# sqlglot.generator API documentation

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# sqlglot.generator

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       1from __future__ import annotations
       2
       3import logging
       4import re
       5import typing as t
       6from collections import defaultdict
       7from functools import reduce
       8
       9from sqlglot import exp
      10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
      11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
      12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
      13from sqlglot.time import format_time
      14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
      15
      16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
      17    from sqlglot._typing import E
      18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
      19
      20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
      21
      22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
      23
      24
      25class _Generator(type):
      26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
      27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
      28
      29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
      30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
      31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
      32
      33        return klass
      34
      35
      36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
      37    """
      38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
      39
      40    Args:
      41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
      42            Default: False.
      43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
      44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
      45            True or 'always': Always quote.
      46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
      47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
      48            Default: False.
      49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
      50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
      51            Default: 2.
      52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
      53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
      54            Default: 2.
      55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
      56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
      57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
      58            False: Disables function name normalization.
      59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
      60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
      61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
      62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
      63            Default: 3
      64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
      65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
      66            Default: False
      67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
      68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
      69            line length.
      70            Default: 80
      71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
      72            Default: True
      73    """
      74
      75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
      76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
      77        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      78        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      79        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
      80        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
      81        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      82        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
      83        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      84        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
      85        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
      86        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      87        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      88        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
      89        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      90        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      91        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      92        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
      93        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
      94        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
      95        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
      96        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
      97        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
      98        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
      99        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
     100        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     101        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     102        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     103        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
     104        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
     105            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
     106        ),
     107        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
     108            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
     109        ),
     110        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     111        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     112        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
     113        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
     114        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     115        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     116        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
     117        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
     118        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
     119        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
     120        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     121        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     122        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     123        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     124        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
     125        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     126        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     127        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     128        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
     129        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
     130        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
     131        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     132        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     133        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
     134        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
     135        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     136        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
     137        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     138        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
     139        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     140        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
     141        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
     142        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
     143        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
     144        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
     145        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
     146        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     147        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
     148        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     149        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
     150    }
     151
     152    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
     153    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
     154    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
     155
     156    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
     157    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
     158    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
     159
     160    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
     161    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
     162
     163    # Always do union distinct or union all
     164    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
     165
     166    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
     167    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
     168
     169    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
     170    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
     171
     172    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
     173    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
     174
     175    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
     176    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
     177
     178    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
     179    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
     180
     181    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
     182    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
     183
     184    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
     185    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
     186
     187    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
     188    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
     189
     190    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
     191    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
     192
     193    # The string used for creating an index on a table
     194    INDEX_ON = "ON"
     195
     196    # Whether join hints should be generated
     197    JOIN_HINTS = True
     198
     199    # Whether table hints should be generated
     200    TABLE_HINTS = True
     201
     202    # Whether query hints should be generated
     203    QUERY_HINTS = True
     204
     205    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
     206    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
     207
     208    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
     209    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
     210
     211    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
     212    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
     213
     214    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
     215    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
     216
     217    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
     218    RETURNING_END = True
     219
     220    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
     221    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
     222
     223    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
     224    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
     225
     226    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
     227    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
     228
     229    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
     230    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
     231
     232    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
     233    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
     234
     235    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
     236    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
     237    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
     238    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
     239
     240    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
     241    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
     242
     243    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
     244    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
     245
     246    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
     247    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
     248
     249    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
     250    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
     251
     252    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
     253    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
     254
     255    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
     256    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
     257
     258    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
     259    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
     260
     261    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
     262    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
     263
     264    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
     265    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
     266
     267    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
     268    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
     269
     270    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
     271    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
     272
     273    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
     274    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
     275
     276    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
     277    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
     278
     279    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
     280    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
     281
     282    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
     283    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
     284
     285    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
     286    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
     287
     288    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
     289    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
     290
     291    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
     292    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
     293
     294    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
     295    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
     296
     297    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
     298    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
     299
     300    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
     301    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
     302
     303    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
     304    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
     305
     306    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
     307    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
     308
     309    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
     310    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
     311
     312    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
     313    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
     314
     315    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
     316    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
     317    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
     318
     319    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
     320    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
     321
     322    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
     323    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
     324
     325    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
     326    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
     327
     328    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
     329    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
     330
     331    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
     332    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
     333
     334    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
     335    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
     336
     337    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
     338    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
     339    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
     340    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
     341
     342    TYPE_MAPPING = {
     343        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
     344        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
     345        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
     346        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
     347        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
     348        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
     349        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
     350        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
     351        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
     352        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
     353    }
     354
     355    STAR_MAPPING = {
     356        "except": "EXCEPT",
     357        "replace": "REPLACE",
     358    }
     359
     360    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
     361        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
     362        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
     363        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
     364        "HOURS": "HOUR",
     365        "DAYS": "DAY",
     366        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
     367        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
     368        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
     369        "YEARS": "YEAR",
     370    }
     371
     372    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
     373        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
     374        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
     375        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
     376        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
     377        "windows": lambda self, e: (
     378            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
     379            if e.args.get("windows")
     380            else ""
     381        ),
     382    }
     383
     384    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
     385
     386    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
     387
     388    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
     389    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
     390
     391    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
     392        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     393        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     394        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     395        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     396        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     397        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     398        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     399        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     400        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     401        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     402        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     403        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     404        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     405        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     406        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     407        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     408        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     409        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     410        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     411        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     412        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     413        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     414        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     415        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     416        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     417        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     418        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     419        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     420        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     421        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     422        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     423        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     424        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     425        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     426        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
     427        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     428        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     429        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     430        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     431        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     432        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     433        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     434        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     435        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     436        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     437        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     438        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     439        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     440        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     441        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     442        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     443        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     444        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     445        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     446        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     447        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     448        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     449        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     450        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     451        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     452        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     453        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     454        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     455        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     456        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     457        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     458        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     459        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     460        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     461        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     462        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     463        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     464        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     465        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     466        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     467        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     468    }
     469
     470    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
     471    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
     472
     473    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
     474    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     475        exp.Create,
     476        exp.Delete,
     477        exp.Drop,
     478        exp.From,
     479        exp.Insert,
     480        exp.Join,
     481        exp.Select,
     482        exp.Union,
     483        exp.Update,
     484        exp.Where,
     485        exp.With,
     486    )
     487
     488    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
     489    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     490        exp.Binary,
     491        exp.Union,
     492    )
     493
     494    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
     495    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     496        exp.Column,
     497        exp.Literal,
     498        exp.Neg,
     499        exp.Paren,
     500    )
     501
     502    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
     503        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
     504        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
     505        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
     506        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
     507    }
     508
     509    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
     510    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
     511
     512    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
     513
     514    __slots__ = (
     515        "pretty",
     516        "identify",
     517        "normalize",
     518        "pad",
     519        "_indent",
     520        "normalize_functions",
     521        "unsupported_level",
     522        "max_unsupported",
     523        "leading_comma",
     524        "max_text_width",
     525        "comments",
     526        "dialect",
     527        "unsupported_messages",
     528        "_escaped_quote_end",
     529        "_escaped_identifier_end",
     530    )
     531
     532    def __init__(
     533        self,
     534        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
     535        identify: str | bool = False,
     536        normalize: bool = False,
     537        pad: int = 2,
     538        indent: int = 2,
     539        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
     540        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
     541        max_unsupported: int = 3,
     542        leading_comma: bool = False,
     543        max_text_width: int = 80,
     544        comments: bool = True,
     545        dialect: DialectType = None,
     546    ):
     547        import sqlglot
     548        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
     549
     550        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
     551        self.identify = identify
     552        self.normalize = normalize
     553        self.pad = pad
     554        self._indent = indent
     555        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
     556        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
     557        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
     558        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
     559        self.comments = comments
     560        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
     561
     562        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
     563        self.normalize_functions = (
     564            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
     565        )
     566
     567        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
     568        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
     569            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
     570        )
     571        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
     572            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
     573        )
     574
     575    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
     576        """
     577        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
     578
     579        Args:
     580            expression: The syntax tree.
     581            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
     582                it is safer to copy.
     583
     584        Returns:
     585            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
     586        """
     587        if copy:
     588            expression = expression.copy()
     589
     590        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
     591
     592        self.unsupported_messages = []
     593        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
     594
     595        if self.pretty:
     596            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
     597
     598        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
     599            return sql
     600
     601        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
     602            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
     603                logger.warning(msg)
     604        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
     605            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
     606
     607        return sql
     608
     609    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
     610        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
     611        if (
     612            not expression.parent
     613            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
     614            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
     615        ):
     616            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
     617
     618            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     619
     620        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
     621            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
     622
     623            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
     624
     625        return expression
     626
     627    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
     628        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
     629            raise UnsupportedError(message)
     630        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
     631
     632    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     633        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
     634
     635    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     636        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
     637
     638    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
     639        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
     640        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
     641        return comment
     642
     643    def maybe_comment(
     644        self,
     645        sql: str,
     646        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
     647        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
     648        separated: bool = False,
     649    ) -> str:
     650        comments = (
     651            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
     652            if self.comments
     653            else None
     654        )
     655
     656        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
     657            return sql
     658
     659        comments_sql = " ".join(
     660            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
     661        )
     662
     663        if not comments_sql:
     664            return sql
     665
     666        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
     667
     668        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
     669            return (
     670                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
     671                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
     672                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
     673            )
     674
     675        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
     676
     677    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
     678        this_sql = self.indent(
     679            (
     680                self.sql(expression)
     681                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
     682                else self.sql(expression, "this")
     683            ),
     684            level=1,
     685            pad=0,
     686        )
     687        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
     688
     689    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
     690        original = self.identify
     691        self.identify = False
     692        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
     693        self.identify = original
     694        return result
     695
     696    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
     697        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
     698            return name.upper()
     699        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
     700            return name.lower()
     701        return name
     702
     703    def indent(
     704        self,
     705        sql: str,
     706        level: int = 0,
     707        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
     708        skip_first: bool = False,
     709        skip_last: bool = False,
     710    ) -> str:
     711        if not self.pretty:
     712            return sql
     713
     714        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
     715        lines = sql.split("\n")
     716
     717        return "\n".join(
     718            (
     719                line
     720                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
     721                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
     722            )
     723            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
     724        )
     725
     726    def sql(
     727        self,
     728        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
     729        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
     730        comment: bool = True,
     731    ) -> str:
     732        if not expression:
     733            return ""
     734
     735        if isinstance(expression, str):
     736            return expression
     737
     738        if key:
     739            value = expression.args.get(key)
     740            if value:
     741                return self.sql(value)
     742            return ""
     743
     744        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
     745
     746        if callable(transform):
     747            sql = transform(self, expression)
     748        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
     749            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
     750
     751            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
     752                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
     753            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
     754                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
     755            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
     756                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
     757            else:
     758                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
     759        else:
     760            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
     761
     762        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
     763
     764    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
     765        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     766        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     767        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
     768
     769    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
     770        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
     771        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     772        options = expression.args.get("options")
     773        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
     774        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     775        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
     776        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
     777        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
     778
     779    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
     780        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
     781            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     782        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
     783        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     784
     785    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     786        return ".".join(
     787            self.sql(part)
     788            for part in (
     789                expression.args.get("catalog"),
     790                expression.args.get("db"),
     791                expression.args.get("table"),
     792                expression.args.get("this"),
     793            )
     794            if part
     795        )
     796
     797    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     798        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
     799
     800        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
     801            join_mark = ""
     802            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
     803
     804        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
     805
     806    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
     807        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     808        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     809        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     810        return f"{position}{this}"
     811
     812    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     813        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
     814        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     815        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
     816        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     817        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
     818        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
     819        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     820        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
     821
     822        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
     823            kind = ""
     824
     825        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
     826
     827    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
     828        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     829        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
     830        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
     831
     832    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
     833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     834        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
     835            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
     836        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
     837            persisted = " PERSISTED"
     838        else:
     839            persisted = ""
     840        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
     841
     842    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
     843        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
     844
     845    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
     846        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
     847            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
     848        else:
     849            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     850
     851        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
     852
     853    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
     854        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
     855    ) -> str:
     856        this = ""
     857        if expression.this is not None:
     858            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
     859            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
     860
     861        start = expression.args.get("start")
     862        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
     863        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
     864        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
     865        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
     866        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
     867        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
     868        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
     869        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
     870        cycle_sql = ""
     871
     872        if cycle is not None:
     873            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
     874            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
     875
     876        sequence_opts = ""
     877        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
     878            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
     879            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
     880
     881        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     882        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
     883
     884        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
     885
     886    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
     887        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
     888    ) -> str:
     889        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
     890        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
     891        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
     892
     893    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
     894        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
     895    ) -> str:
     896        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
     897
     898    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
     899        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
     900
     901    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
     902        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     903
     904    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
     905        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
     906        if desc is not None:
     907            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
     908        return "PRIMARY KEY"
     909
     910    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
     911        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     912        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     913        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
     914        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
     915        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
     916        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
     917        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
     918
     919    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
     920        return self.sql(expression, "this")
     921
     922    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
     923        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     924        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
     925        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
     926
     927        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
     928
     929        properties_sql = ""
     930        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
     931            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
     932        ):
     933            properties_sql = self.sql(
     934                exp.Properties(
     935                    expressions=[
     936                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
     937                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
     938                    ]
     939                )
     940            )
     941
     942        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
     943        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
     944
     945        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     946        if expression_sql:
     947            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
     948
     949            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
     950                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
     951                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
     952                        exp.Properties(
     953                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
     954                        ),
     955                        wrapped=False,
     956                    )
     957                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
     958                else:
     959                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
     960
     961        postindex_props_sql = ""
     962        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
     963            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
     964                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
     965                wrapped=False,
     966                prefix=" ",
     967            )
     968
     969        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
     970        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
     971        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
     972
     973        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
     974        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
     975
     976        postcreate_props_sql = ""
     977        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
     978            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
     979                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
     980                sep=" ",
     981                prefix=" ",
     982                wrapped=False,
     983            )
     984
     985        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
     986
     987        postexpression_props_sql = ""
     988        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
     989            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
     990                exp.Properties(
     991                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
     992                ),
     993                sep=" ",
     994                prefix=" ",
     995                wrapped=False,
     996            )
     997
     998        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     999        no_schema_binding = (
    1000            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
    1001        )
    1002
    1003        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
    1004        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
    1005
    1006        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
    1007        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
    1008
    1009    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
    1010        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1011        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1012        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
    1013        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1014        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
    1015        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1016        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
    1017        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1018        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
    1019        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
    1020
    1021        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
    1022        if cache is None:
    1023            cache_str = ""
    1024        elif cache is True:
    1025            cache_str = " CACHE"
    1026        else:
    1027            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
    1028
    1029        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1030        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1031
    1032        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
    1033
    1034    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
    1035        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1036        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
    1037        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
    1038        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
    1039
    1040    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
    1041        style = expression.args.get("style")
    1042        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
    1043        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1044
    1045    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
    1046        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
    1047        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
    1048
    1049    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
    1050        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
    1051        if with_:
    1052            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    1053        return sql
    1054
    1055    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
    1056        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1057        recursive = (
    1058            "RECURSIVE "
    1059            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
    1060            else ""
    1061        )
    1062
    1063        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
    1064
    1065    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
    1066        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1067
    1068        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
    1069        if materialized is False:
    1070            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
    1071        elif materialized:
    1072            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
    1073
    1074        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
    1075
    1076    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
    1077        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1078        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1079        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1080
    1081        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
    1082            columns = ""
    1083            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
    1084
    1085        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    1086            alias = "_t"
    1087
    1088        return f"{alias}{columns}"
    1089
    1090    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
    1091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1092        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
    1093            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1094        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
    1095
    1096    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
    1097        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1098        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
    1099            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
    1100        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
    1101
    1102    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1104        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1105            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1106        return this
    1107
    1108    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1109        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1110        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1111
    1112        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1113            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
    1114            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
    1115
    1116        if escape:
    1117            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1118        else:
    1119            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1120
    1121        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
    1122        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1123
    1124    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1125        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
    1126        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1127
    1128    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1130        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1131        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1132        return f"{this}{specifier}"
    1133
    1134    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1135        type_value = expression.this
    1136
    1137        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1138            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1139        else:
    1140            type_sql = (
    1141                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1142                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1143                else type_value
    1144            )
    1145
    1146        nested = ""
    1147        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1148        values = ""
    1149
    1150        if interior:
    1151            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1152                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1153                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1154                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1155                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1156                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1157            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1158                nested = f" {interior}"
    1159            else:
    1160                nested = f"({interior})"
    1161
    1162        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1163        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1164            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1165            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1166        ):
    1167            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1168
    1169        return type_sql
    1170
    1171    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1172        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1173        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1174        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1175        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
    1176
    1177    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1179        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1180        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1181        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1182        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1183        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1184        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1185        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1186        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1187        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1188            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1189        else:
    1190            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
    1191        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
    1192
    1193    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1194        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1195        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1196        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    1197        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1198        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1199        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1200        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1201        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1202        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1203        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1204        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
    1205
    1206    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1207        return self.set_operations(expression)
    1208
    1209    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1210        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
    1211
    1212    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1213        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1214        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1215        count = expression.args.get("count")
    1216        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1217        if expression.args.get("percent"):
    1218            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
    1219        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
    1220        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
    1221
    1222    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1223        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1224            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1225            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1226            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1227
    1228        agg = expression.this
    1229        agg_arg = agg.this
    1230        cond = expression.expression.this
    1231        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1232        return self.sql(agg)
    1233
    1234    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1235        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1236            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1237            return ""
    1238
    1239        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
    1240
    1241    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
    1242        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1243        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1244        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1245        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1246        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1247        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1248        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1249        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1250        if include:
