# sqlglot.optimizer.simplify API documentation

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# sqlglot.optimizer.simplify

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       1from __future__ import annotations
       2
       3import datetime
       4import functools
       5import itertools
       6import typing as t
       7from collections import deque
       8from decimal import Decimal
       9from functools import reduce
      10
      11import sqlglot
      12from sqlglot import Dialect, exp
      13from sqlglot.helper import first, merge_ranges, while_changing
      14from sqlglot.optimizer.scope import find_all_in_scope, walk_in_scope
      15
      16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
      17    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
      18
      19    DateTruncBinaryTransform = t.Callable[
      20        [exp.Expression, datetime.date, str, Dialect, exp.DataType], t.Optional[exp.Expression]
      21    ]
      22
      23# Final means that an expression should not be simplified
      24FINAL = "final"
      25
      26# Value ranges for byte-sized signed/unsigned integers
      27TINYINT_MIN = -128
      28TINYINT_MAX = 127
      29UTINYINT_MIN = 0
      30UTINYINT_MAX = 255
      31
      32
      33class UnsupportedUnit(Exception):
      34    pass
      35
      36
      37def simplify(
      38    expression: exp.Expression, constant_propagation: bool = False, dialect: DialectType = None
      39):
      40    """
      41    Rewrite sqlglot AST to simplify expressions.
      42
      43    Example:
      44        >>> import sqlglot
      45        >>> expression = sqlglot.parse_one("TRUE AND TRUE")
      46        >>> simplify(expression).sql()
      47        'TRUE'
      48
      49    Args:
      50        expression (sqlglot.Expression): expression to simplify
      51        constant_propagation: whether the constant propagation rule should be used
      52
      53    Returns:
      54        sqlglot.Expression: simplified expression
      55    """
      56
      57    dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
      58
      59    def _simplify(expression, root=True):
      60        if expression.meta.get(FINAL):
      61            return expression
      62
      63        # group by expressions cannot be simplified, for example
      64        # select x + 1 + 1 FROM y GROUP BY x + 1 + 1
      65        # the projection must exactly match the group by key
      66        group = expression.args.get("group")
      67
      68        if group and hasattr(expression, "selects"):
      69            groups = set(group.expressions)
      70            group.meta[FINAL] = True
      71
      72            for e in expression.selects:
      73                for node in e.walk():
      74                    if node in groups:
      75                        e.meta[FINAL] = True
      76                        break
      77
      78            having = expression.args.get("having")
      79            if having:
      80                for node in having.walk():
      81                    if node in groups:
      82                        having.meta[FINAL] = True
      83                        break
      84
      85        # Pre-order transformations
      86        node = expression
      87        node = rewrite_between(node)
      88        node = uniq_sort(node, root)
      89        node = absorb_and_eliminate(node, root)
      90        node = simplify_concat(node)
      91        node = simplify_conditionals(node)
      92
      93        if constant_propagation:
      94            node = propagate_constants(node, root)
      95
      96        exp.replace_children(node, lambda e: _simplify(e, False))
      97
      98        # Post-order transformations
      99        node = simplify_not(node)
     100        node = flatten(node)
     101        node = simplify_connectors(node, root)
     102        node = remove_complements(node, root)
     103        node = simplify_coalesce(node)
     104        node.parent = expression.parent
     105        node = simplify_literals(node, root)
     106        node = simplify_equality(node)
     107        node = simplify_parens(node)
     108        node = simplify_datetrunc(node, dialect)
     109        node = sort_comparison(node)
     110        node = simplify_startswith(node)
     111
     112        if root:
     113            expression.replace(node)
     114        return node
     115
     116    expression = while_changing(expression, _simplify)
     117    remove_where_true(expression)
     118    return expression
     119
     120
     121def catch(*exceptions):
     122    """Decorator that ignores a simplification function if any of `exceptions` are raised"""
     123
     124    def decorator(func):
     125        def wrapped(expression, *args, **kwargs):
     126            try:
     127                return func(expression, *args, **kwargs)
     128            except exceptions:
     129                return expression
     130
     131        return wrapped
     132
     133    return decorator
     134
     135
     136def rewrite_between(expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
     137    """Rewrite x between y and z to x >= y AND x <= z.
