199        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1200        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1201        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1202        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1203
1204        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1205
1206    def tablesample_sql(
1207        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1208    ) -> str:
1209        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1210            table = expression.this.copy()
1211            table.set("alias", None)
1212            this = self.sql(table)
1213            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1214        else:
1215            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1216            alias = ""
1217        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1218        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1219        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1220        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1221        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1222        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1223        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1224        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1225        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1226        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1227        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1228        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1229        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1230            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1231        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1232        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1233        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1234        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1235
1236    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1237        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1238
1239        if expression.this:
1240            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1241            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1242            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1243            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1244            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1245            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1246
1247        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1248        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1249        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1250        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1251        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1252        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1253
1254    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1255        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1256
1257    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1258        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1259        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1260        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1261        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1262        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1263        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1264        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1265        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1266
1267    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1268        args = self.expressions(expression)
1269        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1270        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1271        values = (
1272            f"({values})"
1273            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1274            else values
1275        )
1276        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1277
1278    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1279        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1280
1281    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1282        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1283        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1284        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1285
1286    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1287        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1288
1289    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1290        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1291        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1292        grouping_sets = (
1293            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1294        )
1295
1296        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1297        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1298            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1299        else:
1300            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1301            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1302
1303        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1304        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1305            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1306        else:
1307            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1308            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1309
1310        groupings = csv(
1311            grouping_sets,
1312            cube_sql,
1313            rollup_sql,
1314            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1315            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1316        )
1317
1318        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1319            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1320
1321        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1322
1323    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1324        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1325        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1326
1327    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1328        op_sql = " ".join(
1329            op
1330            for op in (
1331                expression.method,
1332                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1333                expression.side,
1334                expression.kind,
1335                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1336            )
1337            if op
1338        )
1339        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1340        using = expression.args.get("using")
1341
1342        if not on_sql and using:
1343            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1344
1345        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1346
1347        if on_sql:
1348            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1349            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1350            if using:
1351                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1352            else:
1353                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1354        elif not op_sql:
1355            return f", {this_sql}"
1356
1357        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1358        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1359
1360    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1361        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1362        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1363        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1364
1365    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1366        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1367
1368        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1369            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1370
1371        if expression.args.get("view"):
1372            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1373            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1374            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1375            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1376            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1377            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1378
1379        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1380        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1381        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1382
1383    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1384        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1385        args = ", ".join(
1386            sql
1387            for sql in (
1388                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1389                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1390            )
1391            if sql
1392        )
1393        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {args}"
1394
1395    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1396        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1397        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1398
1399    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1400        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1401        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1402        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1403        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1404        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1405        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1406        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1407        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1408
1409    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1410        expressions = (
1411            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1412        )
1413        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1414        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1415
1416    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1417        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1418
1419    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1420        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1421            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1422            return ""
1423
1424        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1425        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1426        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1427        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1428
1429        if wait is not None:
1430            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1431                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1432            else:
1433                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1434
1435        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1436
1437    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1438        text = expression.this or ""
1439        if expression.is_string:
1440            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1441        return text
1442
1443    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1444        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1445        if self.pretty:
1446            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1447        return text
1448
1449    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1450        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1451        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1452        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1453        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1454        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1455        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1456        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1457        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1458        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1459        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1460        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1461
1462    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1463        return "NULL"
1464
1465    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1466        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1467
1468    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1469        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1470        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1471        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1472
1473    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1474        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1475
1476    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1477        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1478
1479    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1480        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1481
1482    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1483        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1484        asc = not desc
1485
1486        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1487        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1488        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1489        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1490        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1491
1492        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1493        nulls_sort_change = ""
1494        if nulls_first and (
1495            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1496        ):
1497            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1498        elif (
1499            nulls_last
1500            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1501            and not nulls_are_last
1502        ):
1503            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1504
1505        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1506            self.unsupported(
1507                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1508            )
1509            nulls_sort_change = ""
1510
1511        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1512
1513    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1514        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1515        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1516        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1517        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1518        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1519        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1520        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1521        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1522        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1523        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1524        definition_sqls = [
1525            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1526            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1527        ]
1528        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1529        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1530        body = "".join(
1531            (
1532                partition,
1533                order,
1534                measures,
1535                rows,
1536                after,
1537                pattern,
1538                define,
1539            )
1540        )
1541        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1542        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1543        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1544
1545    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1546        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1547
1548        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1549            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1550        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1551            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1552
1553        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1554
1555        return csv(
1556            *sqls,
1557            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1558            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1559            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1560            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1561            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1562            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1563            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1564            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1565            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit),
1566            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1567            sep="",
1568        )
1569
1570    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1571        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1572    ) -> t.List[str]:
1573        return [
1574            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1575            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1576        ]
1577
1578    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1579        return [
1580            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1581            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1582            if expression.args.get("windows")
1583            else "",
1584        ]
1585
1586    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1587        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1588        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1589        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1590
1591    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1592        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1593        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1594        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1595        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1596        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1597
1598        if kind:
1599            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1600                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1601            else:
1602                if kind == "STRUCT":
1603                    expressions = self.expressions(
1604                        sqls=[
1605                            self.sql(
1606                                exp.Struct(
1607                                    expressions=[
1608                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1609                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1610                                        )
1611                                        for e in expression.expressions
1612                                    ]
1613                                )
1614                            )
1615                        ]
1616                    )
1617                kind = ""
1618
1619        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1620        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1621            expression,
1622            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1623            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1624            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1625        )
1626        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1627
1628    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1629        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1630        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1631        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1632        return f"{this}{sql}"
1633
1634    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1635        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1636
1637    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1638        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1639        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1640        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1641        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1642        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1643
1644    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1645        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1646        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1647        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1648
1649    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1650        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1651        kind = expression.text("kind")
1652        if kind:
1653            kind = f"{kind}."