    1251            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1252        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
    1253        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
    1254        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
    1255        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
    1256
    1257        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
    1258
    1259    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1260        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1261        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1262        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1263        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1264        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1265        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1266        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1267
    1268        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1269
    1270        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
    1271        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
    1272
    1273    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1274        text = expression.name
    1275        lower = text.lower()
    1276        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1277        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1278        if (
    1279            expression.quoted
    1280            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1281            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1282            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1283        ):
    1284            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
    1285        return text
    1286
    1287    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1288        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1289        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1290        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1291        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1292        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
    1293
    1294    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1295        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1296        return f"{prefix}{string}"
    1297
    1298    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1299        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1300
    1301    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1302        root_properties = []
    1303        with_properties = []
    1304
    1305        for p in expression.expressions:
    1306            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1307            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1308                with_properties.append(p)
    1309            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1310                root_properties.append(p)
    1311
    1312        return self.root_properties(
    1313            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
    1314        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
    1315
    1316    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1317        if properties.expressions:
    1318            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1319        return ""
    1320
    1321    def properties(
    1322        self,
    1323        properties: exp.Properties,
    1324        prefix: str = "",
    1325        sep: str = ", ",
    1326        suffix: str = "",
    1327        wrapped: bool = True,
    1328    ) -> str:
    1329        if properties.expressions:
    1330            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1331            if expressions:
    1332                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1333                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1334        return ""
    1335
    1336    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1337        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
    1338
    1339    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1340        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1341        for p in properties.expressions:
    1342            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1343            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1344                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1345            else:
    1346                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1347
    1348        return properties_locs
    1349
    1350    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1351        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1352            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1353        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
    1354
    1355    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1356        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1357        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1358            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1359
    1360        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1361        if not property_name:
    1362            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1363
    1364        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1365
    1366    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1367        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1368            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1369            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1370
    1371            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1372            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1373                like = f"({like})"
    1374
    1375            return like
    1376
    1377        if expression.expressions:
    1378            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1379
    1380        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1381        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
    1382
    1383    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1384        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1385        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1386        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
    1387
    1388    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1389        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1390        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1391        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1392        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1393        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1394        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1395        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
    1396
    1397    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1398        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1399        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1400        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
    1401
    1402    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1403        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1404            property = "DEFAULT"
    1405        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1406            property = "ON"
    1407        else:
    1408            property = "OFF"
    1409        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
    1410
    1411    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1412        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1413            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1414        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1415            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1416
    1417        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1418        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
    1419
    1420    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1421        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1422        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1423        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1424        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1425            if default:
    1426                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1427            elif minimum:
    1428                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1429            else:
    1430                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1431            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1432        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1433        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1434        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
    1435
    1436    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1437        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1438        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1439        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1440        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1441        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1442
    1443        if autotemp is not None:
    1444            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1445        elif always:
    1446            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1447        elif default:
    1448            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1449        elif manual:
    1450            prop = "MANUAL"
    1451        elif never:
    1452            prop = "NEVER"
    1453        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
    1454
    1455    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1456        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1457        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1458        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1459        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1460        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1461        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
    1462        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
    1463
    1464    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1465        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1466            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1467        if expression.this:
    1468            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1469            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1470            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1471
    1472        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1473        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1474        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
    1475
    1476    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1477        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1478
    1479        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1480        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1481            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1482        else:
    1483            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1484
    1485        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
    1486
    1487    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1488        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1489        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1490        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1491        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1492        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1493        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1494        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
    1495
    1496    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1497        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1498        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1499        statistics_sql = ""
    1500        if statistics is not None:
    1501            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1502        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
    1503
    1504    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1505        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
    1506
    1507        if expression.this:
    1508            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1509            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
    1510
    1511            if expression.expression:
    1512                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1513                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
    1514
    1515            sql = f"{sql})"
    1516
    1517        return f"{sql})"
    1518
    1519    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1520        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    1521        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1522
    1523        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1524            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1525        else:
    1526            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1527
    1528        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
    1529        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
    1530        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1531        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1532        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1533        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
    1534        if is_function:
    1535            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
    1536        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1537
    1538        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1539        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1540        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1541        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1542        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1543        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1544        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1545        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1546
    1547        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1548            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
    1549        else:
    1550            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
    1551
    1552        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
    1553        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1554
    1555    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1556        return self.set_operations(expression)
    1557
    1558    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1559        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
    1560
    1561    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1562        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1563
    1564    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1565        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1566        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1567        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1568        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1569        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
    1570
    1571    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1572        return expression.name
    1573
    1574    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1575        return expression.name
    1576
    1577    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1578        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1579
    1580        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1581        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
    1582
    1583        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
    1584        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
    1585        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    1586
    1587        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1588        if expressions:
    1589            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1590            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1591
    1592        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
    1593
    1594    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1595        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    1596
    1597    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1598        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
    1599        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1600        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
    1601        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1602        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
    1603        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1604        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
    1605        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1606        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
    1607        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1608        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    1609        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1610        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
    1611
    1612    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1613        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1614
    1615    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1616        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1617        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1618        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1619        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1620
    1621    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1622        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1623        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1624        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1625        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
    1626
    1627    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
    1628        return ".".join(
    1629            self.sql(part)
    1630            for part in (
    1631                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1632                expression.args.get("db"),
    1633                expression.args.get("this"),
    1634            )
    1635            if part is not None
    1636        )
    1637
    1638    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1639        table = self.table_parts(expression)
    1640        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    1641        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1642        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1643        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1644        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1645        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1646        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    1647        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    1648        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    1649        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    1650        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    1651        joins = self.indent(
    1652            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    1653        )
    1654        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    1655
    1656        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1657        if file_format:
    1658            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    1659            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    1660            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    1661
    1662        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    1663        if ordinality:
    1664            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    1665            alias = ""
    1666
    1667        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    1668        if when:
    1669            table = f"{table} {when}"
    1670
    1671        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
    1672
    1673    def tablesample_sql(
    1674        self,
    1675        expression: exp.TableSample,
    1676        sep: str = " AS ",
    1677        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    1678    ) -> str:
    1679        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
    1680            table = expression.this.copy()
    1681            table.set("alias", None)
    1682            this = self.sql(table)
    1683            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
    1684        else:
    1685            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1686            alias = ""
    1687
    1688        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    1689        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    1690        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    1691        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    1692        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    1693        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    1694        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    1695        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    1696        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    1697
    1698        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    1699        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    1700            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    1701
    1702        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    1703        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    1704            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    1705
    1706        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    1707        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    1708            expr = f"({expr})"
    1709
    1710        return (
    1711            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
    1712        )
    1713
    1714    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    1715        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1716
    1717        if expression.this:
    1718            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1719            if not expressions:
    1720                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    1721
    1722            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    1723            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    1724            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    1725            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    1726            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
    1727
    1728        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1729        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1730        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
    1731        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
    1732        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    1733        if include_nulls is not None:
    1734            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    1735        else:
    1736            nulls = ""
    1737        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
    1738
    1739    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    1740        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    1741        kind = expression.text("kind")
    1742        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1743        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
    1744
    1745    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    1746        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1747
    1748    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    1749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1750        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1751        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    1752        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1753        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1754        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    1755        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1756        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1757            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    1758        else:
    1759            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    1760        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    1761        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1762
    1763    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
    1764        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
    1765
    1766        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    1767        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    1768            args = self.expressions(expression)
    1769            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1770            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    1771            values = (
    1772                f"({values})"
    1773                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
    1774                else values
    1775            )
    1776            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    1777
    1778        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    1779        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    1780        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    1781
    1782        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
    1783
    1784        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    1785            row = tup.expressions
    1786
    1787            if i == 0 and column_names:
    1788                row = [
    1789                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    1790                ]
    1791
    1792            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    1793
    1794        if self.pretty:
    1795            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    1796            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    1797            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    1798            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    1799            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
    1800
    1801        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    1802        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    1803        return f"({unions}){alias}"
    1804
    1805    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    1806        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1807
    1808    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    1809        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1810        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    1811        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1812
    1813    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    1814        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1815
    1816    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    1817        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
    1818        if group_by_all is True:
    1819            modifier = " ALL"
    1820        elif group_by_all is False:
    1821            modifier = " DISTINCT"
    1822        else:
    1823            modifier = ""
    1824
    1825        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
    1826
    1827        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
    1828        grouping_sets = (
    1829            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
    1830        )
    1831
    1832        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
    1833        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
    1834            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
    1835        else:
    1836            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
    1837            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
    1838
    1839        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
    1840        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
    1841            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
    1842        else:
    1843            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
    1844            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
    1845
    1846        groupings = csv(
    1847            grouping_sets,
    1848            cube_sql,
    1849            rollup_sql,
    1850            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    1851            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    1852        )
    1853
    1854        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
    1855            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    1856
    1857        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
    1858
    1859    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    1860        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1861        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    1862
    1863    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    1864        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1865        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    1866        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
    1867        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    1868        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
    1869        return start + connect
    1870
    1871    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    1872        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1873
    1874    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    1875        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    1876            side = None
    1877        else:
    1878            side = expression.side
    1879
    1880        op_sql = " ".join(
    1881            op
    1882            for op in (
    1883                expression.method,
    1884                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    1885                side,
    1886                expression.kind,
    1887                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    1888            )
    1889            if op
    1890        )
    1891        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
    1892        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
    1893        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1894        using = expression.args.get("using")
    1895
    1896        if not on_sql and using:
    1897            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    1898
    1899        this = expression.this
    1900        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    1901
    1902        if on_sql:
    1903            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    1904            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    1905            if using:
    1906                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    1907            else:
    1908                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    1909        elif not op_sql:
    1910            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    1911                return f" {this_sql}"
    1912
    1913            return f", {this_sql}"
    1914
    1915        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    1916        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
    1917
    1918    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    1919        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1920        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    1921        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1922
    1923    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1924        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    1925
    1926        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    1927        if cross_apply is True:
    1928            op = "INNER JOIN "
    1929        elif cross_apply is False:
    1930            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    1931        else:
    1932            op = ""
    1933
    1934        return f"{op}LATERAL"
    1935
    1936    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1937        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1938
    1939        if expression.args.get("view"):
    1940            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    1941            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    1942            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    1943            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    1944            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    1945            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    1946
    1947        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1948        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1949        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
    1950
    1951    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    1952        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1953
    1954        args = [
    1955            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    1956            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    1957            if e
    1958        ]
    1959
    1960        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    1961        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    1962        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1963        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1964
    1965        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
    1966
    1967    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    1968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1969        value = expression.expression
    1970        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    1971        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1972        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1973        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
    1974
    1975    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    1976        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1977        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    1978        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1979        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    1980        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    1981        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    1982        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    1983        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
    1984
    1985    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    1986        expressions = (
    1987            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
    1988        )
    1989        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    1990        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
    1991
    1992    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    1993        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1994
    1995    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    1996        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    1997            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    1998            return ""
    1999
    2000        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    2001        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2002        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2003        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    2004
    2005        if wait is not None:
    2006            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    2007                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    2008            else:
    2009                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    2010
    2011        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
    2012
    2013    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    2014        text = expression.this or ""
    2015        if expression.is_string:
    2016            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2017        return text
    2018
    2019    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
    2020        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
    2021            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
    2022            text = "".join(
    2023                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
    2024            )
    2025
    2026        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
    2027            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
    2028        )
    2029
    2030    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    2031        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    2032        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    2033        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    2034        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2035        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    2036        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    2037        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    2038        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    2039        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    2040        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    2041        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
    2042
    2043    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    2044        return "NULL"
    2045
    2046    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    2047        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
    2048
    2049    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    2050        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2051        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    2052        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    2053        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
    2054        interpolated_values = [
    2055            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
    2056            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    2057        ]
    2058        interpolate = (
    2059            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    2060        )
    2061        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
    2062
    2063    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    2064        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2065        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    2066        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2067        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2068        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    2069        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    2070        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
    2071
    2072    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    2073        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
    2074
    2075    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    2076        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
    2077
    2078    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    2079        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
    2080
    2081    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    2082        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    2083        asc = not desc
    2084
    2085        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    2086        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    2087        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    2088        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    2089        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    2090
    2091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2092
    2093        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    2094        nulls_sort_change = ""
    2095        if nulls_first and (
    2096            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    2097        ):
    2098            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    2099        elif (
    2100            nulls_last
    2101            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    2102            and not nulls_are_last
    2103        ):
    2104            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    2105
    2106        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    2107        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    2108            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2109            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    2110                self.unsupported(
    2111                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    2112                )
    2113                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2114            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    2115                if expression.this.is_int:
    2116                    self.unsupported(
    2117                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2118                    )
    2119                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
    2120                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2121                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2122                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2123
    2124        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2125        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2126
    2127        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
    2128
    2129    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
    2130        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
    2131        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
    2132
    2133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2134
    2135        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
    2136
    2137    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2138        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2139        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2140        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2141        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2142        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2143        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2144        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2145        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2146        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2147        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2148        definition_sqls = [
    2149            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2150            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2151        ]
    2152        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2153        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2154        body = "".join(
    2155            (
    2156                partition,
    2157                order,
    2158                measures,
    2159                rows,
    2160                after,
    2161                pattern,
    2162                define,
    2163            )
    2164        )
    2165        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2166        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2167        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
    2168
    2169    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2170        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2171
    2172        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2173            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2174        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2175            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2176
    2177        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2178        if options:
    2179            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
    2180
    2181        return csv(
    2182            *sqls,
    2183            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2184            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2185            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2186            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2187            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
    2188            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2189            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2190            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2191            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
    2192            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2193            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
    2194            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2195            options,
    2196            sep="",
    2197        )
    2198
    2199    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
    2200        return ""
    2201
    2202    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2203        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2204    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2205        return [
    2206            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2207            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2208        ]
    2209
    2210    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2211        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2212        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2213        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
    2214
    2215    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2216        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2217        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2218            into.pop()
    2219
    2220        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2221        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2222        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2223        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2224
    2225        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2226        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
    2227            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2228            limit.pop()
    2229        else:
    2230            top = ""
    2231
    2232        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2233
    2234        if kind:
    2235            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2236                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2237            else:
    2238                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2239                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2240                        sqls=[
    2241                            self.sql(
    2242                                exp.Struct(
    2243                                    expressions=[
    2244                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
    2245                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2246                                        else e
    2247                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2248                                    ]
    2249                                )
    2250                            )
    2251                        ]
    2252                    )
    2253                kind = ""
    2254
    2255        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2256        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2257        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2258        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2259        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2260            expression,
    2261            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
    2262            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2263            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2264        )
    2265
    2266        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2267
    2268        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2269            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2270                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2271            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2272                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2273            else:
    2274                table_kind = ""
    2275            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2276
    2277        return sql
    2278
    2279    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2280        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2281        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2282        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
    2283
    2284    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2285        if expression.expressions:
    2286            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2287        return ""
    2288
    2289    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2290        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2291        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2292        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2293        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2294        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
    2295
    2296    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2297        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2298        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
    2299
    2300    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2301        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2302        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2303        if kind:
    2304            kind = f"{kind}."
    2305        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
    2306
    2307    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2308        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
    2309
    2310    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2311        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2312        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2313
    2314        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    2315        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    2316
    2317        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2318        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2319
    2320    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2321        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2322        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2323
    2324    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2325        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
    2326            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2327            order = expression.args.get("order")
    2328
    2329            if limit or order:
    2330                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
    2331
    2332                if limit:
    2333                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
    2334                if order:
    2335                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
    2336                return self.sql(select)
    2337
    2338        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    2339        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    2340
    2341        while stack:
    2342            node = stack.pop()
    2343
    2344            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
    2345                stack.append(node.expression)
    2346                stack.append(
    2347                    self.maybe_comment(
    2348                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
    2349                        comments=node.comments,
    2350                        separated=True,
    2351                    )
    2352                )
    2353                stack.append(node.this)
    2354            else:
    2355                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    2356
    2357        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
    2358        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
    2359        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
    2360
    2361    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2362        return self.set_operations(expression)
    2363
    2364    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2365        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
    2366        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
    2367        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    2368        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
    2369
    2370    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2371        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2372
    2373        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2374        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2375
    2376        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2377            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2378                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2379
    2380        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2381            columns = alias.columns
    2382            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2383        else:
    2384            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2385
    2386        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2387        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2388            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2389        else:
    2390            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2391                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2392            elif offset:
    2393                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2394            else:
    2395                suffix = alias
    2396
    2397        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
    2398
    2399    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
    2400        return ""
    2401
    2402    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2403        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2404        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2405
    2406    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2407        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2408        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2409        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2410        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2411        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2412        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2413        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2414
    2415        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2416
    2417        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2418        if first is None:
    2419            first = ""
    2420        else:
    2421            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2422
    2423        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2424            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2425
    2426        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
    2427        return f"{this} ({args})"
    2428
    2429    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2430        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2431        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
    2432
    2433    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2434        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2435        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2436        end = (
    2437            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2438            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2439        )
    2440        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
    2441
    2442    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2444        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2445        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
    2446
    2447    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2449        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2450        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2451        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
    2452
    2453    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2454        return apply_index_offset(
    2455            expression.this,
    2456            expression.expressions,
    2457            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2458        )
    2459
    2460    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2461        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
    2462        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2463        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
    2464
    2465    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2466        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
    2467
    2468    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2469        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2470        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
    2471            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
    2472                this = self.wrap(this)
    2473            return f"ANY{this}"
    2474        return f"ANY {this}"
    2475
    2476    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2477        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
    2478
    2479    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2480        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2481        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2482
    2483        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2484            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2485            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2486
    2487        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2488
    2489        if default:
    2490            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2491
    2492        statements.append("END")
    2493