     138
     139    This is done because comparison simplification is only done on lt/lte/gt/gte.
     140    """
     141    if isinstance(expression, exp.Between):
     142        negate = isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Not)
     143
     144        expression = exp.and_(
     145            exp.GTE(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.args["low"]),
     146            exp.LTE(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.args["high"]),
     147            copy=False,
     148        )
     149
     150        if negate:
     151            expression = exp.paren(expression, copy=False)
     152
     153    return expression
     154
     155
     156COMPLEMENT_COMPARISONS = {
     157    exp.LT: exp.GTE,
     158    exp.GT: exp.LTE,
     159    exp.LTE: exp.GT,
     160    exp.GTE: exp.LT,
     161    exp.EQ: exp.NEQ,
     162    exp.NEQ: exp.EQ,
     163}
     164
     165
     166def simplify_not(expression):
     167    """
     168    Demorgan's Law
     169    NOT (x OR y) -> NOT x AND NOT y
     170    NOT (x AND y) -> NOT x OR NOT y
     171    """
     172    if isinstance(expression, exp.Not):
     173        this = expression.this
     174        if is_null(this):
     175            return exp.null()
     176        if this.__class__ in COMPLEMENT_COMPARISONS:
     177            return COMPLEMENT_COMPARISONS[this.__class__](
     178                this=this.this, expression=this.expression
     179            )
     180        if isinstance(this, exp.Paren):
     181            condition = this.unnest()
     182            if isinstance(condition, exp.And):
     183                return exp.paren(
     184                    exp.or_(
     185                        exp.not_(condition.left, copy=False),
     186                        exp.not_(condition.right, copy=False),
     187                        copy=False,
     188                    )
     189                )
     190            if isinstance(condition, exp.Or):
     191                return exp.paren(
     192                    exp.and_(
     193                        exp.not_(condition.left, copy=False),
     194                        exp.not_(condition.right, copy=False),
     195                        copy=False,
     196                    )
     197                )
     198            if is_null(condition):
     199                return exp.null()
     200        if always_true(this):
     201            return exp.false()
     202        if is_false(this):
     203            return exp.true()
     204        if isinstance(this, exp.Not):
     205            # double negation
     206            # NOT NOT x -> x
     207            return this.this
     208    return expression
     209
     210
     211def flatten(expression):
     212    """
     213    A AND (B AND C) -> A AND B AND C
     214    A OR (B OR C) -> A OR B OR C
     215    """
     216    if isinstance(expression, exp.Connector):
     217        for node in expression.args.values():
     218            child = node.unnest()
     219            if isinstance(child, expression.__class__):
     220                node.replace(child)
     221    return expression
     222
     223
     224def simplify_connectors(expression, root=True):
     225    def _simplify_connectors(expression, left, right):
     226        if left == right:
     227            return left
     228        if isinstance(expression, exp.And):
     229            if is_false(left) or is_false(right):
     230                return exp.false()
     231            if is_null(left) or is_null(right):
     232                return exp.null()
     233            if always_true(left) and always_true(right):
     234                return exp.true()
     235            if always_true(left):
     236                return right
     237            if always_true(right):
     238                return left
     239            return _simplify_comparison(expression, left, right)
     240        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Or):
     241            if always_true(left) or always_true(right):
     242                return exp.true()
     243            if is_false(left) and is_false(right):
     244                return exp.false()
     245            if (
     246                (is_null(left) and is_null(right))
     247                or (is_null(left) and is_false(right))
     248                or (is_false(left) and is_null(right))
     249            ):
     250                return exp.null()
     251            if is_false(left):
     252                return right
     253            if is_false(right):
     254                return left
     255            return _simplify_comparison(expression, left, right, or_=True)
     256
     257    if isinstance(expression, exp.Connector):
     258        return _flat_simplify(expression, _simplify_connectors, root)
     259    return expression