1654        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1655
1656    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1657        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1658
1659    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1660        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1661        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1662
1663        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1664        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1665
1666        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1667        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1668
1669    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1670        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1671        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1672
1673    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1674        return self.prepend_ctes(
1675            expression,
1676            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1677        )
1678
1679    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1680        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1681        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1682        return f"UNION{kind}"
1683
1684    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1685        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1686        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1687        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1688            columns = alias.columns
1689            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1690        else:
1691            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1692        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1693        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1694        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1695        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1696        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1697
1698    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1699        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1700        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1701
1702    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1703        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1704        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1705        order = expression.args.get("order")
1706        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1707        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1708        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1709        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1710
1711        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1712
1713        first = expression.args.get("first")
1714        if first is None:
1715            first = ""
1716        else:
1717            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1718
1719        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1720            return f"{this} {alias}"
1721
1722        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1723        return f"{this} ({args})"
1724
1725    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1726        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1727        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1728
1729    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1730        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1731        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1732        end = (
1733            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1734            or "CURRENT ROW"
1735        )
1736        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1737
1738    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1739        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1740        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1741        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1742
1743    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1744        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1745        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1746        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1747        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1748
1749    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1750        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1751        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1752
1753        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1754
1755    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1756        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1757
1758    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1759        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1760
1761    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1762        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1763        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1764            this = self.wrap(this)
1765        return f"ANY {this}"
1766
1767    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1768        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1769
1770    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1771        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1772        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1773
1774        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1775            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1776            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1777
1778        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1779
1780        if default:
1781            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1782
1783        statements.append("END")
1784
1785        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1786            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1787
1788        return " ".join(statements)
1789
1790    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1791        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1792        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1793        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1794
1795    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1796        order = expression.args.get("order")
1797        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1798        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1799
1800    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1802        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1803        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1804
1805    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1806        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1807
1808        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1809            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1810        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1811            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1812        else:
1813            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1814
1815    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1816        expressions = expression.expressions
1817        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1818            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1819        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1820
1821    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1822        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1823        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1824
1825    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1826        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1827        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1828        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1829        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1830        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1831        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1832        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1833        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1834
1835    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1836        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1837        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1838        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1839        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1840
1841    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1842        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1843
1844    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1845        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1846        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1847        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1848
1849    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1850        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1851
1852    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1853        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1854        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1855        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1856        if unique_keys is not None:
1857            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1858        else:
1859            unique_keys = ""
1860        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1861        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1862        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1863        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1864        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1865        return self.func(
1866            "JSON_OBJECT",
1867            *expression.expressions,
1868            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1869        )
1870
1871    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1872        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1873        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1874        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1875        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1876        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1877        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1878
1879    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1880        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1881        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1882        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1883        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1884        with_ = (
1885            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1886            if expressions
1887            else ""
1888        )
1889        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1890
1891    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1892        query = expression.args.get("query")
1893        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1894        field = expression.args.get("field")
1895        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1896
1897        if query:
1898            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1899        elif unnest:
1900            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1901        elif field:
1902            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1903        else:
1904            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1905
1906        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1907
1908    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1909        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1910
1911    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1912        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1913        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1914            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1915        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1916
1917        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1918            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1919            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1920
1921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1922        if this:
1923            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1924            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1925
1926        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1927
1928    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1929        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1930
1931    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1932        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1933        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1934        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1935        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1936        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1937        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1938
1939    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1940        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1941
1942    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1943        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1944            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1945        else:
1946            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1947            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1948
1949        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1950
1951    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1952        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1953        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1954        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1955        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1956
1957    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1958        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1959
1960    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1961        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1962        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1963        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
1964
1965    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1966        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1967
1968    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1969        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1970        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1971        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
1972
1973    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1974        return self.binary(expression, "+")
1975
1976    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1977        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
1978
1979    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1980        if not self.pretty:
1981            return self.binary(expression, op)
1982
1983        sqls = tuple(
1984            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1985            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1986        )
1987
1988        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
1989        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
1990
1991    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1992        return self.binary(expression, "&")
1993
1994    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1995        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
1996
1997    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1998        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1999
2000    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2001        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2002
2003    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2004        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2005
2006    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2007        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2008
2009    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2010        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2011        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2012        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2013
2014    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2015        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2016        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2017
2018    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2019        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2020
2021    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2022        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2023
2024    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2026        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2027        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2028        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2029        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2030
2031    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2032        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2033        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2034        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2035        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2036        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2037        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2038        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2039        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2040        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2041
2042    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2043        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2044        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2045        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2046        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2047
2048        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2049            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2050
2051        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2052
2053    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2054        return "BEGIN"