    2494        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
    2495            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2496
    2497        return " ".join(statements)
    2498
    2499    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2500        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2501        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2502        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
    2503
    2504    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2505        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2506        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2507        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
    2508
    2509    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2510        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2511        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2512        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
    2513
    2514    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2515        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2516
    2517        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2518            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
    2519        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2520            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
    2521        else:
    2522            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
    2523
    2524    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2525        args = expression.expressions
    2526        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2527            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2528
    2529        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2530            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
    2531
    2532        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2533            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2534
    2535        return args
    2536
    2537    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2538        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2539
    2540        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2541        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2542            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2543
    2544        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
    2545
    2546    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2547        return self.func(
    2548            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2549        )
    2550
    2551    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2552        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2553        return f"CHECK ({this})"
    2554
    2555    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2556        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2557        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2558        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2559        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2560        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2561        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2562        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2563        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
    2564
    2565    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2566        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2567        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2568        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2569        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
    2570
    2571    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2572        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
    2573
    2574    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2575        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2576        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2577        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
    2578
    2579    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2580        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    2581
    2582    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2583        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2584        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2585
    2586    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    2587        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    2588            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    2589            if not callable(transform):
    2590                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    2591                return ""
    2592
    2593            return transform(self, expression)
    2594
    2595        if isinstance(expression, int):
    2596            return str(expression)
    2597
    2598        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    2599            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    2600            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    2601        else:
    2602            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    2603            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    2604
    2605        return escaped
    2606
    2607    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    2608        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
    2609
    2610    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2611        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2612        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2613
    2614        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    2615        if unique_keys is not None:
    2616            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    2617        else:
    2618            unique_keys = ""
    2619
    2620        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2621        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2622        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    2623        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    2624
    2625        return self.func(
    2626            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    2627            *expression.expressions,
    2628            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    2629        )
    2630
    2631    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2632        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
    2633
    2634    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    2635        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2636        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2637        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2638        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2639        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2640        return self.func(
    2641            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    2642        )
    2643
    2644    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    2645        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2646        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2647        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2648        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2649        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2650        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2651        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2652        return self.func(
    2653            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    2654            this,
    2655            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    2656        )
    2657
    2658    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2659        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2660        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    2661        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    2662
    2663        if nested_schema:
    2664            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    2665
    2666        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2667        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2668        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    2669        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
    2670
    2671    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    2672        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
    2673
    2674    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    2675        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2676        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2677        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2678        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    2679        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    2680        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    2681        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    2682        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    2683        return self.func(
    2684            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    2685        )
    2686
    2687    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2688        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2689        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2690        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2691        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    2692        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    2693        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
    2694
    2695    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    2696        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2697        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2698        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2699        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2700        with_ = (
    2701            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2702            if expressions
    2703            else ""
    2704        )
    2705        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
    2706
    2707    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    2708        query = expression.args.get("query")
    2709        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    2710        field = expression.args.get("field")
    2711        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    2712
    2713        if query:
    2714            in_sql = self.sql(query)
    2715        elif unnest:
    2716            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    2717        elif field:
    2718            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    2719        else:
    2720            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2721
    2722        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
    2723
    2724    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2725        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
    2726
    2727    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    2728        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    2729        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    2730            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    2731        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    2732
    2733        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    2734            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    2735            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    2736
    2737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2738        if this:
    2739            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    2740            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    2741
    2742        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
    2743
    2744    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    2745        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2746
    2747    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    2748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2749        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2750        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    2751        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2752        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2753        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
    2754
    2755    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    2756        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
    2757
    2758    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    2759        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    2760        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2761
    2762    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    2763        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    2764        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2765        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    2766        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
    2767
    2768    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    2769        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2770
    2771    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    2772        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2773        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2774        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
    2775
    2776    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    2777        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2778        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    2779
    2780        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2781            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    2782        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2783            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    2784
    2785        return self.alias_sql(expression)
    2786
    2787    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    2788        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2789
    2790    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2791        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2792        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2793        return f"{this} AT {index}"
    2794
    2795    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2797        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2798        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
    2799
    2800    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    2801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2802        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2803        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
    2804
    2805    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    2806        return self.binary(expression, "+")
    2807
    2808    def and_sql(
    2809        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2810    ) -> str:
    2811        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
    2812
    2813    def or_sql(
    2814        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2815    ) -> str:
    2816        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
    2817
    2818    def xor_sql(
    2819        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2820    ) -> str:
    2821        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
    2822
    2823    def connector_sql(
    2824        self,
    2825        expression: exp.Connector,
    2826        op: str,
    2827        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    2828    ) -> str:
    2829        if stack is not None:
    2830            if expression.expressions:
    2831                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
    2832            else:
    2833                stack.append(expression.right)
    2834                if expression.comments:
    2835                    for comment in expression.comments:
    2836                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
    2837                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
    2838            return op
    2839
    2840        stack = [expression]
    2841        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    2842        ops = set()
    2843
    2844        while stack:
    2845            node = stack.pop()
    2846            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
    2847                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
    2848            else:
    2849                sql = self.sql(node)
    2850                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
    2851                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
    2852                else:
    2853                    sqls.append(sql)
    2854
    2855        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
    2856        return sep.join(sqls)
    2857
    2858    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    2859        return self.binary(expression, "&")
    2860
    2861    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    2862        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
    2863
    2864    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    2865        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2866
    2867    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    2868        return self.binary(expression, "|")
    2869
    2870    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    2871        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
    2872
    2873    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    2874        return self.binary(expression, "^")
    2875
    2876    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    2877        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    2878        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    2879        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2880        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2881        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    2882        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
    2883        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
    2884
    2885    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    2886        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2887        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
    2888
    2889    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
    2890        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
    2891
    2892    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    2893        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    2894            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    2895        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
    2896
    2897    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    2898        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
    2899
    2900    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    2901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2902        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    2903        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    2904        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    2905        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2906        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
    2907
    2908    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    2909        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2910        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    2911        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    2912        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    2913        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    2914        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    2915        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    2916        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    2917        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
    2918
    2919    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    2920        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    2921        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    2922        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    2923        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    2924
    2925        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    2926            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    2927
    2928        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
    2929
    2930    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    2931        return "BEGIN"
    2932
    2933    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    2934        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    2935        if chain is not None:
    2936            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    2937
    2938        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
    2939
    2940    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    2941        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    2942        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    2943        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
    2944
    2945    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    2946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2947
    2948        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    2949        if dtype:
    2950            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2951            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2952            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    2953            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    2954            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
    2955
    2956        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2957        if default:
    2958            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    2959
    2960        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    2961        if comment:
    2962            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    2963
    2964        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
    2965            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    2966
    2967        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
    2968
    2969    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
    2970        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    2971            # Remove db from tables
    2972            expression = expression.transform(
    2973                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    2974            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
    2975        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2976        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
    2977
    2978    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    2979        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    2980        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2981        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2982        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
    2983
    2984    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    2985        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    2986
    2987        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
    2988            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
    2989        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
    2990            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
    2991        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
    2992            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    2993        else:
    2994            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    2995
    2996        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    2997        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    2998        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2999        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
    3000        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
    3001
    3002    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    3003        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    3004            return self.expressions(
    3005                expression,
    3006                key="actions",
    3007                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
    3008            )
    3009        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
    3010
    3011    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    3012        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3013        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3014        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
    3015
    3016    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    3017        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3018
    3019    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    3020        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3021
    3022        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    3023            case = exp.case()
    3024            for arg in expression.expressions:
    3025                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    3026            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    3027
    3028        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3029
    3030        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    3031        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    3032        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
    3033
    3034    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    3035        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
    3036
    3037    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    3038        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
    3039
    3040    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
    3041        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3042        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3043        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
    3044        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
    3045
    3046    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    3047        return self.sql(
    3048            exp.Cast(
    3049                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    3050                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    3051            )
    3052        )
    3053
    3054    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    3055        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3056            return self.func(
    3057                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
    3058            )
    3059        return self.binary(expression, "||")
    3060
    3061    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    3062        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    3063
    3064        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3065            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    3066
    3067        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    3068            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
    3069                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3070
    3071        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    3072            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    3073                return self.sql(
    3074                    exp.cast(
    3075                        l / r,
    3076                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    3077                    )
    3078                )
    3079
    3080        return self.binary(expression, "/")
    3081
    3082    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    3083        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
    3084
    3085    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    3086        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
    3087
    3088    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    3089        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3090
    3091    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    3092        return self.binary(expression, "=")
    3093
    3094    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    3095        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
    3096
    3097    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    3098        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
    3099
    3100    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    3101        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
    3102
    3103    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    3104        return self.binary(expression, ">")
    3105
    3106    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    3107        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
    3108
    3109    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    3110        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
    3111
    3112    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    3113        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
    3114
    3115    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    3116        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    3117            return self.sql(
    3118                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    3119            )
    3120        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
    3121
    3122    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    3123        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
    3124
    3125    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    3126        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
    3127
    3128    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    3129        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
    3130
    3131    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    3132        return self.binary(expression, "<")
    3133
    3134    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    3135        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
    3136
    3137    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    3138        return self.binary(expression, "%")
    3139
    3140    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    3141        return self.binary(expression, "*")
    3142
    3143    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    3144        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
    3145
    3146    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    3147        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
    3148
    3149    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    3150        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
    3151
    3152    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    3153        return self.binary(expression, ":")
    3154
    3155    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    3156        return self.binary(expression, "-")
    3157
    3158    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    3159        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
    3160
    3161    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    3162        this = expression.this
    3163        expr = expression.expression
    3164
    3165        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
    3166            this, expr = expr, this
    3167        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
    3168            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
    3169                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
    3170
    3171            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
    3172
    3173        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
    3174
    3175    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3176        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3177        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3179        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3180        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
    3181
    3182    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3183        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
    3184        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3185
    3186    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3187        args = []
    3188
    3189        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3190            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3191
    3192            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3193                for value in arg_value:
    3194                    args.append(value)
    3195            elif arg_value is not None:
    3196                args.append(arg_value)
    3197
    3198        if self.normalize_functions:
    3199            name = expression.sql_name()
    3200        else:
    3201            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3202
    3203        return self.func(name, *args)
    3204
    3205    def func(
    3206        self,
    3207        name: str,
    3208        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3209        prefix: str = "(",
    3210        suffix: str = ")",
    3211    ) -> str:
    3212        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
    3213
    3214    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
    3215        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
    3216        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
    3217            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    3218        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
    3219
    3220    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
    3221        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
    3222
    3223    def format_time(
    3224        self,
    3225        expression: exp.Expression,
    3226        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
    3227        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
    3228    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3229        return format_time(
    3230            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3231            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3232            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3233        )
    3234
    3235    def expressions(
    3236        self,
    3237        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3238        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3239        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3240        flat: bool = False,
    3241        indent: bool = True,
    3242        skip_first: bool = False,
    3243        skip_last: bool = False,
    3244        sep: str = ", ",
    3245        prefix: str = "",
    3246        dynamic: bool = False,
    3247        new_line: bool = False,
    3248    ) -> str:
    3249        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3250
    3251        if not expressions:
    3252            return ""
    3253
    3254        if flat:
    3255            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3256
    3257        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3258
    3259        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
    3260        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
    3261            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
    3262
    3263        result_sqls = []
    3264        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3265            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3266            if not sql:
    3267                continue
    3268
    3269            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3270
    3271            if self.pretty:
    3272                if self.leading_comma:
    3273                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3274                else:
    3275                    result_sqls.append(
    3276                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3277                    )
    3278            else:
    3279                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3280
    3281        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
    3282            if new_line:
    3283                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
    3284                result_sqls.append("")
    3285            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
    3286        else:
    3287            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
    3288        return (
    3289            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
    3290            if indent
    3291            else result_sql
    3292        )
    3293
    3294    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3295        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3296        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3297        if flat:
    3298            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3299        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
    3300
    3301    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3302        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3303        if not property_name:
    3304            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3305        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3306
    3307    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3308        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
    3309
    3310    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3311        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
    3312
    3313    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3314        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3315        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3316        expressions = (
    3317            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3318        )
    3319        return f"{this}{expressions}"
    3320
    3321    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3322        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3323        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3324        return f"{this}({expressions})"
    3325
    3326    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3327        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
    3328
    3329    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3330        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3331        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3332        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3333        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3334
    3335        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3336        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3337            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
    3338            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
    3339                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
    3340        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3341            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3342                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3343            else:
    3344                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
    3345        else:
    3346            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3347        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
    3348
    3349    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3350        table = expression.this
    3351        table_alias = ""
    3352
    3353        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3354        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3355            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3356            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3357
    3358        this = self.sql(table)
    3359        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3360        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3361        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
    3362
    3363        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3364            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
    3365        )
    3366
    3367    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3368        if expression.args.get("format"):
    3369            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
    3370
    3371        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
    3372
    3373    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
    3374        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
    3375            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
    3376            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3377
    3378        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
    3379        if not fmt:
    3380            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
    3381            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3382
    3383        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
    3384
    3385    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3386        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3387        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3388        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3389        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3390        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
    3391
    3392    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3393        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3394        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3395        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3396        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
    3397
    3398    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3399        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    3400
    3401    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3402        return ""
    3403
    3404    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3405        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3406        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3407        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3408        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3409        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
    3410
    3411    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3412        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3413        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3414
    3415        if having:
    3416            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3417
    3418        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
    3419
    3420    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3421        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3422        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3423        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3424        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3425        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3426        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3427        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3428        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3429        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3430        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3431        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3432        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3433        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
    3434
    3435    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3436        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3437        if key_block_size:
    3438            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3439
    3440        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3441        if using:
    3442            return f"USING {using}"
    3443
    3444        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    3445        if parser:
    3446            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    3447
    3448        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3449        if comment:
    3450            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    3451
    3452        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3453        if visible is not None:
    3454            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3455
    3456        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    3457        if engine_attr:
    3458            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    3459
    3460        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    3461        if secondary_engine_attr:
    3462            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    3463
    3464        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    3465        return ""
    3466
    3467    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3468        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
    3469        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
    3470
    3471    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3472        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3473        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    3474        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3475        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3476        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    3477        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    3478        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3479        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3480        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    3481        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3482        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
    3483
    3484    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    3485        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    3486            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3487
    3488        case = exp.Case().when(
    3489            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    3490            expression.args["true"],
    3491            copy=False,
    3492        )
    3493        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    3494        if else_cond:
    3495            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    3496
    3497        return self.sql(case)
    3498
    3499    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    3500        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3501        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3502        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    3503        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3504        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    3505        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
    3506
    3507    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    3508        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    3509
    3510    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    3511        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3512
    3513    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    3514        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3515        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    3516        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3517        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    3518        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    3519        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
    3520
    3521    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    3522        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3523        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3524        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
    3525
    3526    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    3527        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3528        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    3529        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
    3530
    3531    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
    3532        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
    3533
    3534    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    3535        arg = expression.this
    3536        if not arg.type:
    3537            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    3538
    3539            arg = annotate_types(arg)
    3540
    3541        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    3542            return self.sql(arg)
    3543
    3544        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    3545        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
    3546
    3547    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    3548        this = expression.this
    3549        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    3550            return self.sql(this)
    3551
    3552        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
    3553
    3554    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
    3555        this = expression.this
    3556        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
    3557            return self.sql(this)
    3558
    3559        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
    3560
    3561    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    3562        this = expression.this
    3563        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    3564
    3565        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    3566            return self.sql(
    3567                exp.cast(
    3568                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    3569                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
    3570                )
    3571            )
    3572
    3573        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    3574            return self.sql(this)
    3575
    3576        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
    3577
    3578    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    3579        return self.sql(
    3580            exp.func(
    3581                "DATEDIFF",
    3582                expression.this,
    3583                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
    3584                "day",
    3585            )
    3586        )
    3587
    3588    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    3589        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    3590            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3591
    3592        unit = expression.text("unit")
    3593        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    3594            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    3595
    3596        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
    3597
    3598    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
    3599        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
    3600
    3601        return self.func(
    3602            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
    3603        )
    3604
    3605    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
    3606        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
    3607            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
    3608            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
    3609            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
    3610            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
    3611
    3612        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    3613
    3614        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
    3615        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
    3616            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
    3617
    3618        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3619
    3620    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
    3621        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
    3622        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3623
    3624    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
    3625        expression.set(
    3626            "expressions",
    3627            [
    3628                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
    3629                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
    3630                else e
    3631                for e in expression.expressions
    3632            ],
    3633        )
    3634
    3635        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3636
    3637    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
    3638        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3639        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3640
    3641        return f"{low} TO {high}"
    3642
    3643    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
    3644        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
    3645        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3646
    3647        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3648
    3649        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3650        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3651
    3652        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
    3653        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
    3654
    3655        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    3656        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    3657
    3658        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    3659        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    3660
    3661        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
    3662
    3663    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
    3664    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
    3665    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
    3666        to = expression.this
    3667        value = expression.expression
    3668        style = expression.args.get("style")
    3669        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
    3670        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
    3671
    3672        if not to or not value:
    3673            return ""
    3674
    3675        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
    3676        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3677            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
    3678
    3679        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
    3680        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
    3681
    3682        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
    3683        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
    3684            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
    3685
    3686            style_value = style.name
    3687            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
    3688            if not converted_style:
    3689                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
    3690
    3691            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
    3692
    3693            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
    3694                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
    3695            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
    3696                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
    3697            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3698                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
    3699            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
    3700                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
    3701
    3702        if not transformed:
    3703            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
    3704
    3705        return self.sql(transformed)
    3706
    3707    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
    3708        this = expression.this
    3709        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
    3710            this = self.json_path_part(this)
    3711            return f".{this}" if this else ""
    3712
    3713        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
    3714            return f".{this}"
    3715
    3716        this = self.json_path_part(this)
    3717        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
    3718
    3719    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
    3720        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
    3721        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
    3722
    3723    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
    3724        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
    3725            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
    3726
    3727            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
    3728
    3729        return expression
    3730
    3731    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
    3732        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
    3733            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
    3734            mods = sorted(
    3735                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
    3736                key=lambda x: 0
    3737                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
    3738                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
    3739            )
    3740
    3741            if mods:
    3742                mod = mods[0]
    3743                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
    3744                this.meta["inline"] = True
    3745                mod.this.replace(this)
    3746                return self.sql(expression.this)
    3747
    3748            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
    3749
    3750            if agg_func:
    3751                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
    3752
    3753        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
    3754
    3755    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
    3756        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
    3757        if self.pretty:
    3758            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
    3759        return string

logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator: View Source

      37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
      38    """
      39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
      40
      41    Args:
      42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
      43            Default: False.
      44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
      45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
      46            True or 'always': Always quote.
      47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
      48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
      49            Default: False.
      50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
      51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
      52            Default: 2.
      53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
      54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
      55            Default: 2.
      56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
      57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
      58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
      59            False: Disables function name normalization.
      60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
      61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
      62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
      63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
      64            Default: 3
      65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
      66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
      67            Default: False
      68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
      69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
      70            line length.
      71            Default: 80
      72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
      73            Default: True
      74    """
      75
      76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
      77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
      78        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      79        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      80        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
      81        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
      82        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      83        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
      84        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      85        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
      86        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
      87        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      88        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      89        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
      90        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      91        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      92        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      93        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
      94        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
      95        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
      96        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
      97        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
      98        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
      99        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
     100        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
     101        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     102        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     103        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     104        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
     105        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
     106            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
     107        ),
     108        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
     109            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
     110        ),
     111        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     112        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     113        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
     114        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
     115        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     116        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     117        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
     118        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
     119        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
     120        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
     121        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     122        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     123        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     124        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     125        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
     126        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     127        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     128        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     129        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
     130        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
     131        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
     132        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     133        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     134        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
     135        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
     136        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     137        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
     138        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     139        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
     140        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     141        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
     142        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
     143        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
     144        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
     145        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
     146        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
     147        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     148        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
     149        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     150        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
     151    }
     152
     153    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
     154    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
     155    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
     156
     157    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
     158    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
     159    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
     160
     161    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
     162    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
     163
     164    # Always do union distinct or union all
     165    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
     166
     167    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
     168    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
     169
     170    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
     171    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
     172
     173    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
     174    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
     175
     176    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
     177    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
     178
     179    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
     180    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
     181
     182    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
     183    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
     184
     185    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
     186    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
     187
     188    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
     189    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
     190
     191    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
     192    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
     193
     194    # The string used for creating an index on a table
     195    INDEX_ON = "ON"
     196
     197    # Whether join hints should be generated
     198    JOIN_HINTS = True
     199
     200    # Whether table hints should be generated
     201    TABLE_HINTS = True
     202
     203    # Whether query hints should be generated
     204    QUERY_HINTS = True
     205
     206    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
     207    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
     208
     209    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
     210    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
     211
     212    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
     213    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
     214
     215    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
     216    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
     217
     218    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
     219    RETURNING_END = True
     220
     221    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
     222    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
     223
     224    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
     225    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
     226
     227    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
     228    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
     229
     230    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
     231    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
     232
     233    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
     234    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
     235
     236    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
     237    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
     238    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
     239    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
     240
     241    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
     242    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
     243
     244    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
     245    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
     246
     247    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
     248    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
     249
     250    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
     251    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
     252
     253    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
     254    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
     255
     256    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
     257    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
     258
     259    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
     260    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
     261
     262    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
     263    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
     264
     265    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
     266    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
     267
     268    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
     269    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
     270
     271    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
     272    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
     273
     274    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
     275    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
     276
     277    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
     278    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
     279
     280    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
     281    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
     282
     283    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
     284    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
     285
     286    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
     287    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
     288
     289    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
     290    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
     291
     292    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
     293    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
     294
     295    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
     296    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
     297
     298    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
     299    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
     300
     301    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
     302    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
     303
     304    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
     305    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
     306
     307    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
     308    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
     309
     310    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
     311    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
     312
     313    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
     314    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
     315
     316    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
     317    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
     318    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
     319
     320    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
     321    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
     322
     323    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
     324    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
     325
     326    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
     327    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
     328
     329    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
     330    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
     331
     332    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
     333    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
     334
     335    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
     336    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
     337
     338    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
     339    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
     340    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
     341    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
     342
     343    TYPE_MAPPING = {
     344        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
     345        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
     346        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
     347        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
     348        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
     349        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
     350        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
     351        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
     352        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
     353        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
     354    }
     355
     356    STAR_MAPPING = {
     357        "except": "EXCEPT",
     358        "replace": "REPLACE",
     359    }
     360
     361    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
     362        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
     363        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
     364        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
     365        "HOURS": "HOUR",
     366        "DAYS": "DAY",
     367        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
     368        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
     369        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
     370        "YEARS": "YEAR",
     371    }
     372
     373    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
     374        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
     375        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
     376        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
     377        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
     378        "windows": lambda self, e: (
     379            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
     380            if e.args.get("windows")
     381            else ""
     382        ),
     383    }
     384
     385    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
     386
     387    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
     388
     389    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
     390    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
     391
     392    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
     393        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     394        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     395        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     396        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     397        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     398        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     399        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     400        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     401        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     402        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     403        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     404        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     405        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     406        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     407        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     408        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     409        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     410        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     411        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     412        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     413        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     414        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     415        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     416        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     417        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     418        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     419        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     420        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     421        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     422        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     423        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     424        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     425        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     426        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     427        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
     428        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     429        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     430        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     431        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     432        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     433        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     434        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     435        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     436        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     437        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     438        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     439        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     440        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     441        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     442        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     443        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     444        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     445        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     446        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     447        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     448        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     449        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     450        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     451        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     452        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     453        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     454        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     455        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     456        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     457        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     458        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     459        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     460        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     461        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     462        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     463        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     464        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     465        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     466        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     467        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     468        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     469    }
     470
     471    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
     472    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
     473
     474    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
     475    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     476        exp.Create,
     477        exp.Delete,
     478        exp.Drop,
     479        exp.From,
     480        exp.Insert,
     481        exp.Join,
     482        exp.Select,
     483        exp.Union,
     484        exp.Update,
     485        exp.Where,
     486        exp.With,
     487    )
     488
     489    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
     490    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     491        exp.Binary,
     492        exp.Union,
     493    )
     494
     495    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
     496    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     497        exp.Column,
     498        exp.Literal,
     499        exp.Neg,
     500        exp.Paren,
     501    )
     502
     503    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
     504        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
     505        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
     506        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
     507        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
     508    }
     509
     510    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
     511    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
     512
     513    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
     514
     515    __slots__ = (
     516        "pretty",
     517        "identify",
     518        "normalize",
     519        "pad",
     520        "_indent",
     521        "normalize_functions",
     522        "unsupported_level",
     523        "max_unsupported",
     524        "leading_comma",
     525        "max_text_width",
     526        "comments",
     527        "dialect",
     528        "unsupported_messages",
     529        "_escaped_quote_end",
     530        "_escaped_identifier_end",
     531    )
     532
     533    def __init__(
     534        self,
     535        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
     536        identify: str | bool = False,
     537        normalize: bool = False,
     538        pad: int = 2,
     539        indent: int = 2,
     540        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
     541        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
     542        max_unsupported: int = 3,
     543        leading_comma: bool = False,
     544        max_text_width: int = 80,
     545        comments: bool = True,
     546        dialect: DialectType = None,
     547    ):
     548        import sqlglot
     549        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
     550
     551        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
     552        self.identify = identify
     553        self.normalize = normalize
     554        self.pad = pad
     555        self._indent = indent
     556        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
     557        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
     558        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
     559        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
     560        self.comments = comments
     561        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
     562
     563        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
     564        self.normalize_functions = (
     565            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
     566        )
     567
     568        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
     569        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
     570            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
     571        )
     572        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
     573            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
     574        )
     575
     576    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
     577        """
     578        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
     579
     580        Args:
     581            expression: The syntax tree.
     582            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
     583                it is safer to copy.
     584
     585        Returns:
     586            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
     587        """
     588        if copy:
     589            expression = expression.copy()
     590
     591        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
     592
     593        self.unsupported_messages = []
     594        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
     595
     596        if self.pretty:
     597            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
     598
     599        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
     600            return sql
     601
     602        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
     603            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
     604                logger.warning(msg)
     605        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
     606            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
     607
     608        return sql
     609
     610    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
     611        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
     612        if (
     613            not expression.parent
     614            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
     615            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
     616        ):
     617            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
     618
     619            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     620
     621        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
     622            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
     623
     624            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
     625
     626        return expression
     627
     628    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
     629        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
     630            raise UnsupportedError(message)
     631        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
     632
     633    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     634        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
     635
     636    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     637        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
     638
     639    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
     640        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
     641        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
     642        return comment
     643
     644    def maybe_comment(
     645        self,
     646        sql: str,
     647        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
     648        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
     649        separated: bool = False,
     650    ) -> str:
     651        comments = (
     652            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
     653            if self.comments
     654            else None
     655        )
     656
     657        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
     658            return sql
     659
     660        comments_sql = " ".join(
     661            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
     662        )
     663
     664        if not comments_sql:
     665            return sql
     666
     667        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
     668
     669        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
     670            return (
     671                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
     672                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
     673                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
     674            )
     675
     676        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
     677
     678    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
     679        this_sql = self.indent(
     680            (
     681                self.sql(expression)
     682                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
     683                else self.sql(expression, "this")
     684            ),
     685            level=1,
     686            pad=0,
     687        )
     688        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
     689
     690    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
     691        original = self.identify
     692        self.identify = False
     693        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
     694        self.identify = original
     695        return result
     696
     697    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
     698        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
     699            return name.upper()
     700        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
     701            return name.lower()
     702        return name
     703
     704    def indent(
     705        self,
     706        sql: str,
     707        level: int = 0,
     708        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
     709        skip_first: bool = False,
     710        skip_last: bool = False,
     711    ) -> str:
     712        if not self.pretty:
     713            return sql
     714
     715        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
     716        lines = sql.split("\n")
     717
     718        return "\n".join(
     719            (
     720                line
     721                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
     722                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
     723            )
     724            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
     725        )
     726
     727    def sql(
     728        self,
     729        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
     730        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
     731        comment: bool = True,
     732    ) -> str:
     733        if not expression:
     734            return ""
     735
     736        if isinstance(expression, str):
     737            return expression
     738
     739        if key:
     740            value = expression.args.get(key)
     741            if value:
     742                return self.sql(value)
     743            return ""
     744
     745        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
     746
     747        if callable(transform):
     748            sql = transform(self, expression)
     749        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
     750            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
     751
     752            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
     753                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
     754            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
     755                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
     756            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
     757                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
     758            else:
     759                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
     760        else:
     761            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
     762
     763        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
     764
     765    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
     766        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     767        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     768        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
     769
     770    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
     771        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
     772        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     773        options = expression.args.get("options")
     774        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
     775        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     776        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
     777        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
     778        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
     779
     780    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
     781        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
     782            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     783        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
     784        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     785
     786    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     787        return ".".join(
     788            self.sql(part)
     789            for part in (
     790                expression.args.get("catalog"),
     791                expression.args.get("db"),
     792                expression.args.get("table"),
     793                expression.args.get("this"),
     794            )
     795            if part
     796        )
     797
     798    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     799        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
     800
     801        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
     802            join_mark = ""
     803            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
     804
     805        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
     806
     807    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
     808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     809        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     810        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     811        return f"{position}{this}"
     812
     813    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     814        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
     815        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     816        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
     817        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     818        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
     819        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
     820        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     821        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
     822
     823        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
     824            kind = ""
     825
     826        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
     827
     828    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
     829        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     830        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
     831        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
     832
     833    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
     834        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     835        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
     836            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
     837        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
     838            persisted = " PERSISTED"
     839        else:
     840            persisted = ""
     841        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
     842
     843    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
     844        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
     845
     846    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
     847        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
     848            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
     849        else:
     850            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     851
     852        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
     853
     854    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
     855        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
     856    ) -> str:
     857        this = ""
     858        if expression.this is not None:
     859            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
     860            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
     861
     862        start = expression.args.get("start")
     863        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
     864        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
     865        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
     866        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
     867        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
     868        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
     869        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
     870        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
     871        cycle_sql = ""
     872
     873        if cycle is not None:
     874            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
     875            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
     876
     877        sequence_opts = ""
     878        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
     879            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
     880            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
     881
     882        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     883        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
     884
     885        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
     886
     887    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
     888        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
     889    ) -> str:
     890        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
     891        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
     892        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
     893
     894    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
     895        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
     896    ) -> str:
     897        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
     898
     899    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
     900        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
     901
     902    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
     903        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     904
     905    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
     906        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
     907        if desc is not None:
     908            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
     909        return "PRIMARY KEY"
     910
     911    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
     912        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     913        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     914        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
     915        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
     916        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
     917        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
     918        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
     919
     920    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
     921        return self.sql(expression, "this")
     922
     923    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
     924        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     925        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
     926        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
     927
     928        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
     929
     930        properties_sql = ""
     931        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
     932            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
     933        ):
     934            properties_sql = self.sql(
     935                exp.Properties(
     936                    expressions=[
     937                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
     938                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
     939                    ]
     940                )
     941            )
     942
     943        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
     944        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
     945
     946        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     947        if expression_sql:
     948            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
     949
     950            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
     951                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
     952                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
     953                        exp.Properties(
     954                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
     955                        ),
     956                        wrapped=False,
     957                    )
     958                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
     959                else:
     960                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
     961
     962        postindex_props_sql = ""
     963        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
     964            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
     965                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
     966                wrapped=False,
     967                prefix=" ",
     968            )
     969
     970        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
     971        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
     972        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
     973
     974        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
     975        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
     976
     977        postcreate_props_sql = ""
     978        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
     979            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
     980                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
     981                sep=" ",
     982                prefix=" ",
     983                wrapped=False,
     984            )
     985
     986        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
     987
     988        postexpression_props_sql = ""
     989        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
     990            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
     991                exp.Properties(
     992                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
     993                ),
     994                sep=" ",
     995                prefix=" ",
     996                wrapped=False,
     997            )
     998
     999        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1000        no_schema_binding = (
    1001            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
    1002        )
    1003
    1004        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
    1005        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
    1006
    1007        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
    1008        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
    1009
    1010    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
    1011        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1012        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1013        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
    1014        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1015        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
    1016        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1017        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
    1018        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1019        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
    1020        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
    1021
    1022        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
    1023        if cache is None:
    1024            cache_str = ""
    1025        elif cache is True:
    1026            cache_str = " CACHE"
    1027        else:
    1028            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
    1029
    1030        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1031        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1032
    1033        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
    1034
    1035    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
    1036        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1037        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
    1038        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
    1039        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
    1040
    1041    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
    1042        style = expression.args.get("style")
    1043        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
    1044        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1045
    1046    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
    1047        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
    1048        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
    1049
    1050    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
    1051        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
    1052        if with_:
    1053            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    1054        return sql
    1055
    1056    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
    1057        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1058        recursive = (
    1059            "RECURSIVE "
    1060            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
    1061            else ""
    1062        )
    1063
    1064        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
    1065
    1066    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
    1067        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1068
    1069        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
    1070        if materialized is False:
    1071            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
    1072        elif materialized:
    1073            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
    1074
    1075        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
    1076
    1077    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
    1078        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1079        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1080        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1081
    1082        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
    1083            columns = ""
    1084            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
    1085
    1086        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    1087            alias = "_t"
    1088
    1089        return f"{alias}{columns}"
    1090
    1091    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
    1092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1093        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
    1094            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1095        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
    1096
    1097    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
    1098        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1099        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
    1100            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
    1101        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
    1102
    1103    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1104        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1105        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1106            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1107        return this
    1108
    1109    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1110        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1111        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1112
    1113        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1114            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
    1115            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
    1116
    1117        if escape:
    1118            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1119        else:
    1120            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1121
    1122        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
    1123        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1124
    1125    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1126        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
    1127        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1128
    1129    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1130        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1131        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1132        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1133        return f"{this}{specifier}"
    1134
    1135    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1136        type_value = expression.this
    1137
    1138        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1139            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1140        else:
    1141            type_sql = (
    1142                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1143                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1144                else type_value
    1145            )
    1146
    1147        nested = ""
    1148        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1149        values = ""
    1150
    1151        if interior:
    1152            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1153                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1154                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1155                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1156                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1157                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1158            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1159                nested = f" {interior}"
    1160            else:
    1161                nested = f"({interior})"
    1162
    1163        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1164        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1165            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1166            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1167        ):
    1168            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1169
    1170        return type_sql
    1171
    1172    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1173        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1174        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1175        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1176        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
    1177
    1178    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1179        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1180        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1181        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1182        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1183        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1184        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1185        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1186        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1187        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1188        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1189            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1190        else:
    1191            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
    1192        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
    1193
    1194    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1195        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1196        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1197        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    1198        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1199        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1200        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1201        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1202        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1203        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1204        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1205        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
    1206
    1207    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1208        return self.set_operations(expression)
    1209
    1210    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1211        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
    1212
    1213    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1214        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1215        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1216        count = expression.args.get("count")
    1217        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1218        if expression.args.get("percent"):
    1219            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
    1220        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
    1221        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
    1222
    1223    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1224        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1225            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1226            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1227            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1228
    1229        agg = expression.this
    1230        agg_arg = agg.this
    1231        cond = expression.expression.this
    1232        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1233        return self.sql(agg)
    1234
    1235    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1236        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1237            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1238            return ""
    1239
    1240        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
    1241
    1242    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
    1243        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1244        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1245        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1246        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1247        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1248        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1249        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1250        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1251        if include:
    1252            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1253        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
    1254        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
    1255        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
    1256        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
    1257
    1258        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
    1259
    1260    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1261        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1262        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1263        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1264        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1265        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1266        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1267        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1268
    1269        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1270
    1271        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
    1272        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
    1273
    1274    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1275        text = expression.name
    1276        lower = text.lower()
    1277        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1278        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1279        if (
    1280            expression.quoted
    1281            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1282            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1283            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1284        ):
    1285            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
    1286        return text
    1287
    1288    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1289        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1290        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1291        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1292        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1293        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
    1294
    1295    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1296        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1297        return f"{prefix}{string}"
    1298
    1299    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1300        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1301
    1302    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1303        root_properties = []
    1304        with_properties = []
    1305
    1306        for p in expression.expressions:
    1307            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1308            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1309                with_properties.append(p)
    1310            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1311                root_properties.append(p)
    1312
    1313        return self.root_properties(
    1314            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
    1315        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
    1316
    1317    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1318        if properties.expressions:
    1319            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1320        return ""
    1321
    1322    def properties(
    1323        self,
    1324        properties: exp.Properties,
    1325        prefix: str = "",
    1326        sep: str = ", ",
    1327        suffix: str = "",
    1328        wrapped: bool = True,
    1329    ) -> str:
    1330        if properties.expressions:
    1331            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1332            if expressions:
    1333                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1334                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1335        return ""
    1336
    1337    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1338        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
    1339
    1340    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1341        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1342        for p in properties.expressions:
    1343            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1344            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1345                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1346            else:
    1347                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1348
    1349        return properties_locs
    1350
    1351    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1352        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1353            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1354        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
    1355
    1356    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1357        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1358        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1359            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1360
    1361        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1362        if not property_name:
    1363            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1364
    1365        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1366
    1367    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1368        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1369            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1370            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1371
    1372            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1373            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1374                like = f"({like})"
    1375
    1376            return like
    1377
    1378        if expression.expressions:
    1379            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1380
    1381        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1382        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
    1383
    1384    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1385        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1386        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1387        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
    1388
    1389    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1390        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1391        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1392        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1393        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1394        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1395        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1396        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
    1397
    1398    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1399        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1400        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1401        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
    1402
    1403    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1404        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1405            property = "DEFAULT"
    1406        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1407            property = "ON"
    1408        else:
    1409            property = "OFF"
    1410        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
    1411
    1412    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1413        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1414            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1415        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1416            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1417
    1418        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1419        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
    1420
    1421    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1422        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1423        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1424        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1425        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1426            if default:
    1427                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1428            elif minimum:
    1429                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1430            else:
    1431                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1432            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1433        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1434        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1435        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
    1436
    1437    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1438        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1439        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1440        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1441        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1442        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1443
    1444        if autotemp is not None:
    1445            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1446        elif always:
    1447            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1448        elif default:
    1449            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1450        elif manual:
    1451            prop = "MANUAL"
    1452        elif never:
    1453            prop = "NEVER"
    1454        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
    1455
    1456    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1457        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1458        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1459        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1460        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1461        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1462        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
    1463        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
    1464
    1465    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1466        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1467            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1468        if expression.this:
    1469            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1470            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1471            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1472
    1473        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1474        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1475        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
    1476
    1477    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1478        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1479
    1480        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1481        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1482            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1483        else:
    1484            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1485
    1486        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
    1487
    1488    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1489        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1490        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1491        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1492        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1493        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1494        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1495        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
    1496
    1497    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1498        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1499        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1500        statistics_sql = ""
    1501        if statistics is not None:
    1502            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1503        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
    1504
    1505    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1506        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
    1507
    1508        if expression.this:
    1509            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1510            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
    1511
    1512            if expression.expression:
    1513                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1514                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
    1515
    1516            sql = f"{sql})"
    1517
    1518        return f"{sql})"
    1519
    1520    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1521        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    1522        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1523
    1524        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1525            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1526        else:
    1527            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1528
    1529        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
    1530        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
    1531        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1532        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1533        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1534        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
    1535        if is_function:
    1536            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
    1537        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1538
    1539        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1540        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1541        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1542        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1543        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1544        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1545        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1546        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1547
    1548        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1549            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
    1550        else:
    1551            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
    1552
    1553        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
    1554        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1555
    1556    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1557        return self.set_operations(expression)
    1558
    1559    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1560        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
    1561
    1562    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1563        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1564
    1565    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1566        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1567        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1568        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1569        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1570        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
    1571
    1572    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1573        return expression.name
    1574
    1575    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1576        return expression.name
    1577
    1578    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1579        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1580
    1581        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1582        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
    1583
    1584        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
    1585        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
    1586        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    1587
    1588        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1589        if expressions:
    1590            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1591            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1592
    1593        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
    1594
    1595    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1596        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    1597
    1598    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1599        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
    1600        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1601        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
    1602        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1603        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
    1604        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1605        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
    1606        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1607        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
    1608        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1609        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    1610        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1611        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
    1612
    1613    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1614        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1615
    1616    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1617        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1618        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1619        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1620        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1621
    1622    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1623        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1624        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1625        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1626        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
    1627
    1628    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
    1629        return ".".join(
    1630            self.sql(part)
    1631            for part in (
    1632                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1633                expression.args.get("db"),
    1634                expression.args.get("this"),
    1635            )
    1636            if part is not None
    1637        )
    1638
    1639    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1640        table = self.table_parts(expression)
    1641        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    1642        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1643        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1644        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1645        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1646        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1647        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    1648        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    1649        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    1650        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    1651        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    1652        joins = self.indent(
    1653            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    1654        )
    1655        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    1656
    1657        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1658        if file_format:
    1659            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    1660            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    1661            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    1662
    1663        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    1664        if ordinality:
    1665            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    1666            alias = ""
    1667
    1668        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    1669        if when:
    1670            table = f"{table} {when}"
    1671
    1672        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
    1673
    1674    def tablesample_sql(
    1675        self,
    1676        expression: exp.TableSample,
    1677        sep: str = " AS ",
    1678        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    1679    ) -> str:
    1680        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
    1681            table = expression.this.copy()
    1682            table.set("alias", None)
    1683            this = self.sql(table)
    1684            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
    1685        else:
    1686            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1687            alias = ""
    1688
    1689        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    1690        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    1691        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    1692        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    1693        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    1694        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    1695        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    1696        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    1697        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    1698
    1699        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    1700        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    1701            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    1702
    1703        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    1704        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    1705            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    1706
    1707        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    1708        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    1709            expr = f"({expr})"
    1710
    1711        return (
    1712            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
    1713        )
    1714
    1715    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    1716        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1717
    1718        if expression.this:
    1719            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1720            if not expressions:
    1721                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    1722
    1723            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    1724            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    1725            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    1726            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    1727            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
    1728
    1729        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1730        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1731        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
    1732        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
    1733        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    1734        if include_nulls is not None:
    1735            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    1736        else:
    1737            nulls = ""
    1738        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
    1739
    1740    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    1741        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    1742        kind = expression.text("kind")
    1743        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1744        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
    1745
    1746    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    1747        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1748
    1749    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    1750        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1751        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1752        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    1753        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1754        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1755        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    1756        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1757        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1758            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    1759        else:
    1760            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    1761        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    1762        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1763
    1764    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
    1765        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
    1766
    1767        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    1768        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    1769            args = self.expressions(expression)
    1770            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1771            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    1772            values = (
    1773                f"({values})"
    1774                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
    1775                else values
    1776            )
    1777            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    1778
    1779        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    1780        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    1781        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    1782
    1783        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
    1784
    1785        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    1786            row = tup.expressions
    1787
    1788            if i == 0 and column_names:
    1789                row = [
    1790                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    1791                ]
    1792
    1793            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    1794
    1795        if self.pretty:
    1796            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    1797            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    1798            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    1799            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    1800            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
    1801
    1802        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    1803        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    1804        return f"({unions}){alias}"
    1805
    1806    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    1807        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1808
    1809    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    1810        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1811        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    1812        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1813
    1814    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    1815        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1816
    1817    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    1818        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
    1819        if group_by_all is True:
    1820            modifier = " ALL"
    1821        elif group_by_all is False:
    1822            modifier = " DISTINCT"
    1823        else:
    1824            modifier = ""
    1825
    1826        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
    1827
    1828        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
    1829        grouping_sets = (
    1830            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
    1831        )
    1832
    1833        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
    1834        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
    1835            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
    1836        else:
    1837            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
    1838            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
    1839
    1840        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
    1841        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
    1842            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
    1843        else:
    1844            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
    1845            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
    1846
    1847        groupings = csv(
    1848            grouping_sets,
    1849            cube_sql,
    1850            rollup_sql,
    1851            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    1852            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    1853        )
    1854
    1855        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
    1856            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    1857
    1858        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
    1859
    1860    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    1861        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1862        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    1863
    1864    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    1865        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1866        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    1867        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
    1868        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    1869        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
    1870        return start + connect
    1871
    1872    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    1873        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1874
    1875    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    1876        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    1877            side = None
    1878        else:
    1879            side = expression.side
    1880
    1881        op_sql = " ".join(
    1882            op
    1883            for op in (
    1884                expression.method,
    1885                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    1886                side,
    1887                expression.kind,
    1888                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    1889            )
    1890            if op
    1891        )
    1892        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
    1893        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
    1894        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1895        using = expression.args.get("using")
    1896
    1897        if not on_sql and using:
    1898            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    1899
    1900        this = expression.this
    1901        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    1902
    1903        if on_sql:
    1904            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    1905            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    1906            if using:
    1907                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    1908            else:
    1909                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    1910        elif not op_sql:
    1911            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    1912                return f" {this_sql}"
    1913
    1914            return f", {this_sql}"
    1915
    1916        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    1917        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
    1918
    1919    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    1920        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1921        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    1922        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1923
    1924    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1925        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    1926
    1927        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    1928        if cross_apply is True:
    1929            op = "INNER JOIN "
    1930        elif cross_apply is False:
    1931            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    1932        else:
    1933            op = ""
    1934
    1935        return f"{op}LATERAL"
    1936
    1937    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1939
    1940        if expression.args.get("view"):
    1941            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    1942            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    1943            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    1944            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    1945            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    1946            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    1947
    1948        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1949        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1950        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
    1951
    1952    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    1953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1954
    1955        args = [
    1956            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    1957            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    1958            if e
    1959        ]
    1960
    1961        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    1962        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    1963        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1964        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1965
    1966        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
    1967
    1968    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    1969        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1970        value = expression.expression
    1971        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    1972        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1973        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1974        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
    1975
    1976    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    1977        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1978        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    1979        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1980        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    1981        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    1982        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    1983        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    1984        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
    1985
    1986    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    1987        expressions = (
    1988            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
    1989        )
    1990        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    1991        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
    1992
    1993    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    1994        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1995
    1996    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    1997        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    1998            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    1999            return ""
    2000
    2001        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    2002        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2003        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2004        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    2005
    2006        if wait is not None:
    2007            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    2008                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    2009            else:
    2010                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    2011
    2012        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
    2013
    2014    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    2015        text = expression.this or ""
    2016        if expression.is_string:
    2017            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2018        return text
    2019
    2020    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
    2021        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
    2022            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
    2023            text = "".join(
    2024                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
    2025            )
    2026
    2027        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
    2028            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
    2029        )
    2030
    2031    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    2032        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    2033        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    2034        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    2035        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2036        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    2037        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    2038        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    2039        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    2040        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    2041        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    2042        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
    2043
    2044    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    2045        return "NULL"
    2046
    2047    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    2048        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
    2049
    2050    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    2051        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2052        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    2053        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    2054        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
    2055        interpolated_values = [
    2056            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
    2057            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    2058        ]
    2059        interpolate = (
    2060            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    2061        )
    2062        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
    2063
    2064    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    2065        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2066        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    2067        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2068        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2069        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    2070        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    2071        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
    2072
    2073    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    2074        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
    2075
    2076    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    2077        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
    2078
    2079    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    2080        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
    2081
    2082    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    2083        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    2084        asc = not desc
    2085
    2086        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    2087        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    2088        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    2089        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    2090        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    2091
    2092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2093
    2094        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    2095        nulls_sort_change = ""
    2096        if nulls_first and (
    2097            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    2098        ):
    2099            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    2100        elif (
    2101            nulls_last
    2102            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    2103            and not nulls_are_last
    2104        ):
    2105            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    2106
    2107        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    2108        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    2109            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2110            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    2111                self.unsupported(
    2112                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    2113                )
    2114                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2115            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    2116                if expression.this.is_int:
    2117                    self.unsupported(
    2118                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2119                    )
    2120                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
    2121                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2122                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2123                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2124
    2125        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2126        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2127
    2128        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
    2129
    2130    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
    2131        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
    2132        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
    2133
    2134        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2135
    2136        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
    2137
    2138    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2139        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2140        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2141        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2142        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2143        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2144        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2145        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2146        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2147        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2148        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2149        definition_sqls = [
    2150            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2151            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2152        ]
    2153        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2154        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2155        body = "".join(
    2156            (
    2157                partition,
    2158                order,
    2159                measures,
    2160                rows,
    2161                after,
    2162                pattern,
    2163                define,
    2164            )
    2165        )
    2166        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2167        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2168        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
    2169
    2170    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2171        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2172
    2173        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2174            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2175        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2176            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2177
    2178        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2179        if options:
    2180            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
    2181
    2182        return csv(
    2183            *sqls,
    2184            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2185            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2186            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2187            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2188            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
    2189            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2190            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2191            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2192            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
    2193            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2194            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
    2195            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2196            options,
    2197            sep="",
    2198        )
    2199
    2200    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
    2201        return ""
    2202
    2203    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2204        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2205    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2206        return [
    2207            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2208            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2209        ]
    2210
    2211    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2212        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2213        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2214        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
    2215
    2216    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2217        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2218        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2219            into.pop()
    2220
    2221        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2222        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2223        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2224        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2225
    2226        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2227        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
    2228            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2229            limit.pop()
    2230        else:
    2231            top = ""
    2232
    2233        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2234
    2235        if kind:
    2236            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2237                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2238            else:
    2239                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2240                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2241                        sqls=[
    2242                            self.sql(
    2243                                exp.Struct(
    2244                                    expressions=[
    2245                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
    2246                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2247                                        else e
    2248                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2249                                    ]
    2250                                )
    2251                            )
    2252                        ]
    2253                    )
    2254                kind = ""
    2255
    2256        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2257        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2258        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2259        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2260        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2261            expression,
    2262            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
    2263            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2264            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2265        )
    2266
    2267        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2268
    2269        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2270            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2271                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2272            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2273                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2274            else:
    2275                table_kind = ""
    2276            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2277
    2278        return sql
    2279
    2280    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2281        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2282        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2283        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
    2284
    2285    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2286        if expression.expressions:
    2287            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2288        return ""
    2289
    2290    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2291        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2292        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2293        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2294        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2295        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
    2296
    2297    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2298        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2299        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
    2300
    2301    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2302        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2303        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2304        if kind:
    2305            kind = f"{kind}."
    2306        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
    2307
    2308    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2309        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
    2310
    2311    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2312        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2313        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2314
    2315        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    2316        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    2317
    2318        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2319        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2320
    2321    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2322        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2323        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2324
    2325    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2326        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
    2327            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2328            order = expression.args.get("order")
    2329
    2330            if limit or order:
    2331                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
    2332
    2333                if limit:
    2334                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
    2335                if order:
    2336                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
    2337                return self.sql(select)
    2338
    2339        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    2340        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    2341
    2342        while stack:
    2343            node = stack.pop()
    2344
    2345            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
    2346                stack.append(node.expression)
    2347                stack.append(
    2348                    self.maybe_comment(
    2349                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
    2350                        comments=node.comments,
    2351                        separated=True,
    2352                    )
    2353                )
    2354                stack.append(node.this)
    2355            else:
    2356                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    2357
    2358        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
    2359        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
    2360        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
    2361
    2362    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2363        return self.set_operations(expression)
    2364
    2365    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2366        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
    2367        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
    2368        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    2369        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
    2370
    2371    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2372        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2373
    2374        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2375        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2376
    2377        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2378            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2379                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2380
    2381        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2382            columns = alias.columns
    2383            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2384        else:
    2385            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2386
    2387        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2388        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2389            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2390        else:
    2391            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2392                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2393            elif offset:
    2394                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2395            else:
    2396                suffix = alias
    2397
    2398        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
    2399
    2400    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
    2401        return ""
    2402
    2403    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2404        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2405        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2406
    2407    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2408        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2409        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2410        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2411        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2412        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2413        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2414        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2415
    2416        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2417
    2418        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2419        if first is None:
    2420            first = ""
    2421        else:
    2422            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2423
    2424        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2425            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2426
    2427        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
    2428        return f"{this} ({args})"
    2429
    2430    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2431        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2432        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
    2433
    2434    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2435        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2436        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2437        end = (
    2438            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2439            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2440        )
    2441        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
    2442
    2443    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2444        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2445        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2446        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
    2447
    2448    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2449        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2450        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2451        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2452        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
    2453
    2454    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2455        return apply_index_offset(
    2456            expression.this,
    2457            expression.expressions,
    2458            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2459        )
    2460
    2461    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2462        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
    2463        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2464        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
    2465
    2466    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2467        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
    2468
    2469    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2470        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2471        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
    2472            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
    2473                this = self.wrap(this)
    2474            return f"ANY{this}"
    2475        return f"ANY {this}"
    2476
    2477    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2478        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
    2479
    2480    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2481        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2482        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2483
    2484        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2485            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2486            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2487
    2488        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2489
    2490        if default:
    2491            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2492
    2493        statements.append("END")
    2494
    2495        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
    2496            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2497
    2498        return " ".join(statements)
    2499
    2500    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2502        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2503        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
    2504
    2505    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2506        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2507        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2508        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
    2509
    2510    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2511        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2512        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2513        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
    2514
    2515    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2516        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2517
    2518        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2519            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
    2520        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2521            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
    2522        else:
    2523            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
    2524
    2525    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2526        args = expression.expressions
    2527        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2528            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2529
    2530        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2531            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
    2532
    2533        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2534            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2535
    2536        return args
    2537
    2538    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2539        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2540
    2541        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2542        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2543            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2544
    2545        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
    2546
    2547    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2548        return self.func(
    2549            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2550        )
    2551
    2552    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2553        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2554        return f"CHECK ({this})"
    2555
    2556    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2557        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2558        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2559        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2560        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2561        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2562        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2563        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2564        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
    2565
    2566    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2567        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2568        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2569        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2570        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
    2571
    2572    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2573        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
    2574
    2575    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2576        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2577        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2578        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
    2579
    2580    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2581        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    2582
    2583    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2584        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2585        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2586
    2587    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    2588        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    2589            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    2590            if not callable(transform):
    2591                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    2592                return ""
    2593
    2594            return transform(self, expression)
    2595
    2596        if isinstance(expression, int):
    2597            return str(expression)
    2598
    2599        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    2600            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    2601            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    2602        else:
    2603            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    2604            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    2605
    2606        return escaped
    2607
    2608    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    2609        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
    2610
    2611    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2612        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2613        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2614
    2615        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    2616        if unique_keys is not None:
    2617            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    2618        else:
    2619            unique_keys = ""
    2620
    2621        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2622        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2623        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    2624        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    2625
    2626        return self.func(
    2627            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    2628            *expression.expressions,
    2629            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    2630        )
    2631
    2632    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2633        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
    2634
    2635    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    2636        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2637        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2638        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2639        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2640        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2641        return self.func(
    2642            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    2643        )
    2644
    2645    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    2646        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2647        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2648        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2649        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2650        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2651        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2652        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2653        return self.func(
    2654            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    2655            this,
    2656            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    2657        )
    2658
    2659    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2660        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2661        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    2662        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    2663
    2664        if nested_schema:
    2665            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    2666
    2667        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2668        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2669        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    2670        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
    2671
    2672    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    2673        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
    2674
    2675    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    2676        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2677        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2678        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2679        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    2680        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    2681        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    2682        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    2683        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    2684        return self.func(
    2685            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    2686        )
    2687
    2688    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2689        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2690        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2691        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2692        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    2693        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    2694        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
    2695
    2696    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    2697        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2698        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2699        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2700        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2701        with_ = (
    2702            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2703            if expressions
    2704            else ""
    2705        )
    2706        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
    2707
    2708    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    2709        query = expression.args.get("query")
    2710        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    2711        field = expression.args.get("field")
    2712        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    2713
    2714        if query:
    2715            in_sql = self.sql(query)
    2716        elif unnest:
    2717            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    2718        elif field:
    2719            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    2720        else:
    2721            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2722
    2723        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
    2724
    2725    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2726        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
    2727
    2728    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    2729        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    2730        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    2731            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    2732        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    2733
    2734        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    2735            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    2736            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    2737
    2738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2739        if this:
    2740            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    2741            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    2742
    2743        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
    2744
    2745    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    2746        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2747
    2748    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    2749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2750        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2751        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    2752        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2753        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2754        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
    2755
    2756    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    2757        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
    2758
    2759    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    2760        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    2761        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2762
    2763    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    2764        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    2765        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2766        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    2767        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
    2768
    2769    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    2770        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2771
    2772    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    2773        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2774        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2775        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
    2776
    2777    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    2778        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2779        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    2780
    2781        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2782            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    2783        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2784            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    2785
    2786        return self.alias_sql(expression)
    2787
    2788    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    2789        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2790
    2791    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2792        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2793        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2794        return f"{this} AT {index}"
    2795
    2796    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2797        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2798        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2799        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
    2800
    2801    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    2802        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2803        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2804        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
    2805
    2806    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    2807        return self.binary(expression, "+")
    2808
    2809    def and_sql(
    2810        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2811    ) -> str:
    2812        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
    2813
    2814    def or_sql(
    2815        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2816    ) -> str:
    2817        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
    2818
    2819    def xor_sql(
    2820        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2821    ) -> str:
    2822        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
    2823
    2824    def connector_sql(
    2825        self,
    2826        expression: exp.Connector,
    2827        op: str,
    2828        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    2829    ) -> str:
    2830        if stack is not None:
    2831            if expression.expressions:
    2832                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
    2833            else:
    2834                stack.append(expression.right)
    2835                if expression.comments:
    2836                    for comment in expression.comments:
    2837                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
    2838                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
    2839            return op
    2840
    2841        stack = [expression]
    2842        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    2843        ops = set()
    2844
    2845        while stack:
    2846            node = stack.pop()
    2847            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
    2848                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
    2849            else:
    2850                sql = self.sql(node)
    2851                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
    2852                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
    2853                else:
    2854                    sqls.append(sql)
    2855
    2856        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
    2857        return sep.join(sqls)
    2858
    2859    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    2860        return self.binary(expression, "&")
    2861
    2862    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    2863        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
    2864
    2865    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    2866        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2867
    2868    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    2869        return self.binary(expression, "|")
    2870
    2871    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    2872        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
    2873
    2874    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    2875        return self.binary(expression, "^")
    2876
    2877    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    2878        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    2879        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    2880        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2881        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2882        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    2883        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
    2884        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
    2885
    2886    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    2887        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2888        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
    2889
    2890    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
    2891        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
    2892
    2893    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    2894        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    2895            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    2896        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
    2897
    2898    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    2899        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
    2900
    2901    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    2902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2903        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    2904        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    2905        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    2906        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2907        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
    2908
    2909    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    2910        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2911        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    2912        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    2913        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    2914        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    2915        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    2916        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    2917        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    2918        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
    2919
    2920    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    2921        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    2922        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    2923        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    2924        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    2925
    2926        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    2927            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    2928
    2929        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
    2930
    2931    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    2932        return "BEGIN"
    2933
    2934    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    2935        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    2936        if chain is not None:
    2937            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    2938
    2939        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
    2940
    2941    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    2942        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    2943        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    2944        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
    2945
    2946    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    2947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2948
    2949        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    2950        if dtype:
    2951            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2952            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2953            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    2954            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    2955            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
    2956
    2957        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2958        if default:
    2959            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    2960
    2961        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    2962        if comment:
    2963            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    2964
    2965        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
    2966            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    2967
    2968        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
    2969
    2970    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
    2971        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    2972            # Remove db from tables
    2973            expression = expression.transform(
    2974                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    2975            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
    2976        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2977        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
    2978
    2979    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    2980        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    2981        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2982        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2983        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
    2984
    2985    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    2986        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    2987
    2988        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
    2989            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
    2990        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
    2991            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
    2992        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
    2993            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    2994        else:
    2995            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    2996
    2997        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    2998        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    2999        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    3000        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
    3001        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
    3002
    3003    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    3004        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    3005            return self.expressions(
    3006                expression,
    3007                key="actions",
    3008                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
    3009            )
    3010        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
    3011
    3012    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    3013        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3014        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3015        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
    3016
    3017    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    3018        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3019
    3020    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    3021        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3022
    3023        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    3024            case = exp.case()
    3025            for arg in expression.expressions:
    3026                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    3027            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    3028
    3029        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3030
    3031        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    3032        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    3033        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
    3034
    3035    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    3036        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
    3037
    3038    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    3039        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
    3040
    3041    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
    3042        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3043        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3044        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
    3045        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
    3046
    3047    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    3048        return self.sql(
    3049            exp.Cast(
    3050                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    3051                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    3052            )
    3053        )
    3054
    3055    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    3056        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3057            return self.func(
    3058                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
    3059            )
    3060        return self.binary(expression, "||")
    3061
    3062    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    3063        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    3064
    3065        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3066            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    3067
    3068        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    3069            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
    3070                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3071
    3072        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    3073            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    3074                return self.sql(
    3075                    exp.cast(
    3076                        l / r,
    3077                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    3078                    )
    3079                )
    3080
    3081        return self.binary(expression, "/")
    3082
    3083    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    3084        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
    3085
    3086    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    3087        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
    3088
    3089    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    3090        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3091
    3092    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    3093        return self.binary(expression, "=")
    3094
    3095    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    3096        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
    3097
    3098    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    3099        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
    3100
    3101    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    3102        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
    3103
    3104    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    3105        return self.binary(expression, ">")
    3106
    3107    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    3108        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
    3109
    3110    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    3111        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
    3112
    3113    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    3114        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
    3115
    3116    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    3117        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    3118            return self.sql(
    3119                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    3120            )
    3121        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
    3122
    3123    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    3124        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
    3125
    3126    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    3127        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
    3128
    3129    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    3130        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
    3131
    3132    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    3133        return self.binary(expression, "<")
    3134
    3135    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    3136        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
    3137
    3138    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    3139        return self.binary(expression, "%")
    3140
    3141    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    3142        return self.binary(expression, "*")
    3143
    3144    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    3145        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
    3146
    3147    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    3148        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
    3149
    3150    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    3151        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
    3152
    3153    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    3154        return self.binary(expression, ":")
    3155
    3156    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    3157        return self.binary(expression, "-")
    3158
    3159    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    3160        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
    3161
    3162    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    3163        this = expression.this
    3164        expr = expression.expression
    3165
    3166        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
    3167            this, expr = expr, this
    3168        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
    3169            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
    3170                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
    3171
    3172            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
    3173
    3174        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
    3175
    3176    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3177        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3178        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3179        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3180        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3181        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
    3182
    3183    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3184        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
    3185        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3186
    3187    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3188        args = []
    3189
    3190        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3191            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3192
    3193            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3194                for value in arg_value:
    3195                    args.append(value)
    3196            elif arg_value is not None:
    3197                args.append(arg_value)
    3198
    3199        if self.normalize_functions:
    3200            name = expression.sql_name()
    3201        else:
    3202            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3203
    3204        return self.func(name, *args)
    3205
    3206    def func(
    3207        self,
    3208        name: str,
    3209        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3210        prefix: str = "(",
    3211        suffix: str = ")",
    3212    ) -> str:
    3213        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
    3214
    3215    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
    3216        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
    3217        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
    3218            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    3219        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
    3220
    3221    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
    3222        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
    3223
    3224    def format_time(
    3225        self,
    3226        expression: exp.Expression,
    3227        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
    3228        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
    3229    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3230        return format_time(
    3231            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3232            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3233            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3234        )
    3235
    3236    def expressions(
    3237        self,
    3238        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3239        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3240        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3241        flat: bool = False,
    3242        indent: bool = True,
    3243        skip_first: bool = False,
    3244        skip_last: bool = False,
    3245        sep: str = ", ",
    3246        prefix: str = "",
    3247        dynamic: bool = False,
    3248        new_line: bool = False,
    3249    ) -> str:
    3250        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3251
    3252        if not expressions:
    3253            return ""
    3254
    3255        if flat:
    3256            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3257
    3258        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3259
    3260        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
    3261        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
    3262            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
    3263
    3264        result_sqls = []
    3265        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3266            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3267            if not sql:
    3268                continue
    3269
    3270            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3271
    3272            if self.pretty:
    3273                if self.leading_comma:
    3274                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3275                else:
    3276                    result_sqls.append(
    3277                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3278                    )
    3279            else:
    3280                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3281
    3282        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
    3283            if new_line:
    3284                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
    3285                result_sqls.append("")
    3286            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
    3287        else:
    3288            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
    3289        return (
    3290            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
    3291            if indent
    3292            else result_sql
    3293        )
    3294
    3295    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3296        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3297        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3298        if flat:
    3299            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3300        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
    3301
    3302    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3303        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3304        if not property_name:
    3305            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3306        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3307
    3308    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3309        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
    3310
    3311    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3312        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
    3313
    3314    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3315        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3316        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3317        expressions = (
    3318            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3319        )
    3320        return f"{this}{expressions}"
    3321
    3322    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3323        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3324        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3325        return f"{this}({expressions})"
    3326
    3327    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3328        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
    3329
    3330    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3331        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3332        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3333        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3334        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3335
    3336        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3337        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3338            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
    3339            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
    3340                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
    3341        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3342            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3343                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3344            else:
    3345                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
    3346        else:
    3347            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3348        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
    3349
    3350    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3351        table = expression.this
    3352        table_alias = ""
    3353
    3354        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3355        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3356            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3357            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3358
    3359        this = self.sql(table)
    3360        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3361        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3362        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
    3363
    3364        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3365            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
    3366        )
    3367
    3368    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3369        if expression.args.get("format"):
    3370            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
    3371
    3372        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
    3373
    3374    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
    3375        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
    3376            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
    3377            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3378
    3379        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
    3380        if not fmt:
    3381            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
    3382            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3383
    3384        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
    3385
    3386    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3387        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3388        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3389        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3390        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3391        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
    3392
    3393    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3394        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3395        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3396        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3397        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
    3398
    3399    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3400        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    3401
    3402    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3403        return ""
    3404
    3405    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3406        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3407        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3408        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3409        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3410        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
    3411
    3412    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3413        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3414        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3415
    3416        if having:
    3417            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3418
    3419        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
    3420
    3421    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3422        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3423        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3424        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3425        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3426        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3427        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3428        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3429        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3430        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3431        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3432        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3433        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3434        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
    3435
    3436    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3437        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3438        if key_block_size:
    3439            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3440
    3441        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3442        if using:
    3443            return f"USING {using}"
    3444
    3445        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    3446        if parser:
    3447            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    3448
    3449        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3450        if comment:
    3451            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    3452
    3453        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3454        if visible is not None:
    3455            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3456
    3457        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    3458        if engine_attr:
    3459            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    3460
    3461        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    3462        if secondary_engine_attr:
    3463            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    3464
    3465        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    3466        return ""
    3467
    3468    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3469        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
    3470        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
    3471
    3472    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3473        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3474        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    3475        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3476        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3477        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    3478        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    3479        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3480        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3481        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    3482        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3483        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
    3484
    3485    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    3486        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    3487            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3488
    3489        case = exp.Case().when(
    3490            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    3491            expression.args["true"],
    3492            copy=False,
    3493        )
    3494        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    3495        if else_cond:
    3496            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    3497
    3498        return self.sql(case)
    3499
    3500    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    3501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3502        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3503        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    3504        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3505        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    3506        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
    3507
    3508    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    3509        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    3510
    3511    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    3512        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3513
    3514    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    3515        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3516        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    3517        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3518        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    3519        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    3520        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
    3521
    3522    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    3523        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3524        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3525        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
    3526
    3527    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    3528        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3529        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    3530        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
    3531
    3532    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
    3533        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
    3534
    3535    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    3536        arg = expression.this
    3537        if not arg.type:
    3538            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    3539
    3540            arg = annotate_types(arg)
    3541
    3542        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    3543            return self.sql(arg)
    3544
    3545        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    3546        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
    3547
    3548    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    3549        this = expression.this
    3550        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    3551            return self.sql(this)
    3552
    3553        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
    3554
    3555    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
    3556        this = expression.this
    3557        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
    3558            return self.sql(this)
    3559
    3560        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
    3561
    3562    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    3563        this = expression.this
    3564        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    3565
    3566        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    3567            return self.sql(
    3568                exp.cast(
    3569                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    3570                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
    3571                )
    3572            )
    3573
    3574        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    3575            return self.sql(this)
    3576
    3577        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
    3578
    3579    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    3580        return self.sql(
    3581            exp.func(
    3582                "DATEDIFF",
    3583                expression.this,
    3584                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
    3585                "day",
    3586            )
    3587        )
    3588
    3589    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    3590        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    3591            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3592
    3593        unit = expression.text("unit")
    3594        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    3595            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    3596
    3597        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
    3598
    3599    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
    3600        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
    3601
    3602        return self.func(
    3603            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
    3604        )
    3605
    3606    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
    3607        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
    3608            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
    3609            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
    3610            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
    3611            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
    3612
    3613        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    3614
    3615        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
    3616        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
    3617            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
    3618
    3619        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3620
    3621    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
    3622        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
    3623        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3624
    3625    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
    3626        expression.set(
    3627            "expressions",
    3628            [
    3629                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
    3630                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
    3631                else e
    3632                for e in expression.expressions
    3633            ],
    3634        )
    3635
    3636        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3637
    3638    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
    3639        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3640        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3641
    3642        return f"{low} TO {high}"
    3643
    3644    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
    3645        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
    3646        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3647
    3648        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3649
    3650        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3651        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3652
    3653        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
    3654        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
    3655
    3656        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    3657        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    3658
    3659        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    3660        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    3661
    3662        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
    3663
    3664    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
    3665    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
    3666    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
    3667        to = expression.this
    3668        value = expression.expression
    3669        style = expression.args.get("style")
    3670        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
    3671        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
    3672
    3673        if not to or not value:
    3674            return ""
    3675
    3676        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
    3677        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3678            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
    3679
    3680        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
    3681        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
    3682
    3683        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
    3684        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
    3685            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
    3686
    3687            style_value = style.name
    3688            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
    3689            if not converted_style:
    3690                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
    3691
    3692            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
    3693
    3694            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
    3695                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
    3696            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
    3697                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
    3698            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3699                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
    3700            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
    3701                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
    3702
    3703        if not transformed:
    3704            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
    3705
    3706        return self.sql(transformed)
    3707
    3708    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
    3709        this = expression.this
    3710        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
    3711            this = self.json_path_part(this)
    3712            return f".{this}" if this else ""
    3713
    3714        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
    3715            return f".{this}"
    3716
    3717        this = self.json_path_part(this)
    3718        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
    3719
    3720    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
    3721        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
    3722        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
    3723
    3724    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
    3725        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
    3726            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
    3727
    3728            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
    3729
    3730        return expression
    3731
    3732    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
    3733        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
    3734            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
    3735            mods = sorted(
    3736                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
    3737                key=lambda x: 0
    3738                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
    3739                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
    3740            )
    3741
    3742            if mods:
    3743                mod = mods[0]
    3744                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
    3745                this.meta["inline"] = True
    3746                mod.this.replace(this)
    3747                return self.sql(expression.this)
    3748
    3749            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
    3750
    3751            if agg_func:
    3752                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
    3753
    3754        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
    3755
    3756    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
    3757        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
    3758        if self.pretty:
    3759            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
    3760        return string