2055
2056    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2057        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2058        if chain is not None:
2059            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2060
2061        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2062
2063    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2064        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2065        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2066        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2067
2068    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2069        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2070
2071        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2072        if dtype:
2073            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2074            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2075            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2076            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2077            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2078
2079        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2080        if default:
2081            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2082
2083        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2084            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2085
2086        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2087
2088    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2089        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2090            # Remove db from tables
2091            expression = expression.transform(
2092                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2093            )
2094        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2095        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2096
2097    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2098        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2099
2100        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2101            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2102        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2103            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2104        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2105            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2106        else:
2107            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2108
2109        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2110        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2111
2112    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2113        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2114        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2115        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2116
2117    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2118        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2119        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2120        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2121
2122        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2123        if enforced is not None:
2124            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2125
2126        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2127
2128    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2129        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2130        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2131
2132        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2133        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2134        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2135
2136    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2137        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2138
2139    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2140        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2141
2142    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2143        return self.sql(
2144            exp.Cast(
2145                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2146                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2147            )
2148        )
2149
2150    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2151        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2152
2153    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2154        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2155            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2156        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2157
2158    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2159        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2160
2161    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2162        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2163
2164    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2165        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2166
2167    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2168        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2169
2170    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2171        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2172
2173    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2174        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2175
2176    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2177        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2178
2179    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2180        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2181
2182    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2183        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2184
2185    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2186        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2187
2188    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2189        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2190
2191    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2192        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2193            return self.sql(
2194                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2195            )
2196        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2197
2198    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2199        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2200
2201    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2202        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2203
2204    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2205        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2206
2207    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2208        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2209
2210    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2211        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2212
2213    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2214        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2215
2216    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2217        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2218
2219    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2220        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2221
2222    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2223        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2224
2225    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2226        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2227
2228    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2229        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2230
2231    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2232        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2233
2234    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2235        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2236
2237    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2238        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2239
2240    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2241        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2242        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2243        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2244        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2245        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2246
2247    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2248        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2249        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2250
2251    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2252        args = []
2253        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2254            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2255                for value in arg_value:
2256                    args.append(value)
2257            else:
2258                args.append(arg_value)
2259
2260        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2261
2262    def func(
2263        self,
2264        name: str,
2265        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2266        prefix: str = "(",
2267        suffix: str = ")",
2268    ) -> str:
2269        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2270
2271    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2272        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2273        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2274            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2275        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2276
2277    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2278        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2279
2280    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2281        return format_time(
2282            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2283        )
2284
2285    def expressions(
2286        self,
2287        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2288        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2289        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2290        flat: bool = False,
2291        indent: bool = True,
2292        sep: str = ", ",
2293        prefix: str = "",
2294    ) -> str:
2295        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2296
2297        if not expressions:
2298            return ""
2299
2300        if flat:
2301            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2302
2303        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2304
2305        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2306        pad = " " * self.pad
2307        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2308
2309        result_sqls = []
2310        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2311            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2312            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2313
2314            if self.pretty:
2315                if self.leading_comma:
2316                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2317                else:
2318                    result_sqls.append(
2319                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2320                    )
2321            else:
2322                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2323
2324        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2325        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
2326
2327    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2328        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2329        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2330        if flat:
2331            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2332        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2333
2334    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2335        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2336        if not property_name:
2337            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2338        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2339
2340    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2341        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2342        op = self.seg(op)
2343        return self.query_modifiers(
2344            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2345        )
2346
2347    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2348        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2349
2350    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2351        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2352
2353    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2354        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2355        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2356        expressions = (
2357            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2358        )
2359        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2360
2361    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2362        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2363        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2364        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2365
2366    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2367        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2368
2369    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2370        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2371        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2372        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2373        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2374
2375        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2376        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2377            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2378            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2379                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2380        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2381            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2382                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2383            else:
2384                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2385        else:
2386            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2387        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2388
2389    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2390        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2391        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2392        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2393        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2394
2395    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2396        if expression.args.get("format"):
2397            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2398
2399        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2400
2401    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2402        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2403        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2404        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2405        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2406        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2407
2408    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2409        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2410        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2411        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2412        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2413
2414    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2415        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2416
2417    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2418        return ""
2419
2420    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2421        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2422        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2423        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2424        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2425        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
311    def __init__(
312        self,
313        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
314        identify: str | bool = False,
315        normalize: bool = False,
316        pad: int = 2,
317        indent: int = 2,
318        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
319        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
320        max_unsupported: int = 3,
321        leading_comma: bool = False,
322        max_text_width: int = 80,
323        comments: bool = True,
324    ):
325        import sqlglot
326
327        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
328        self.identify = identify
329        self.normalize = normalize
330        self.pad = pad
331        self._indent = indent
332        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
333        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
334        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
335        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
336        self.comments = comments
337
338        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
339        self.normalize_functions = (
340            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
341        )
342
343        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
344        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
345        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
346        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Select'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.From'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Where'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.With'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
247    @classmethod
248    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
249        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
250
251        Args:
252            text: The text to check.