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

###### Arguments:

- pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
- identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
- normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
- pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
- indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause. Default: 2.
- normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
- unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
- max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
- leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
- max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
- comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True

Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect , Type[ sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect ], NoneType] = None) View Source

    533    def __init__(
    534        self,
    535        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
    536        identify: str | bool = False,
    537        normalize: bool = False,
    538        pad: int = 2,
    539        indent: int = 2,
    540        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
    541        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
    542        max_unsupported: int = 3,
    543        leading_comma: bool = False,
    544        max_text_width: int = 80,
    545        comments: bool = True,
    546        dialect: DialectType = None,
    547    ):
    548        import sqlglot
    549        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    550
    551        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
    552        self.identify = identify
    553        self.normalize = normalize
    554        self.pad = pad
    555        self._indent = indent
    556        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
    557        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
    558        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
    559        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
    560        self.comments = comments
    561        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
    562
    563        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
    564        self.normalize_functions = (
    565            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
    566        )
    567
    568        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
    569        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
    570            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
    571        )
    572        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
    573            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
    574        )

TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtract'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtractScalar'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Timestamp'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>}
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Create'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Delete'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Drop'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.From'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Insert'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Join'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Select'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Update'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Where'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.With'>)
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    576    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
    577        """
    578        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
    579
    580        Args:
    581            expression: The syntax tree.
    582            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
    583                it is safer to copy.
    584
    585        Returns:
    586            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
    587        """
    588        if copy:
    589            expression = expression.copy()
    590
    591        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
    592
    593        self.unsupported_messages = []
    594        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
    595
    596        if self.pretty:
    597            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
    598
    599        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
    600            return sql
    601
    602        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
    603            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
    604                logger.warning(msg)
    605        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
    606            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
    607
    608        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

###### Arguments:

- expression: The syntax tree.
- copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.

###### Returns:

> The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression ) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression: View Source

    610    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
    611        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
    612        if (
    613            not expression.parent
    614            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
    615            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
    616        ):
    617            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
    618
    619            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
    620
    621        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
    622            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
    623
    624            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
    625
    626        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None: View Source

    628    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
    629        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
    630            raise UnsupportedError(message)
    631        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)

def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

    633    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
    634        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep

def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

    636    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
    637        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"

def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str: View Source

    639    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
    640        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
    641        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
    642        return comment

def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[ sqlglot.expressions.Expression ] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    644    def maybe_comment(
    645        self,
    646        sql: str,
    647        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    648        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
    649        separated: bool = False,
    650    ) -> str:
    651        comments = (
    652            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
    653            if self.comments
    654            else None
    655        )
    656
    657        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
    658            return sql
    659
    660        comments_sql = " ".join(
    661            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
    662        )
    663
    664        if not comments_sql:
    665            return sql
    666
    667        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
    668
    669        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
    670            return (
    671                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
    672                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
    673                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    674            )
    675
    676        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"

def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str: View Source

    678    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
    679        this_sql = self.indent(
    680            (
    681                self.sql(expression)
    682                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
    683                else self.sql(expression, "this")
    684            ),
    685            level=1,
    686            pad=0,
    687        )
    688        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"

def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str: View Source

    690    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
    691        original = self.identify
    692        self.identify = False
    693        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
    694        self.identify = original
    695        return result

def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str: View Source

    697    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
    698        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
    699            return name.upper()
    700        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
    701            return name.lower()
    702        return name

def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    704    def indent(
    705        self,
    706        sql: str,
    707        level: int = 0,
    708        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
    709        skip_first: bool = False,
    710        skip_last: bool = False,
    711    ) -> str:
    712        if not self.pretty:
    713            return sql
    714
    715        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
    716        lines = sql.split("\n")
    717
    718        return "\n".join(
    719            (
    720                line
    721                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
    722                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
    723            )
    724            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
    725        )

def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression , NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    727    def sql(
    728        self,
    729        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
    730        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    731        comment: bool = True,
    732    ) -> str:
    733        if not expression:
    734            return ""
    735
    736        if isinstance(expression, str):
    737            return expression
    738
    739        if key:
    740            value = expression.args.get(key)
    741            if value:
    742                return self.sql(value)
    743            return ""
    744
    745        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    746
    747        if callable(transform):
    748            sql = transform(self, expression)
    749        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
    750            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
    751
    752            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
    753                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
    754            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
    755                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    756            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
    757                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
    758            else:
    759                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    760        else:
    761            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
    762
    763        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql

def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache ) -> str: View Source

    765    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
    766        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    767        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    768        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"

def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache ) -> str: View Source

    770    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
    771        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
    772        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    773        options = expression.args.get("options")
    774        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
    775        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    776        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
    777        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
    778        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet ) -> str: View Source

    780    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
    781        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
    782            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    783        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
    784        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column ) -> str: View Source

    786    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
    787        return ".".join(
    788            self.sql(part)
    789            for part in (
    790                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    791                expression.args.get("db"),
    792                expression.args.get("table"),
    793                expression.args.get("this"),
    794            )
    795            if part
    796        )

def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column ) -> str: View Source

    798    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
    799        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
    800
    801        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
    802            join_mark = ""
    803            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
    804
    805        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"

def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition ) -> str: View Source

    807    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
    808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    809        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    810        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
    811        return f"{position}{this}"

def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

    813    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
    814        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    815        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    816        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
    817        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    818        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
    819        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
    820        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
    821        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
    822
    823        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
    824            kind = ""
    825
    826        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"

def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    828    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
    829        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    830        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
    831        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql

def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    833    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
    834        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    835        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
    836            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
    837        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
    838            persisted = " PERSISTED"
    839        else:
    840            persisted = ""
    841        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"

def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str: View Source

    843    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
    844        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)

def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    846    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
    847        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    848            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
    849        else:
    850            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    851
    852        return f"COMPRESS {this}"

def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    854    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
    855        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
    856    ) -> str:
    857        this = ""
    858        if expression.this is not None:
    859            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
    860            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
    861
    862        start = expression.args.get("start")
    863        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    864        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
    865        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    866        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
    867        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    868        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
    869        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    870        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
    871        cycle_sql = ""
    872
    873        if cycle is not None:
    874            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
    875            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
    876
    877        sequence_opts = ""
    878        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
    879            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
    880            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
    881
    882        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    883        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
    884
    885        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"

def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    887    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
    888        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
    889    ) -> str:
    890        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
    891        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
    892        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"

def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    894    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
    895        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
    896    ) -> str:
    897        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"

def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    899    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
    900        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"

def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    902    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
    903        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    905    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
    906        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    907        if desc is not None:
    908            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
    909        return "PRIMARY KEY"

def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    911    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
    912        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    913        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    914        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
    915        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    916        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
    917        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    918        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"

def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str: View Source

    920    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
    921        return self.sql(expression, "this")

def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create ) -> str: View Source

     923    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
     924        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     925        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
     926        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
     927
     928        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
     929
     930        properties_sql = ""
     931        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
     932            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
     933        ):
     934            properties_sql = self.sql(
     935                exp.Properties(
     936                    expressions=[
     937                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
     938                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
     939                    ]
     940                )
     941            )
     942
     943        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
     944        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
     945
     946        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     947        if expression_sql:
     948            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
     949
     950            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
     951                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
     952                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
     953                        exp.Properties(
     954                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
     955                        ),
     956                        wrapped=False,
     957                    )
     958                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
     959                else:
     960                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
     961
     962        postindex_props_sql = ""
     963        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
     964            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
     965                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
     966                wrapped=False,
     967                prefix=" ",
     968            )
     969
     970        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
     971        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
     972        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
     973
     974        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
     975        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
     976
     977        postcreate_props_sql = ""
     978        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
     979            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
     980                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
     981                sep=" ",
     982                prefix=" ",
     983                wrapped=False,
     984            )
     985
     986        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
     987
     988        postexpression_props_sql = ""
     989        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
     990            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
     991                exp.Properties(
     992                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
     993                ),
     994                sep=" ",
     995                prefix=" ",
     996                wrapped=False,
     997            )
     998
     999        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1000        no_schema_binding = (
    1001            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
    1002        )
    1003
    1004        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
    1005        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
    1006
    1007        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
    1008        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)

def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties ) -> str: View Source

    1010    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
    1011        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1012        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1013        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
    1014        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1015        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
    1016        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1017        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
    1018        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1019        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
    1020        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
    1021
    1022        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
    1023        if cache is None:
    1024            cache_str = ""
    1025        elif cache is True:
    1026            cache_str = " CACHE"
    1027        else:
    1028            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
    1029
    1030        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1031        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1032
    1033        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()

def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone ) -> str: View Source

    1035    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
    1036        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1037        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
    1038        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
    1039        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"

def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe ) -> str: View Source

    1041    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
    1042        style = expression.args.get("style")
    1043        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
    1044        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc ) -> str: View Source

    1046    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
    1047        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
    1048        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"

def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str: View Source

    1050    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
    1051        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
    1052        if with_:
    1053            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    1054        return sql

def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With ) -> str: View Source

    1056    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
    1057        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1058        recursive = (
    1059            "RECURSIVE "
    1060            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
    1061            else ""
    1062        )
    1063
    1064        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"

def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE ) -> str: View Source

    1066    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
    1067        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1068
    1069        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
    1070        if materialized is False:
    1071            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
    1072        elif materialized:
    1073            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
    1074
    1075        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"

def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias ) -> str: View Source

    1077    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
    1078        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1079        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1080        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1081
    1082        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
    1083            columns = ""
    1084            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
    1085
    1086        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    1087            alias = "_t"
    1088
    1089        return f"{alias}{columns}"

def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString ) -> str: View Source

    1091    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
    1092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1093        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
    1094            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1095        return f"{int(this, 2)}"

def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString ) -> str: View Source

    1097    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
    1098        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1099        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
    1100            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
    1101        return f"{int(this, 16)}"

def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString ) -> str: View Source

    1103    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1104        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1105        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1106            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1107        return this

def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString ) -> str: View Source

    1109    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1110        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1111        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1112
    1113        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1114            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
    1115            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
    1116
    1117        if escape:
    1118            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1119        else:
    1120            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1121
    1122        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
    1123        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"

def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString ) -> str: View Source

    1125    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1126        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
    1127        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"

def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam ) -> str: View Source

    1129    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1130        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1131        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1132        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1133        return f"{this}{specifier}"

def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType ) -> str: View Source

    1135    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1136        type_value = expression.this
    1137
    1138        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1139            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1140        else:
    1141            type_sql = (
    1142                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1143                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1144                else type_value
    1145            )
    1146
    1147        nested = ""
    1148        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1149        values = ""
    1150
    1151        if interior:
    1152            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1153                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1154                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1155                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1156                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1157                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1158            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1159                nested = f" {interior}"
    1160            else:
    1161                nested = f"({interior})"
    1162
    1163        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1164        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1165            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1166            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1167        ):
    1168            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1169
    1170        return type_sql

def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory ) -> str: View Source

    1172    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1173        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1174        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1175        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1176        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"

def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete ) -> str: View Source

    1178    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1179        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1180        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1181        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1182        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1183        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1184        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1185        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1186        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1187        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1188        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1189            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1190        else:
    1191            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
    1192        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")

def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop ) -> str: View Source

    1194    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1195        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1196        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1197        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    1198        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1199        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1200        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1201        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1202        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1203        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1204        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1205        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"

def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except ) -> str: View Source

    1207    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1208        return self.set_operations(expression)

def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except ) -> str: View Source

    1210    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1211        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"

def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch ) -> str: View Source

    1213    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1214        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1215        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1216        count = expression.args.get("count")
    1217        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1218        if expression.args.get("percent"):
    1219            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
    1220        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
    1221        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"

def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter ) -> str: View Source

    1223    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1224        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1225            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1226            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1227            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1228
    1229        agg = expression.this
    1230        agg_arg = agg.this
    1231        cond = expression.expression.this
    1232        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1233        return self.sql(agg)

def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint ) -> str: View Source

    1235    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1236        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1237            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1238            return ""
    1239
    1240        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"

def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters ) -> str: View Source

    1242    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
    1243        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1244        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1245        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1246        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1247        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1248        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1249        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1250        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1251        if include:
    1252            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1253        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
    1254        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
    1255        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
    1256        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
    1257
    1258        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"

def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index ) -> str: View Source

    1260    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1261        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1262        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1263        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1264        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1265        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1266        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1267        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1268
    1269        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1270
    1271        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
    1272        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"

def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier ) -> str: View Source

    1274    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1275        text = expression.name
    1276        lower = text.lower()
    1277        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1278        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1279        if (
    1280            expression.quoted
    1281            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1282            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1283            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1284        ):
    1285            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
    1286        return text

def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat ) -> str: View Source

    1288    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1289        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1290        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1291        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1292        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1293        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))

def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str: View Source

    1295    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1296        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1297        return f"{prefix}{string}"

def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition ) -> str: View Source

    1299    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1300        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties ) -> str: View Source

    1302    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1303        root_properties = []
    1304        with_properties = []
    1305
    1306        for p in expression.expressions:
    1307            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1308            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1309                with_properties.append(p)
    1310            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1311                root_properties.append(p)
    1312
    1313        return self.root_properties(
    1314            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
    1315        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))

def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties ) -> str: View Source