253            identify:
254                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
255                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
256
257        Returns:
258            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
259        """
260        if identify is True or identify == "always":
261            return True
262
263        if identify == "safe":
264            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
265
266        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
RAW_START: Optional[str] = None
RAW_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
348    def generate(
349        self,
350        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
351        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
352    ) -> str:
353        """
354        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
355
356        Args:
357            expression: The syntax tree.
358            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
359                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
360
361        Returns:
362            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
363        """
364        if cache is not None:
365            self._cache = cache
366
367        self.unsupported_messages = []
368        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
369        self._cache = None
370
371        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
372            return sql
373
374        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
375            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
376                logger.warning(msg)
377        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
378            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
379
380        if self.pretty:
381            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
382        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
384    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
385        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
386            raise UnsupportedError(message)
387        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
389    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
390        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
392    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
393        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
395    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
396        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
397        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
398        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
400    def maybe_comment(
401        self,
402        sql: str,
403        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
404        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
405    ) -> str:
406        comments = (
407            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
408            if self.comments
409            else None
410        )
411
412        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
413            return sql
414
415        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
416        comments_sql = sep.join(
417            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
418        )
419
420        if not comments_sql:
421            return sql
422
423        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
424            return (
425                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
426                if sql[0].isspace()
427                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
428            )
429
430        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
432    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
433        this_sql = self.indent(
434            self.sql(expression)
435            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
436            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
437            level=1,
438            pad=0,
439        )
440        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
442    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
443        original = self.identify
444        self.identify = False
445        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
446        self.identify = original
447        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
449    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
450        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
451            return name.upper()
452        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
453            return name.lower()
454        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
456    def indent(
457        self,
458        sql: str,
459        level: int = 0,
460        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
461        skip_first: bool = False,
462        skip_last: bool = False,
463    ) -> str:
464        if not self.pretty:
465            return sql
466
467        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
468        lines = sql.split("\n")
469
470        return "\n".join(
471            line
472            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
473            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
474            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
475        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
477    def sql(
478        self,
479        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
480        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
481        comment: bool = True,
482    ) -> str:
483        if not expression:
484            return ""
485
486        if isinstance(expression, str):
487            return expression
488
489        if key:
490            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
491
492        if self._cache is not None:
493            expression_id = hash(expression)
494
495            if expression_id in self._cache:
496                return self._cache[expression_id]
497
498        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
499
500        if callable(transform):
501            sql = transform(self, expression)
502        elif transform:
503            sql = transform
504        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
505            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
506
507            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
508                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
509            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
510                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
511            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
512                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
513            else:
514                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
515        else:
516            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
517
518        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
519
520        if self._cache is not None:
521            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
522        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
524    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
525        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
526        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
527        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
529    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
530        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
531        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
532        options = expression.args.get("options")
533        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
534        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
535        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
536        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
537        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
539    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
540        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
541            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
542        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
543        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
545    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
546        return ".".join(
547            self.sql(part)
548            for part in (
549                expression.args.get("catalog"),
550                expression.args.get("db"),
551                expression.args.get("table"),
552                expression.args.get("this"),
553            )
554            if part
555        )
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
557    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
558        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
559        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
560        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
561        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
563    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
564        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
565        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
566        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
567        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
568        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
569        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
570        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
571        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
572
573        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
575    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
577        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
578        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
580    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
581        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
583    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
584        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
585            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
586        else:
587            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
588
589        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
591    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
592        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
593    ) -> str:
594        this = ""
595        if expression.this is not None:
596            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
597            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
598
599        start = expression.args.get("start")
600        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
601        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
602        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
603        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
604        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
605        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
606        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
607        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
608        cycle_sql = ""
609
610        if cycle is not None:
611            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
612            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
613
614        sequence_opts = ""
615        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
616            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
617            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
618
619        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
620        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
621
622        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
624    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
625        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
627    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
628        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
629        if desc is not None:
630            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
631        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
633    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
634        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
635        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
636        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]) -> str:
638    def createable_sql(
639        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
640    ) -> str:
641        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
643    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
644        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
645        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
646        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
647
648        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
649
650        properties_sql = ""
651        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
652            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
653        ):
654            properties_sql = self.sql(
655                exp.Properties(
656                    expressions=[
657                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
658                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
659                    ]
660                )
661            )
662
663        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
664        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
665        if expression_sql:
666            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
667
668            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
669                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
670                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
671                        exp.Properties(
672                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
673                        ),
674                        wrapped=False,
675                    )
676                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
677                else:
678                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
679
680        postindex_props_sql = ""
681        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
682            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
683                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
684                wrapped=False,
685                prefix=" ",
686            )
687
688        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
689        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
690        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
691
692        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
693        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
694
695        postcreate_props_sql = ""
696        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
697            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
698                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
699                sep=" ",
700                prefix=" ",
701                wrapped=False,
702            )
703
704        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
705
706        postexpression_props_sql = ""
707        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
708            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
709                exp.Properties(
710                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
711                ),
712                sep=" ",
713                prefix=" ",
714                wrapped=False,
715            )
716
717        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
718        no_schema_binding = (
719            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
720        )
721
722        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
723        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
724
725        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
726        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
728    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
729        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
730        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
731
732        if when:
733            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
734            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
735            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
736
737        return f"CLONE {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
739    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
740        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
742    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
743        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
744        if with_:
745            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
746        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
748    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
749        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
750        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
751
752        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
754    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
755        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
756        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
758    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
759        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
760        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
761        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
762        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
764    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
765        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
766        if self.BIT_START:
767            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
768        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
770    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
771        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
772        if self.HEX_START:
773            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
774        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
776    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
777        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
778        if self.BYTE_START:
779            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
780        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
782    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
783        string = expression.this
784        if self.RAW_START:
785            return f"{self.RAW_START}{self.escape_str(expression.this)}{self.RAW_END}"
786        string = self.escape_str(string.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
787        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeSize) -> str:
789    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
790        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
791        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
792        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
793        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
795    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
796        type_value = expression.this
797        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
798        nested = ""
799        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
800        values = ""
801        if interior:
802            if expression.args.get("nested"):
803                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
804                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
805                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
806                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
807                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
808            else:
809                nested = f"({interior})"
810
811        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
813    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
814        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
815        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
816        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
817        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
819    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
821        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
822        using_sql = (
823            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
824            if expression.args.get("using")
825            else ""
826        )
827        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
828        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
829        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
830        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
831        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
833    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
834        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
835        kind = expression.args["kind"]
836        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
837        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
838        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
839        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
840        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
841        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
842        return (
843            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
844        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
846    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
847        return self.prepend_ctes(
848            expression,
849            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
850        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
852    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
853        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
855    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
856        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
857        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
858        count = expression.args.get("count")
859        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
860        if expression.args.get("percent"):
861            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
862        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
863        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
865    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
867        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
868        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
870    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
871        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
872            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
873        return ""
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
875    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
876        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
877        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
878        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
879        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
880        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
881        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
882        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
883        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
884        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
885        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
886        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
887        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
888        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
889        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
891    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
892        text = expression.name
893        lower = text.lower()
894        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
895        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
896        if (
897            expression.quoted
898            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
899            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
900            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
901        ):
902            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
903        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
905    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
906        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
907        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
908        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
909        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
910        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
912    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
913        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
914        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
916    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
917        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
919    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
920        root_properties = []
921        with_properties = []
922
923        for p in expression.expressions:
924            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
925            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
926                with_properties.append(p)
927            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
928                root_properties.append(p)
929
930        return self.root_properties(
931            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
932        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
934    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
935        if properties.expressions:
936            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
937        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
939    def properties(
940        self,
941        properties: exp.Properties,
942        prefix: str = "",
943        sep: str = ", ",
944        suffix: str = "",
945        wrapped: bool = True,
946    ) -> str:
947        if properties.expressions:
948            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
949            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
950            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
951        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
953    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
954        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> Dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]:
956    def locate_properties(
957        self, properties: exp.Properties
958    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
959        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
960            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
961        }
962
963        for p in properties.expressions:
964            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
965            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
966                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
967            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
968                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
969            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
970                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
971            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
972                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
973            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
974                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
975            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
976                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
977            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
978                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
979            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
980                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
981
982        return properties_locs
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
984    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
985        property_cls = expression.__class__
986        if property_cls == exp.Property:
987            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
988
989        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
990        if not property_name:
991            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
992
993        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
995    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
996        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
997        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
998        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1000    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1001        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1002        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1003        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1005    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1006        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1007        local = expression.args.get("local")
1008        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1009        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1010        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1011        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1012        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1014    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1015        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1016        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1017        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1019    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1020        if expression.args.get("default"):
1021            property = "DEFAULT"
1022        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1023            property = "ON"
1024        else:
1025            property = "OFF"
1026        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1028    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1029        if expression.args.get("no"):
1030            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1031        if expression.args.get("default"):
1032            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1033
1034        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1035        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1037    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1038        default = expression.args.get("default")
1039        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1040        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1041        if default or minimum or maximum:
1042            if default:
1043                prop = "DEFAULT"
1044            elif minimum:
1045                prop = "MINIMUM"
1046            else:
1047                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1048            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1049        units = expression.args.get("units")
1050        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1051        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1053    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1054        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1055        always = expression.args.get("always")
1056        default = expression.args.get("default")
1057        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1058        never = expression.args.get("never")
1059
1060        if autotemp is not None:
1061            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1062        elif always:
1063            prop = "ALWAYS"
1064        elif default:
1065            prop = "DEFAULT"
1066        elif manual:
1067            prop = "MANUAL"
1068        elif never:
1069            prop = "NEVER"
1070        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1072    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1073        no = expression.args.get("no")
1074        no = " NO" if no else ""
1075        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1076        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1077
1078        for_ = ""
1079        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1080            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1081        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1082            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1083        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1084            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1085        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1087    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1088        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1089        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1090        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1091        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1092        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1093        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1095    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1096        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1097        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1098        statistics_sql = ""
1099        if statistics is not None:
1100            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1101        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1103    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1104        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1105
1106        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1107            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1108        else:
1109            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1110
1111        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1112        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1113        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1114
1115        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1116        partition_sql = (
1117            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1118        )
1119        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1120        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1121        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1122        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1123        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1124        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1125        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1127    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1128        return self.prepend_ctes(
1129            expression,
1130            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1131        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1133    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1134        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1136    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1137        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1139    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1140        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1142    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1143        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1144        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1145        if constraint:
1146            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1147        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1148        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1149        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1150        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1151        if expressions:
1152            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1153        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1155    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1156        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1158    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1159        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1160        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1161        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1162        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1163        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1164        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1165        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1166        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1167        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1168        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1169        null = expression.args.get("null")
1170        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1171        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1173    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1174        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1176    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1177        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1178        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1179        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1180        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1182    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1183        table = ".".join(
1184            part
1185            for part in [
1186                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1187                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1188                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1189            ]
1190            if part
1191        )
1192
1193        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1194        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1195        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1196        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1197        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1198        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1199        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1200        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1201        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1202        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1203
1204        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1206    def tablesample_sql(
1207        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1208    ) -> str:
1209        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1210            table = expression.this.copy()
1211            table.set("alias", None)
1212            this = self.sql(table)
1213            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1214        else:
1215            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1216            alias = ""
1217        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1218        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1219        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1220        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1221        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1222        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1223        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1224        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1225        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1226        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1227        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1228        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1229        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1230            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1231        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1232        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1233        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1234        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1236    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1237        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1238
1239        if expression.this:
1240            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1241            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1242            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1243            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1244            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1245            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1246
1247        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1248        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1249        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1250        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1251        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1252        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1254    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1255        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1257    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1258        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1259        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1260        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1261        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1262        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1263        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1264        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1265        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1267    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1268        args = self.expressions(expression)
1269        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1270        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1271        values = (
1272            f"({values})"
1273            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1274            else values
1275        )
1276        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1278    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1279        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1281    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1282        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1283        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1284        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1286    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1287        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1289    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1290        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1291        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1292        grouping_sets = (
1293            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1294        )
1295
1296        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1297        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1298            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1299        else:
1300            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1301            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1302
1303        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1304        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1305            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1306        else:
1307            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1308            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1309
1310        groupings = csv(
1311            grouping_sets,
1312            cube_sql,
1313            rollup_sql,
1314            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1315            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1316        )
1317
1318        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1319            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1320
1321        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1323    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1324        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1325        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1327    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1328        op_sql = " ".join(
1329            op
1330            for op in (
1331                expression.method,
1332                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1333                expression.side,
1334                expression.kind,
1335                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1336            )
1337            if op
1338        )
1339        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1340        using = expression.args.get("using")
1341
1342        if not on_sql and using:
1343            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1344
1345        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1346
1347        if on_sql:
1348            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1349            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1350            if using:
1351                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1352            else:
1353                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1354        elif not op_sql:
1355            return f", {this_sql}"
1356
1357        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1358        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1360    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1361        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1362        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1363        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1365    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1366        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1367
1368        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1369            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1370
1371        if expression.args.get("view"):
1372            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1373            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1374            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1375            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1376            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1377            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1378
1379        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1380        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1381        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit) -> str:
1383    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1384        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1385        args = ", ".join(
1386            sql
1387            for sql in (
1388                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1389                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1390            )
1391            if sql
1392        )
1393        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1395    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1396        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1397        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1399    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1400        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1401        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1402        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1403        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1404        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1405        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1406        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1407        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1409    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1410        expressions = (
1411            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1412        )
1413        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1414        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1416    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1417        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1419    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1420        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1421            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1422            return ""
1423
1424        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1425        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1426        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1427        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1428
1429        if wait is not None:
1430            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1431                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1432            else:
1433                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1434
1435        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1437    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1438        text = expression.this or ""
1439        if expression.is_string:
1440            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1441        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1443    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1444        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1445        if self.pretty:
1446            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1447        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1449    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1450        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1451        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1452        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1453        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1454        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1455        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1456        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1457        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1458        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1459        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1460        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1462    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1463        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1465    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1466        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1468    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1469        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1470        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1471        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1473    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1474        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1476    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1477        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1479    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1480        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1482    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1483        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1484        asc = not desc
1485
1486        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1487        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1488        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1489        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1490        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1491
1492        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1493        nulls_sort_change = ""
1494        if nulls_first and (
1495            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1496        ):
1497            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1498        elif (
1499            nulls_last
1500            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1501            and not nulls_are_last
1502        ):
1503            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1504
1505        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1506            self.unsupported(
1507                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1508            )
1509            nulls_sort_change = ""
1510
1511        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1513    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1514        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1515        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1516        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1517        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1518        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1519        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1520        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1521        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1522        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1523        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1524        definition_sqls = [
1525            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1526            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1527        ]
1528        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1529        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1530        body = "".join(
1531            (
1532                partition,
1533                order,
1534                measures,
1535                rows,
1536                after,
1537                pattern,
1538                define,
1539            )
1540        )
1541        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1542        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1543        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1545    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1546        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1547
1548        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1549            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1550        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1551            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1552
1553        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1554
1555        return csv(
1556            *sqls,
1557            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1558            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1559            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1560            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1561            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1562            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1563            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1564            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1565            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit),
1566            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1567            sep="",
1568        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1570    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1571        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1572    ) -> t.List[str]:
1573        return [
1574            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1575            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1576        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1578    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1579        return [
1580            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1581            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1582            if expression.args.get("windows")
1583            else "",
1584        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1586    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1587        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1588        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1589        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1591    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1592        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1593        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1594        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1595        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1596        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1597