    1317    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1318        if properties.expressions:
    1319            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1320        return ""

def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    1322    def properties(
    1323        self,
    1324        properties: exp.Properties,
    1325        prefix: str = "",
    1326        sep: str = ", ",
    1327        suffix: str = "",
    1328        wrapped: bool = True,
    1329    ) -> str:
    1330        if properties.expressions:
    1331            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1332            if expressions:
    1333                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1334                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1335        return ""

def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties ) -> str: View Source

    1337    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1338        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))

def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties ) -> DefaultDict: View Source

    1340    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1341        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1342        for p in properties.expressions:
    1343            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1344            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1345                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1346            else:
    1347                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1348
    1349        return properties_locs

def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    1351    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1352        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1353            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1354        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name

def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property ) -> str: View Source

    1356    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1357        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1358        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1359            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1360
    1361        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1362        if not property_name:
    1363            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1364
    1365        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1367    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1368        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1369            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1370            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1371
    1372            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1373            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1374                like = f"({like})"
    1375
    1376            return like
    1377
    1378        if expression.expressions:
    1379            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1380
    1381        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1382        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"

def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1384    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1385        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1386        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1387        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"

def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1389    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1390        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1391        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1392        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1393        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1394        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1395        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1396        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"

def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1398    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1399        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1400        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1401        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"

def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1403    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1404        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1405            property = "DEFAULT"
    1406        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1407            property = "ON"
    1408        else:
    1409            property = "OFF"
    1410        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"

def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1412    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1413        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1414            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1415        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1416            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1417
    1418        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1419        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"

def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1421    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1422        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1423        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1424        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1425        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1426            if default:
    1427                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1428            elif minimum:
    1429                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1430            else:
    1431                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1432            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1433        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1434        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1435        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"

def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1437    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1438        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1439        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1440        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1441        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1442        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1443
    1444        if autotemp is not None:
    1445            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1446        elif always:
    1447            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1448        elif default:
    1449            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1450        elif manual:
    1451            prop = "MANUAL"
    1452        elif never:
    1453            prop = "NEVER"
    1454        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"

def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1456    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1457        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1458        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1459        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1460        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1461        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1462        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
    1463        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"

def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec ) -> str: View Source

    1465    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1466        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1467            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1468        if expression.this:
    1469            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1470            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1471            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1472
    1473        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1474        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1475        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"

def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1477    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1478        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1479
    1480        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1481        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1482            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1483        else:
    1484            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1485
    1486        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"

def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1488    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1489        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1490        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1491        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1492        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1493        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1494        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1495        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"

def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1497    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1498        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1499        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1500        statistics_sql = ""
    1501        if statistics is not None:
    1502            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1503        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"

def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1505    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1506        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
    1507
    1508        if expression.this:
    1509            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1510            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
    1511
    1512            if expression.expression:
    1513                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1514                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
    1515
    1516            sql = f"{sql})"
    1517
    1518        return f"{sql})"

def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert ) -> str: View Source

    1520    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1521        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    1522        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1523
    1524        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1525            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1526        else:
    1527            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1528
    1529        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
    1530        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
    1531        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1532        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1533        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1534        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
    1535        if is_function:
    1536            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
    1537        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1538
    1539        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1540        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1541        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1542        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1543        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1544        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1545        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1546        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1547
    1548        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1549            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
    1550        else:
    1551            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
    1552
    1553        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
    1554        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect ) -> str: View Source

    1556    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1557        return self.set_operations(expression)

def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect ) -> str: View Source

    1559    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1560        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"

def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer ) -> str: View Source

    1562    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1563        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill ) -> str: View Source

    1565    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1566        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1567        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1568        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1569        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1570        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"

def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType ) -> str: View Source

    1572    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1573        return expression.name

def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier ) -> str: View Source

    1575    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1576        return expression.name

def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict ) -> str: View Source

    1578    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1579        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1580
    1581        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1582        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
    1583
    1584        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
    1585        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
    1586        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    1587
    1588        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1589        if expressions:
    1590            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1591            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1592
    1593        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"

def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning ) -> str: View Source

    1595    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1596        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"

def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1598    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1599        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
    1600        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1601        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
    1602        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1603        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
    1604        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1605        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
    1606        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1607        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
    1608        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1609        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    1610        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1611        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"

def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint ) -> str: View Source

    1613    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1614        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint ) -> str: View Source

    1616    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1617        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1618        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1619        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1620        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData ) -> str: View Source

    1622    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1623        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1624        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1625        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1626        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"

def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table ) -> str: View Source

    1628    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
    1629        return ".".join(
    1630            self.sql(part)
    1631            for part in (
    1632                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1633                expression.args.get("db"),
    1634                expression.args.get("this"),
    1635            )
    1636            if part is not None
    1637        )

def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str: View Source

    1639    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1640        table = self.table_parts(expression)
    1641        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    1642        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1643        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1644        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1645        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1646        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1647        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    1648        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    1649        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    1650        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    1651        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    1652        joins = self.indent(
    1653            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    1654        )
    1655        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    1656
    1657        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1658        if file_format:
    1659            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    1660            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    1661            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    1662
    1663        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    1664        if ordinality:
    1665            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    1666            alias = ""
    1667
    1668        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    1669        if when:
    1670            table = f"{table} {when}"
    1671
    1672        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"

def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str: View Source

    1674    def tablesample_sql(
    1675        self,
    1676        expression: exp.TableSample,
    1677        sep: str = " AS ",
    1678        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    1679    ) -> str:
    1680        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
    1681            table = expression.this.copy()
    1682            table.set("alias", None)
    1683            this = self.sql(table)
    1684            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
    1685        else:
    1686            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1687            alias = ""
    1688
    1689        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    1690        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    1691        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    1692        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    1693        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    1694        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    1695        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    1696        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    1697        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    1698
    1699        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    1700        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    1701            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    1702
    1703        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    1704        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    1705            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    1706
    1707        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    1708        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    1709            expr = f"({expr})"
    1710
    1711        return (
    1712            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
    1713        )

def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot ) -> str: View Source

    1715    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    1716        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1717
    1718        if expression.this:
    1719            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1720            if not expressions:
    1721                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    1722
    1723            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    1724            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    1725            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    1726            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    1727            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
    1728
    1729        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1730        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1731        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
    1732        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
    1733        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    1734        if include_nulls is not None:
    1735            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    1736        else:
    1737            nulls = ""
    1738        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"

def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version ) -> str: View Source

    1740    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    1741        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    1742        kind = expression.text("kind")
    1743        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1744        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"

def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple ) -> str: View Source

    1746    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    1747        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update ) -> str: View Source

    1749    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    1750        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1751        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1752        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    1753        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1754        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1755        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    1756        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1757        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1758            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    1759        else:
    1760            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    1761        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    1762        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    1764    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
    1765        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
    1766
    1767        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    1768        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    1769            args = self.expressions(expression)
    1770            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1771            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    1772            values = (
    1773                f"({values})"
    1774                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
    1775                else values
    1776            )
    1777            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    1778
    1779        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    1780        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    1781        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    1782
    1783        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
    1784
    1785        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    1786            row = tup.expressions
    1787
    1788            if i == 0 and column_names:
    1789                row = [
    1790                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    1791                ]
    1792
    1793            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    1794
    1795        if self.pretty:
    1796            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    1797            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    1798            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    1799            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    1800            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
    1801
    1802        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    1803        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    1804        return f"({unions}){alias}"

def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var ) -> str: View Source

    1806    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    1807        return self.sql(expression, "this")

def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into ) -> str: View Source

    1809    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    1810        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1811        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    1812        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From ) -> str: View Source

    1814    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    1815        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group ) -> str: View Source

    1817    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    1818        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
    1819        if group_by_all is True:
    1820            modifier = " ALL"
    1821        elif group_by_all is False:
    1822            modifier = " DISTINCT"
    1823        else:
    1824            modifier = ""
    1825
    1826        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
    1827
    1828        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
    1829        grouping_sets = (
    1830            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
    1831        )
    1832
    1833        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
    1834        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
    1835            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
    1836        else:
    1837            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
    1838            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
    1839
    1840        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
    1841        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
    1842            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
    1843        else:
    1844            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
    1845            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
    1846
    1847        groupings = csv(
    1848            grouping_sets,
    1849            cube_sql,
    1850            rollup_sql,
    1851            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    1852            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    1853        )
    1854
    1855        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
    1856            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    1857
    1858        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"

def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having ) -> str: View Source

    1860    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    1861        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1862        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect ) -> str: View Source

    1864    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    1865        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1866        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    1867        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
    1868        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    1869        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
    1870        return start + connect

def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior ) -> str: View Source

    1872    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    1873        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join ) -> str: View Source

    1875    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    1876        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    1877            side = None
    1878        else:
    1879            side = expression.side
    1880
    1881        op_sql = " ".join(
    1882            op
    1883            for op in (
    1884                expression.method,
    1885                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    1886                side,
    1887                expression.kind,
    1888                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    1889            )
    1890            if op
    1891        )
    1892        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
    1893        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
    1894        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1895        using = expression.args.get("using")
    1896
    1897        if not on_sql and using:
    1898            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    1899
    1900        this = expression.this
    1901        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    1902
    1903        if on_sql:
    1904            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    1905            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    1906            if using:
    1907                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    1908            else:
    1909                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    1910        elif not op_sql:
    1911            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    1912                return f" {this_sql}"
    1913
    1914            return f", {this_sql}"
    1915
    1916        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    1917        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"

def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str: View Source

    1919    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    1920        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1921        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    1922        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral ) -> str: View Source

    1924    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1925        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    1926
    1927        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    1928        if cross_apply is True:
    1929            op = "INNER JOIN "
    1930        elif cross_apply is False:
    1931            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    1932        else:
    1933            op = ""
    1934
    1935        return f"{op}LATERAL"

def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral ) -> str: View Source

    1937    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1939
    1940        if expression.args.get("view"):
    1941            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    1942            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    1943            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    1944            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    1945            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    1946            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    1947
    1948        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1949        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1950        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"

def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    1952    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    1953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1954
    1955        args = [
    1956            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    1957            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    1958            if e
    1959        ]
    1960
    1961        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    1962        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    1963        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1964        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1965
    1966        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"

def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset ) -> str: View Source

    1968    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    1969        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1970        value = expression.expression
    1971        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    1972        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1973        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1974        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"

def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem ) -> str: View Source

    1976    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    1977        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1978        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    1979        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1980        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    1981        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    1982        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    1983        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    1984        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"

def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set ) -> str: View Source

    1986    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    1987        expressions = (
    1988            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
    1989        )
    1990        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    1991        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"

def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma ) -> str: View Source

    1993    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    1994        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock ) -> str: View Source

    1996    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    1997        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    1998            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    1999            return ""
    2000
    2001        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    2002        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2003        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2004        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    2005
    2006        if wait is not None:
    2007            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    2008                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    2009            else:
    2010                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    2011
    2012        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"

def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal ) -> str: View Source

    2014    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    2015        text = expression.this or ""
    2016        if expression.is_string:
    2017            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2018        return text

def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    2020    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
    2021        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
    2022            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
    2023            text = "".join(
    2024                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
    2025            )
    2026
    2027        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
    2028            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
    2029        )

def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData ) -> str: View Source

    2031    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    2032        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    2033        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    2034        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    2035        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2036        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    2037        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    2038        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    2039        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    2040        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    2041        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    2042        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"

def null_sql(self, *_) -> str: View Source

    2044    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    2045        return "NULL"

def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean ) -> str: View Source

    2047    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    2048        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"

def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    2050    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    2051        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2052        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    2053        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    2054        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
    2055        interpolated_values = [
    2056            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
    2057            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    2058        ]
    2059        interpolate = (
    2060            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    2061        )
    2062        return f"{order}{interpolate}"

def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill ) -> str: View Source

    2064    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    2065        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2066        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    2067        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2068        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2069        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    2070        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    2071        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"

def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster ) -> str: View Source

    2073    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    2074        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)

def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute ) -> str: View Source

    2076    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    2077        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)

def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort ) -> str: View Source

    2079    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    2080        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)

def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered ) -> str: View Source

    2082    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    2083        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    2084        asc = not desc
    2085
    2086        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    2087        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    2088        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    2089        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    2090        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    2091
    2092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2093
    2094        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    2095        nulls_sort_change = ""
    2096        if nulls_first and (
    2097            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    2098        ):
    2099            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    2100        elif (
    2101            nulls_last
    2102            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    2103            and not nulls_are_last
    2104        ):
    2105            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    2106
    2107        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    2108        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    2109            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2110            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    2111                self.unsupported(
    2112                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    2113                )
    2114                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2115            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    2116                if expression.this.is_int:
    2117                    self.unsupported(
    2118                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2119                    )
    2120                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
    2121                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2122                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2123                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2124
    2125        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2126        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2127
    2128        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"

def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure ) -> str: View Source

    2130    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
    2131        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
    2132        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
    2133
    2134        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2135
    2136        return f"{window_frame}{this}"

def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize ) -> str: View Source

    2138    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2139        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2140        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2141        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2142        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2143        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2144        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2145        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2146        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2147        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2148        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2149        definition_sqls = [
    2150            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2151            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2152        ]
    2153        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2154        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2155        body = "".join(
    2156            (
    2157                partition,
    2158                order,
    2159                measures,
    2160                rows,
    2161                after,
    2162                pattern,
    2163                define,
    2164            )
    2165        )
    2166        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2167        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2168        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"

def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str: View Source

    2170    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2171        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2172
    2173        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2174            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2175        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2176            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2177
    2178        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2179        if options:
    2180            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
    2181
    2182        return csv(
    2183            *sqls,
    2184            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2185            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2186            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2187            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2188            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
    2189            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2190            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2191            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2192            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
    2193            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2194            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
    2195            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2196            options,
    2197            sep="",
    2198        )

def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption ) -> str: View Source

    2200    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
    2201        return ""

def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[ sqlglot.expressions.Fetch , sqlglot.expressions.Limit , NoneType]) -> List[str]: View Source

    2203    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2204        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2205    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2206        return [
    2207            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2208            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2209        ]

def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression ) -> List[str]: View Source

    2211    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2212        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2213        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2214        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]

def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select ) -> str: View Source

    2216    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2217        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2218        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2219            into.pop()
    2220
    2221        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2222        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2223        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2224        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2225
    2226        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2227        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
    2228            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2229            limit.pop()
    2230        else:
    2231            top = ""
    2232
    2233        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2234
    2235        if kind:
    2236            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2237                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2238            else:
    2239                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2240                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2241                        sqls=[
    2242                            self.sql(
    2243                                exp.Struct(
    2244                                    expressions=[
    2245                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
    2246                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2247                                        else e
    2248                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2249                                    ]
    2250                                )
    2251                            )
    2252                        ]
    2253                    )
    2254                kind = ""
    2255
    2256        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2257        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2258        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2259        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2260        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2261            expression,
    2262            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
    2263            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2264            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2265        )
    2266
    2267        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2268
    2269        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2270            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2271                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2272            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2273                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2274            else:
    2275                table_kind = ""
    2276            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2277
    2278        return sql

def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema ) -> str: View Source

    2280    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2281        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2282        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2283        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql

def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema ) -> str: View Source

    2285    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2286        if expression.expressions:
    2287            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2288        return ""

def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star ) -> str: View Source

    2290    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2291        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2292        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2293        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2294        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2295        return f"*{except_}{replace}"

def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter ) -> str: View Source

    2297    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2298        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2299        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"

def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter ) -> str: View Source

    2301    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2302        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2303        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2304        if kind:
    2305            kind = f"{kind}."
    2306        return f"@@{kind}{this}"

def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder ) -> str: View Source

    2308    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2309        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"

def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str: View Source

    2311    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2312        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2313        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2314
    2315        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    2316        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    2317
    2318        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2319        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify ) -> str: View Source

    2321    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2322        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2323        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union ) -> str: View Source

    2325    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2326        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
    2327            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2328            order = expression.args.get("order")
    2329
    2330            if limit or order:
    2331                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
    2332
    2333                if limit:
    2334                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
    2335                if order:
    2336                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
    2337                return self.sql(select)
    2338
    2339        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    2340        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    2341
    2342        while stack:
    2343            node = stack.pop()
    2344
    2345            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
    2346                stack.append(node.expression)
    2347                stack.append(
    2348                    self.maybe_comment(
    2349                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
    2350                        comments=node.comments,
    2351                        separated=True,
    2352                    )
    2353                )
    2354                stack.append(node.this)
    2355            else:
    2356                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    2357
    2358        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
    2359        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
    2360        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)

def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union ) -> str: View Source

    2362    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2363        return self.set_operations(expression)

def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union ) -> str: View Source

    2365    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2366        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
    2367        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
    2368        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    2369        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"

def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest ) -> str: View Source

    2371    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2372        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2373
    2374        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2375        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2376
    2377        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2378            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2379                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2380
    2381        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2382            columns = alias.columns
    2383            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2384        else:
    2385            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2386
    2387        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2388        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2389            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2390        else:
    2391            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2392                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2393            elif offset:
    2394                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2395            else:
    2396                suffix = alias
    2397
    2398        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"

def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere ) -> str: View Source

    2400    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
    2401        return ""

def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where ) -> str: View Source

    2403    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2404        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2405        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window ) -> str: View Source

    2407    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2408        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2409        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2410        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2411        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2412        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2413        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2414        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2415
    2416        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2417
    2418        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2419        if first is None:
    2420            first = ""
    2421        else:
    2422            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2423
    2424        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2425            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2426
    2427        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
    2428        return f"{this} ({args})"

def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize ) -> str: View Source

    2430    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2431        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2432        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""

def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec ) -> str: View Source

    2434    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2435        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2436        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2437        end = (
    2438            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2439            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2440        )
    2441        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"

def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup ) -> str: View Source

    2443    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2444        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2445        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2446        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"

def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between ) -> str: View Source

    2448    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2449        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2450        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2451        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2452        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"

def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket ) -> List[ sqlglot.expressions.Expression ]: View Source

    2454    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2455        return apply_index_offset(
    2456            expression.this,
    2457            expression.expressions,
    2458            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2459        )

def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket ) -> str: View Source

    2461    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2462        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
    2463        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2464        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"

def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All ) -> str: View Source

    2466    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2467        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"

def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any ) -> str: View Source

    2469    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2470        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2471        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
    2472            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
    2473                this = self.wrap(this)
    2474            return f"ANY{this}"
    2475        return f"ANY {this}"

def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists ) -> str: View Source

    2477    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2478        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"

def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case ) -> str: View Source

    2480    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2481        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2482        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2483
    2484        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2485            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2486            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2487
    2488        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2489
    2490        if default:
    2491            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2492
    2493        statements.append("END")
    2494
    2495        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
    2496            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2497
    2498        return " ".join(statements)

def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint ) -> str: View Source

    2500    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2502        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2503        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"

def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor ) -> str: View Source

    2505    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2506        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2507        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2508        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"

def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract ) -> str: View Source

    2510    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2511        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2512        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2513        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"

def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim ) -> str: View Source

    2515    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2516        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2517
    2518        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2519            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
    2520        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2521            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
    2522        else:
    2523            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)

def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs ) -> List[ sqlglot.expressions.Expression ]: View Source

    2525    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2526        args = expression.expressions
    2527        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2528            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2529
    2530        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2531            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
    2532
    2533        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2534            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2535
    2536        return args

def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat ) -> str: View Source

    2538    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2539        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2540
    2541        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2542        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2543            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2544
    2545        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)

def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs ) -> str: View Source

    2547    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2548        return self.func(
    2549            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2550        )

def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check ) -> str: View Source

    2552    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2553        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2554        return f"CHECK ({this})"

def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey ) -> str: View Source

    2556    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2557        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2558        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2559        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2560        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2561        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2562        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2563        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2564        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"

def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey ) -> str: View Source

    2566    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2567        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2568        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2569        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2570        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"

def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If ) -> str: View Source

    2572    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2573        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))

def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst ) -> str: View Source

    2575    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2576        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2577        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2578        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"

def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue ) -> str: View Source

    2580    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2581        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath ) -> str: View Source

    2583    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2584        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2585        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"

def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart ) -> str: View Source