1598        if kind:
1599            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1600                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1601            else:
1602                if kind == "STRUCT":
1603                    expressions = self.expressions(
1604                        sqls=[
1605                            self.sql(
1606                                exp.Struct(
1607                                    expressions=[
1608                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1609                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1610                                        )
1611                                        for e in expression.expressions
1612                                    ]
1613                                )
1614                            )
1615                        ]
1616                    )
1617                kind = ""
1618
1619        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1620        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1621            expression,
1622            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1623            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1624            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1625        )
1626        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1628    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1629        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1630        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1631        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1632        return f"{this}{sql}"
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1634    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1635        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1637    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1638        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1639        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1640        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1641        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1642        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1644    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1645        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1646        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1647        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1649    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1650        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1651        kind = expression.text("kind")
1652        if kind:
1653            kind = f"{kind}."
1654        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1656    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1657        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1659    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1660        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1661        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1662
1663        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1664        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1665
1666        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1667        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1669    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1670        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1671        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1673    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1674        return self.prepend_ctes(
1675            expression,
1676            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1677        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1679    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1680        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1681        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1682        return f"UNION{kind}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1684    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1685        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1686        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1687        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1688            columns = alias.columns
1689            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1690        else:
1691            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1692        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1693        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1694        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1695        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1696        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1698    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1699        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1700        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1702    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1703        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1704        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1705        order = expression.args.get("order")
1706        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1707        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1708        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1709        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1710
1711        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1712
1713        first = expression.args.get("first")
1714        if first is None:
1715            first = ""
1716        else:
1717            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1718
1719        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1720            return f"{this} {alias}"
1721
1722        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1723        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1725    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1726        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1727        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1729    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1730        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1731        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1732        end = (
1733            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1734            or "CURRENT ROW"
1735        )
1736        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
1738    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1739        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1740        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1741        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
1743    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1744        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1745        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1746        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1747        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
1749    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1750        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1751        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1752
1753        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
1755    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1756        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
1758    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1759        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
1761    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1762        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1763        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1764            this = self.wrap(this)
1765        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
1767    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1768        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
1770    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1771        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1772        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1773
1774        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1775            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1776            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1777
1778        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1779
1780        if default:
1781            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1782
1783        statements.append("END")
1784
1785        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1786            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1787
1788        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
1790    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1791        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1792        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1793        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
1795    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1796        order = expression.args.get("order")
1797        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1798        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
1800    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1802        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1803        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
1805    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1806        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1807
1808        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1809            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1810        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1811            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1812        else:
1813            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
1815    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1816        expressions = expression.expressions
1817        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1818            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1819        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
1821    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1822        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1823        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1825    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1826        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1827        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1828        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1829        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1830        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1831        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1832        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1833        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1835    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1836        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1837        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1838        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1839        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
1841    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1842        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1844    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1845        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1846        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1847        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1849    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1850        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
1852    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1853        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1854        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1855        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1856        if unique_keys is not None:
1857            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1858        else:
1859            unique_keys = ""
1860        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1861        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1862        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1863        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1864        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1865        return self.func(
1866            "JSON_OBJECT",
1867            *expression.expressions,
1868            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1869        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1871    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1872        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1873        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1874        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1875        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1876        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1877        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
1879    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1880        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1881        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1882        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1883        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1884        with_ = (
1885            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1886            if expressions
1887            else ""
1888        )
1889        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
1891    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1892        query = expression.args.get("query")
1893        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1894        field = expression.args.get("field")
1895        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1896
1897        if query:
1898            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1899        elif unnest:
1900            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1901        elif field:
1902            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1903        else:
1904            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1905
1906        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1908    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1909        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
1911    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1912        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1913        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1914            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1915        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1916
1917        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1918            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1919            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1920
1921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1922        if this:
1923            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1924            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1925
1926        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
1928    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1929        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
1931    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1932        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1933        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1934        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1935        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1936        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1937        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
1939    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1940        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
1942    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1943        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1944            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1945        else:
1946            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1947            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1948
1949        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
1951    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1952        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1953        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1954        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1955        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
1957    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1958        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
1960    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1961        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1962        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1963        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
1965    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1966        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1968    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1969        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1970        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1971        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
1973    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1974        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
1976    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1977        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1979    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1980        if not self.pretty:
1981            return self.binary(expression, op)
1982
1983        sqls = tuple(
1984            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1985            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1986        )
1987
1988        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
1989        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1991    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1992        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1994    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1995        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1997    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1998        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2000    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2001        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2003    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2004        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2006    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2007        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2009    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2010        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2011        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2012        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2014    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2015        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2016        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2018    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2019        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2021    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2022        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2024    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2026        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2027        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2028        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2029        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2031    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2032        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2033        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2034        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2035        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2036        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2037        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2038        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2039        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2040        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2042    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2043        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2044        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2045        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2046        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2047
2048        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2049            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2050
2051        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2053    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2054        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2056    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2057        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2058        if chain is not None:
2059            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2060
2061        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2063    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2064        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2065        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2066        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2068    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2069        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2070
2071        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2072        if dtype:
2073            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2074            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2075            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2076            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2077            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2078
2079        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2080        if default:
2081            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2082
2083        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2084            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2085
2086        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2088    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2089        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2090            # Remove db from tables
2091            expression = expression.transform(
2092                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2093            )
2094        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2095        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2097    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2098        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2099
2100        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2101            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2102        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2103            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2104        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2105            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2106        else:
2107            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2108
2109        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2110        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2112    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2113        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2114        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2115        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2117    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2118        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2119        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2120        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2121
2122        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2123        if enforced is not None:
2124            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2125
2126        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2128    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2129        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2130        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2131
2132        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2133        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2134        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2136    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2137        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2139    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2140        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2142    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2143        return self.sql(
2144            exp.Cast(
2145                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2146                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2147            )
2148        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2150    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2151        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2153    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2154        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2155            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2156        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2158    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2159        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2161    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2162        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2164    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2165        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2167    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2168        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2170    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2171        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2173    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2174        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2176    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2177        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2179    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2180        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2182    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2183        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2185    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2186        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2188    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2189        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2191    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2192        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2193            return self.sql(
2194                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2195            )
2196        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2198    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2199        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2201    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2202        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2204    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2205        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2207    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2208        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2210    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2211        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2213    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2214        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2216    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2217        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2219    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2220        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2222    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2223        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2225    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2226        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2228    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2229        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2231    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2232        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2234    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2235        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2237    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2238        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2240    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2241        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2242        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2243        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2244        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2245        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2247    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2248        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2249        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2251    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2252        args = []
2253        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2254            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2255                for value in arg_value:
2256                    args.append(value)
2257            else:
2258                args.append(arg_value)
2259
2260        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2262    def func(
2263        self,
2264        name: str,
2265        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2266        prefix: str = "(",
2267        suffix: str = ")",
2268    ) -> str:
2269        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2271    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2272        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2273        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2274            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2275        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2277    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2278        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2280    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2281        return format_time(
2282            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2283        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[List[str]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2285    def expressions(
2286        self,
2287        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2288        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2289        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2290        flat: bool = False,
2291        indent: bool = True,
2292        sep: str = ", ",
2293        prefix: str = "",
2294    ) -> str:
2295        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2296
2297        if not expressions:
2298            return ""
2299
2300        if flat:
2301            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2302
2303        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2304
2305        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2306        pad = " " * self.pad
2307        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2308
2309        result_sqls = []
2310        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2311            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2312            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2313
2314            if self.pretty:
2315                if self.leading_comma:
2316                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2317                else:
2318                    result_sqls.append(
2319                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2320                    )
2321            else:
2322                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2323
2324        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2325        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2327    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2328        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2329        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2330        if flat:
2331            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2332        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2334    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2335        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2336        if not property_name:
2337            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2338        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2340    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2341        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2342        op = self.seg(op)
2343        return self.query_modifiers(
2344            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2345        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2347    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2348        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2350    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2351        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2353    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2354        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2355        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2356        expressions = (
2357            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2358        )
2359        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2361    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2362        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2363        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2364        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2366    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2367        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2369    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2370        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2371        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2372        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2373        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2374
2375        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2376        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2377            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2378            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2379                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2380        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2381            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2382                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2383            else:
2384                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2385        else:
2386            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2387        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2389    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2390        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2391        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2392        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2393        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2395    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2396        if expression.args.get("format"):
2397            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2398
2399        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2401    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2402        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2403        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2404        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2405        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2406        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2408    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2409        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2410        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2411        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2412        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2414    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2415        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2417    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2418        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2420    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2421        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2422        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2423        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2424        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2425        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2428def cached_generator(
2429    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2430) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2431    """Returns a cached generator."""
2432    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2433    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2434    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.