    2587    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    2588        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    2589            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    2590            if not callable(transform):
    2591                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    2592                return ""
    2593
    2594            return transform(self, expression)
    2595
    2596        if isinstance(expression, int):
    2597            return str(expression)
    2598
    2599        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    2600            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    2601            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    2602        else:
    2603            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    2604            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    2605
    2606        return escaped

def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson ) -> str: View Source

    2608    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    2609        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"

def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg ) -> str: View Source

    2611    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2612        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2613        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2614
    2615        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    2616        if unique_keys is not None:
    2617            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    2618        else:
    2619            unique_keys = ""
    2620
    2621        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2622        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2623        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    2624        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    2625
    2626        return self.func(
    2627            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    2628            *expression.expressions,
    2629            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    2630        )

def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg ) -> str: View Source

    2632    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2633        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)

def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray ) -> str: View Source

    2635    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    2636        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2637        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2638        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2639        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2640        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2641        return self.func(
    2642            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    2643        )

def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg ) -> str: View Source

    2645    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    2646        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2647        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2648        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2649        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2650        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2651        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2652        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2653        return self.func(
    2654            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    2655            this,
    2656            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    2657        )

def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef ) -> str: View Source

    2659    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2660        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2661        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    2662        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    2663
    2664        if nested_schema:
    2665            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    2666
    2667        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2668        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2669        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    2670        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"

def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema ) -> str: View Source

    2672    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    2673        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)

def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable ) -> str: View Source

    2675    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    2676        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2677        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2678        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2679        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    2680        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    2681        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    2682        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    2683        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    2684        return self.func(
    2685            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    2686        )

def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef ) -> str: View Source

    2688    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2689        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2690        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2691        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2692        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    2693        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    2694        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"

def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON ) -> str: View Source

    2696    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    2697        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2698        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2699        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2700        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2701        with_ = (
    2702            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2703            if expressions
    2704            else ""
    2705        )
    2706        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"

def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In ) -> str: View Source

    2708    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    2709        query = expression.args.get("query")
    2710        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    2711        field = expression.args.get("field")
    2712        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    2713
    2714        if query:
    2715            in_sql = self.sql(query)
    2716        elif unnest:
    2717            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    2718        elif field:
    2719            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    2720        else:
    2721            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2722
    2723        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"

def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest ) -> str: View Source

    2725    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2726        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"

def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval ) -> str: View Source

    2728    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    2729        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    2730        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    2731            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    2732        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    2733
    2734        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    2735            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    2736            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    2737
    2738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2739        if this:
    2740            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    2741            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    2742
    2743        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"

def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return ) -> str: View Source

    2745    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    2746        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference ) -> str: View Source

    2748    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    2749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2750        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2751        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    2752        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2753        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2754        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"

def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous ) -> str: View Source

    2756    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    2757        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)

def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren ) -> str: View Source

    2759    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    2760        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    2761        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"

def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg ) -> str: View Source

    2763    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    2764        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    2765        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2766        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    2767        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"

def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not ) -> str: View Source

    2769    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    2770        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias ) -> str: View Source

    2772    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    2773        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2774        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2775        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"

def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias ) -> str: View Source

    2777    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    2778        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2779        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    2780
    2781        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2782            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    2783        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2784            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    2785
    2786        return self.alias_sql(expression)

def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases ) -> str: View Source

    2788    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    2789        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone ) -> str: View Source

    2791    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2792        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2793        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2794        return f"{this} AT {index}"

def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone ) -> str: View Source

    2796    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2797        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2798        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2799        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"

def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone ) -> str: View Source

    2801    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    2802        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2803        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2804        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"

def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add ) -> str: View Source

    2806    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    2807        return self.binary(expression, "+")

def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression ]] = None) -> str: View Source

    2809    def and_sql(
    2810        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2811    ) -> str:
    2812        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)

def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression ]] = None) -> str: View Source

    2814    def or_sql(
    2815        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2816    ) -> str:
    2817        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)

def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression ]] = None) -> str: View Source

    2819    def xor_sql(
    2820        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    2821    ) -> str:
    2822        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)

def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression ]] = None) -> str: View Source

    2824    def connector_sql(
    2825        self,
    2826        expression: exp.Connector,
    2827        op: str,
    2828        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    2829    ) -> str:
    2830        if stack is not None:
    2831            if expression.expressions:
    2832                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
    2833            else:
    2834                stack.append(expression.right)
    2835                if expression.comments:
    2836                    for comment in expression.comments:
    2837                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
    2838                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
    2839            return op
    2840
    2841        stack = [expression]
    2842        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    2843        ops = set()
    2844
    2845        while stack:
    2846            node = stack.pop()
    2847            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
    2848                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
    2849            else:
    2850                sql = self.sql(node)
    2851                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
    2852                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
    2853                else:
    2854                    sqls.append(sql)
    2855
    2856        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
    2857        return sep.join(sqls)

def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd ) -> str: View Source

    2859    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    2860        return self.binary(expression, "&")

def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift ) -> str: View Source

    2862    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    2863        return self.binary(expression, "<<")

def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot ) -> str: View Source

    2865    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    2866        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr ) -> str: View Source

    2868    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    2869        return self.binary(expression, "|")

def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift ) -> str: View Source

    2871    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    2872        return self.binary(expression, ">>")

def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor ) -> str: View Source

    2874    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    2875        return self.binary(expression, "^")

def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str: View Source

    2877    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    2878        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    2879        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    2880        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2881        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2882        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    2883        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
    2884        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"

def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate ) -> str: View Source

    2886    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    2887        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2888        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"

def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentTimestamp ) -> str: View Source

    2890    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
    2891        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)

def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate ) -> str: View Source

    2893    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    2894        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    2895            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    2896        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")

def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command ) -> str: View Source

    2898    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    2899        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"

def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment ) -> str: View Source

    2901    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    2902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2903        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    2904        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    2905        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    2906        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2907        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"

def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction ) -> str: View Source

    2909    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    2910        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2911        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    2912        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    2913        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    2914        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    2915        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    2916        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    2917        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    2918        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"

def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL ) -> str: View Source

    2920    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    2921        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    2922        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    2923        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    2924        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    2925
    2926        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    2927            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    2928
    2929        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"

def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction ) -> str: View Source

    2931    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    2932        return "BEGIN"

def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit ) -> str: View Source

    2934    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    2935        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    2936        if chain is not None:
    2937            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    2938
    2939        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"

def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback ) -> str: View Source

    2941    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    2942        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    2943        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    2944        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"

def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn ) -> str: View Source

    2946    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    2947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2948
    2949        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    2950        if dtype:
    2951            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2952            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2953            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    2954            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    2955            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
    2956
    2957        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2958        if default:
    2959            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    2960
    2961        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    2962        if comment:
    2963            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    2964
    2965        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
    2966            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    2967
    2968        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"

def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable ) -> str: View Source

    2970    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
    2971        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    2972            # Remove db from tables
    2973            expression = expression.transform(
    2974                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    2975            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
    2976        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2977        return f"RENAME TO {this}"

def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn ) -> str: View Source

    2979    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    2980        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    2981        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2982        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2983        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"

def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable ) -> str: View Source

    2985    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    2986        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    2987
    2988        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
    2989            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
    2990        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
    2991            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
    2992        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
    2993            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    2994        else:
    2995            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    2996
    2997        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    2998        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    2999        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    3000        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
    3001        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"

def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable ) -> str: View Source

    3003    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    3004        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    3005            return self.expressions(
    3006                expression,
    3007                key="actions",
    3008                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
    3009            )
    3010        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"

def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition ) -> str: View Source

    3012    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    3013        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3014        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3015        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"

def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    3017    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    3018        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"

def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct ) -> str: View Source

    3020    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    3021        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3022
    3023        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    3024            case = exp.case()
    3025            for arg in expression.expressions:
    3026                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    3027            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    3028
    3029        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3030
    3031        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    3032        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    3033        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"

def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls ) -> str: View Source

    3035    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    3036        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")

def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls ) -> str: View Source

    3038    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    3039        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")

def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax ) -> str: View Source

    3041    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
    3042        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3043        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3044        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
    3045        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"

def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv ) -> str: View Source

    3047    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    3048        return self.sql(
    3049            exp.Cast(
    3050                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    3051                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    3052            )
    3053        )

def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe ) -> str: View Source

    3055    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    3056        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3057            return self.func(
    3058                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
    3059            )
    3060        return self.binary(expression, "||")

def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div ) -> str: View Source

    3062    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    3063        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    3064
    3065        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3066            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    3067
    3068        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    3069            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
    3070                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3071
    3072        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    3073            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    3074                return self.sql(
    3075                    exp.cast(
    3076                        l / r,
    3077                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    3078                    )
    3079                )
    3080
    3081        return self.binary(expression, "/")

def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps ) -> str: View Source

    3083    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    3084        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")

def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance ) -> str: View Source

    3086    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    3087        return self.binary(expression, "<->")

def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot ) -> str: View Source

    3089    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    3090        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ ) -> str: View Source

    3092    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    3093        return self.binary(expression, "=")

def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ ) -> str: View Source

    3095    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    3096        return self.binary(expression, ":=")

def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape ) -> str: View Source

    3098    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    3099        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")

def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob ) -> str: View Source

    3101    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    3102        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")

def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT ) -> str: View Source

    3104    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    3105        return self.binary(expression, ">")

def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE ) -> str: View Source

    3107    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    3108        return self.binary(expression, ">=")

def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike ) -> str: View Source

    3110    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    3111        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")

def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny ) -> str: View Source

    3113    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    3114        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")

def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is ) -> str: View Source

    3116    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    3117        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    3118            return self.sql(
    3119                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    3120            )
    3121        return self.binary(expression, "IS")

def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like ) -> str: View Source

    3123    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    3124        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")

def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny ) -> str: View Source

    3126    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    3127        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")

def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo ) -> str: View Source

    3129    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    3130        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")

def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT ) -> str: View Source

    3132    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    3133        return self.binary(expression, "<")

def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE ) -> str: View Source

    3135    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    3136        return self.binary(expression, "<=")

def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod ) -> str: View Source

    3138    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    3139        return self.binary(expression, "%")

def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul ) -> str: View Source

    3141    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    3142        return self.binary(expression, "*")

def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ ) -> str: View Source

    3144    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    3145        return self.binary(expression, "<>")

def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ ) -> str: View Source

    3147    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    3148        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")

def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ ) -> str: View Source

    3150    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    3151        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")

def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice ) -> str: View Source

    3153    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    3154        return self.binary(expression, ":")

def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub ) -> str: View Source

    3156    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    3157        return self.binary(expression, "-")

def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast ) -> str: View Source

    3159    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    3160        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")

def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log ) -> str: View Source

    3162    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    3163        this = expression.this
    3164        expr = expression.expression
    3165
    3166        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
    3167            this, expr = expr, this
    3168        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
    3169            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
    3170                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
    3171
    3172            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
    3173
    3174        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)

def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use ) -> str: View Source

    3176    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3177        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3178        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3179        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3180        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3181        return f"USE{kind}{this}"

def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str: View Source

    3183    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3184        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
    3185        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func ) -> str: View Source

    3187    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3188        args = []
    3189
    3190        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3191            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3192
    3193            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3194                for value in arg_value:
    3195                    args.append(value)
    3196            elif arg_value is not None:
    3197                args.append(arg_value)
    3198
    3199        if self.normalize_functions:
    3200            name = expression.sql_name()
    3201        else:
    3202            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3203
    3204        return self.func(name, *args)

def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression , NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str: View Source

    3206    def func(
    3207        self,
    3208        name: str,
    3209        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3210        prefix: str = "(",
    3211        suffix: str = ")",
    3212    ) -> str:
    3213        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"

def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression , NoneType]) -> str: View Source

    3215    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
    3216        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
    3217        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
    3218            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    3219        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)

def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool: View Source

    3221    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
    3222        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width

def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]: View Source

    3224    def format_time(
    3225        self,
    3226        expression: exp.Expression,
    3227        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
    3228        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
    3229    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3230        return format_time(
    3231            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3232            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3233            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3234        )

def expressions( self, expression: Optional[ sqlglot.expressions.Expression ] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression ]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    3236    def expressions(
    3237        self,
    3238        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3239        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3240        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3241        flat: bool = False,
    3242        indent: bool = True,
    3243        skip_first: bool = False,
    3244        skip_last: bool = False,
    3245        sep: str = ", ",
    3246        prefix: str = "",
    3247        dynamic: bool = False,
    3248        new_line: bool = False,
    3249    ) -> str:
    3250        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3251
    3252        if not expressions:
    3253            return ""
    3254
    3255        if flat:
    3256            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3257
    3258        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3259
    3260        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
    3261        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
    3262            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
    3263
    3264        result_sqls = []
    3265        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3266            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3267            if not sql:
    3268                continue
    3269
    3270            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3271
    3272            if self.pretty:
    3273                if self.leading_comma:
    3274                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3275                else:
    3276                    result_sqls.append(
    3277                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3278                    )
    3279            else:
    3280                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3281
    3282        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
    3283            if new_line:
    3284                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
    3285                result_sqls.append("")
    3286            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
    3287        else:
    3288            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
    3289        return (
    3290            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
    3291            if indent
    3292            else result_sql
    3293        )

def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    3295    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3296        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3297        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3298        if flat:
    3299            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3300        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"

def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property ) -> str: View Source

    3302    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3303        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3304        if not property_name:
    3305            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3306        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag ) -> str: View Source

    3308    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3309        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"

def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType ) -> str: View Source

    3311    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3312        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)

def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction ) -> str: View Source

    3314    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3315        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3316        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3317        expressions = (
    3318            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3319        )
    3320        return f"{this}{expressions}"

def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint ) -> str: View Source

    3322    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3323        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3324        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3325        return f"{this}({expressions})"

def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg ) -> str: View Source

    3327    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3328        return self.binary(expression, "=>")

def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When ) -> str: View Source

    3330    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3331        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3332        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3333        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3334        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3335
    3336        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3337        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3338            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
    3339            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
    3340                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
    3341        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3342            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3343                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3344            else:
    3345                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
    3346        else:
    3347            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3348        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"

def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge ) -> str: View Source

    3350    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3351        table = expression.this
    3352        table_alias = ""
    3353
    3354        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3355        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3356            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3357            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3358
    3359        this = self.sql(table)
    3360        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3361        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3362        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
    3363
    3364        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3365            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
    3366        )

def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar ) -> str: View Source

    3368    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3369        if expression.args.get("format"):
    3370            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
    3371
    3372        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))

def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber ) -> str: View Source

    3374    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
    3375        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
    3376            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
    3377            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3378
    3379        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
    3380        if not fmt:
    3381            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
    3382            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3383
    3384        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)

def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty ) -> str: View Source

    3386    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3387        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3388        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3389        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3390        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3391        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"

def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange ) -> str: View Source

    3393    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3394        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3395        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3396        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3397        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"

def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty ) -> str: View Source

    3399    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3400        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"

def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster ) -> str: View Source

    3402    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3403        return ""

def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty ) -> str: View Source

    3405    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3406        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3407        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3408        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3409        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3410        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"

def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue ) -> str: View Source

    3412    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3413        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3414        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3415
    3416        if having:
    3417            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3418
    3419        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)

def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform ) -> str: View Source

    3421    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3422        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3423        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3424        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3425        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3426        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3427        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3428        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3429        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3430        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3431        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3432        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3433        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3434        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"

def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption ) -> str: View Source

    3436    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3437        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3438        if key_block_size:
    3439            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3440
    3441        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3442        if using:
    3443            return f"USING {using}"
    3444
    3445        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    3446        if parser:
    3447            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    3448
    3449        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3450        if comment:
    3451            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    3452
    3453        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3454        if visible is not None:
    3455            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3456
    3457        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    3458        if engine_attr:
    3459            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    3460
    3461        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    3462        if secondary_engine_attr:
    3463            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    3464
    3465        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    3466        return ""

def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    3468    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3469        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
    3470        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"

def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    3472    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3473        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3474        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    3475        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3476        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3477        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    3478        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    3479        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3480        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3481        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    3482        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3483        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"

def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2 ) -> str: View Source

    3485    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    3486        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    3487            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3488
    3489        case = exp.Case().when(
    3490            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    3491            expression.args["true"],
    3492            copy=False,
    3493        )
    3494        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    3495        if else_cond:
    3496            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    3497
    3498        return self.sql(case)

def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension ) -> str: View Source

    3500    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    3501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3502        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3503        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    3504        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3505        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    3506        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"

def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix ) -> str: View Source

    3508    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    3509        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"

def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass ) -> str: View Source

    3511    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    3512        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict ) -> str: View Source

    3514    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    3515        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3516        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    3517        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3518        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    3519        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    3520        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)

def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn ) -> str: View Source

    3522    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    3523        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3524        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3525        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"

def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh ) -> str: View Source

    3527    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    3528        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3529        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    3530        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"

def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator ) -> str: View Source

    3532    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
    3533        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")

def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray ) -> str: View Source

    3535    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    3536        arg = expression.this
    3537        if not arg.type:
    3538            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    3539
    3540            arg = annotate_types(arg)
    3541
    3542        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    3543            return self.sql(arg)
    3544
    3545        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    3546        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))

def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime ) -> str: View Source

    3548    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    3549        this = expression.this
    3550        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    3551            return self.sql(this)
    3552
    3553        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))

def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp ) -> str: View Source

    3555    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
    3556        this = expression.this
    3557        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
    3558            return self.sql(this)
    3559
    3560        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))

def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate ) -> str: View Source

    3562    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    3563        this = expression.this
    3564        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    3565
    3566        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    3567            return self.sql(
    3568                exp.cast(
    3569                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    3570                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
    3571                )
    3572            )
    3573
    3574        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    3575            return self.sql(this)
    3576
    3577        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))

def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate ) -> str: View Source

    3579    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    3580        return self.sql(
    3581            exp.func(
    3582                "DATEDIFF",
    3583                expression.this,
    3584                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
    3585                "day",
    3586            )
    3587        )

def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay ) -> str: View Source

    3589    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    3590        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    3591            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3592
    3593        unit = expression.text("unit")
    3594        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    3595            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    3596
    3597        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)

def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd ) -> str: View Source

    3599    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
    3600        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
    3601
    3602        return self.func(
    3603            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
    3604        )

def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny ) -> str: View Source

    3606    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
    3607        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
    3608            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
    3609            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
    3610            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
    3611            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
    3612
    3613        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    3614
    3615        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
    3616        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
    3617            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
    3618
    3619        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

def generateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GenerateSeries ) -> str: View Source

    3621    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
    3622        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
    3623        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct ) -> str: View Source

    3625    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
    3626        expression.set(
    3627            "expressions",
    3628            [
    3629                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
    3630                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
    3631                else e
    3632                for e in expression.expressions
    3633            ],
    3634        )
    3635
    3636        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange ) -> str: View Source

    3638    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
    3639        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3640        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3641
    3642        return f"{low} TO {high}"

def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable ) -> str: View Source

    3644    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
    3645        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
    3646        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3647
    3648        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3649
    3650        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3651        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3652
    3653        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
    3654        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
    3655
    3656        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    3657        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    3658
    3659        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    3660        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    3661
    3662        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"

def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert ) -> str: View Source

    3666    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
    3667        to = expression.this
    3668        value = expression.expression
    3669        style = expression.args.get("style")
    3670        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
    3671        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
    3672
    3673        if not to or not value:
    3674            return ""
    3675
    3676        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
    3677        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3678            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
    3679
    3680        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
    3681        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
    3682
    3683        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
    3684        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
    3685            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
    3686
    3687            style_value = style.name
    3688            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
    3689            if not converted_style:
    3690                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
    3691
    3692            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
    3693
    3694            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
    3695                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
    3696            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
    3697                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
    3698            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3699                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
    3700            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
    3701                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
    3702
    3703        if not transformed:
    3704            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
    3705
    3706        return self.sql(transformed)