     260
     261
     262LT_LTE = (exp.LT, exp.LTE)
     263GT_GTE = (exp.GT, exp.GTE)
     264
     265COMPARISONS = (
     266    *LT_LTE,
     267    *GT_GTE,
     268    exp.EQ,
     269    exp.NEQ,
     270    exp.Is,
     271)
     272
     273INVERSE_COMPARISONS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Type[exp.Expression]] = {
     274    exp.LT: exp.GT,
     275    exp.GT: exp.LT,
     276    exp.LTE: exp.GTE,
     277    exp.GTE: exp.LTE,
     278}
     279
     280NONDETERMINISTIC = (exp.Rand, exp.Randn)
     281
     282
     283def _simplify_comparison(expression, left, right, or_=False):
     284    if isinstance(left, COMPARISONS) and isinstance(right, COMPARISONS):
     285        ll, lr = left.args.values()
     286        rl, rr = right.args.values()
     287
     288        largs = {ll, lr}
     289        rargs = {rl, rr}
     290
     291        matching = largs & rargs
     292        columns = {m for m in matching if not _is_constant(m) and not m.find(*NONDETERMINISTIC)}
     293
     294        if matching and columns:
     295            try:
     296                l = first(largs - columns)
     297                r = first(rargs - columns)
     298            except StopIteration:
     299                return expression
     300
     301            if l.is_number and r.is_number:
     302                l = float(l.name)
     303                r = float(r.name)
     304            elif l.is_string and r.is_string:
     305                l = l.name
     306                r = r.name
     307            else:
     308                l = extract_date(l)
     309                if not l:
     310                    return None
     311                r = extract_date(r)
     312                if not r:
     313                    return None
     314                # python won't compare date and datetime, but many engines will upcast
     315                l, r = cast_as_datetime(l), cast_as_datetime(r)
     316
     317            for (a, av), (b, bv) in itertools.permutations(((left, l), (right, r))):
     318                if isinstance(a, LT_LTE) and isinstance(b, LT_LTE):
     319                    return left if (av > bv if or_ else av <= bv) else right
     320                if isinstance(a, GT_GTE) and isinstance(b, GT_GTE):
     321                    return left if (av < bv if or_ else av >= bv) else right
     322
     323                # we can't ever shortcut to true because the column could be null
     324                if not or_:
     325                    if isinstance(a, exp.LT) and isinstance(b, GT_GTE):
     326                        if av <= bv:
     327                            return exp.false()
     328                    elif isinstance(a, exp.GT) and isinstance(b, LT_LTE):
     329                        if av >= bv:
     330                            return exp.false()
     331                    elif isinstance(a, exp.EQ):
     332                        if isinstance(b, exp.LT):
     333                            return exp.false() if av >= bv else a
     334                        if isinstance(b, exp.LTE):
     335                            return exp.false() if av > bv else a
     336                        if isinstance(b, exp.GT):
     337                            return exp.false() if av <= bv else a
     338                        if isinstance(b, exp.GTE):
     339                            return exp.false() if av < bv else a
     340                        if isinstance(b, exp.NEQ):
     341                            return exp.false() if av == bv else a
     342    return None
     343
     344
     345def remove_complements(expression, root=True):
     346    """
     347    Removing complements.
     348
     349    A AND NOT A -> FALSE
     350    A OR NOT A -> TRUE
     351    """
     352    if isinstance(expression, exp.Connector) and (root or not expression.same_parent):
     353        complement = exp.false() if isinstance(expression, exp.And) else exp.true()
     354
     355        for a, b in itertools.permutations(expression.flatten(), 2):
     356            if is_complement(a, b):
     357                return complement
     358    return expression
     359
     360
     361def uniq_sort(expression, root=True):
     362    """
     363    Uniq and sort a connector.
     364
     365    C AND A AND B AND B -> A AND B AND C
     366    """
     367    if isinstance(expression, exp.Connector) and (root or not expression.same_parent):
     368        result_func = exp.and_ if isinstance(expression, exp.And) else exp.or_
     369        flattened = tuple(expression.flatten())
     370        deduped = {gen(e): e for e in flattened}
     371        arr = tuple(deduped.items())
     372
     373        # check if the operands are already sorted, if not sort them
     374        # A AND C AND B -> A AND B AND C
     375        for i, (sql, e) in enumerate(arr[1:]):
     376            if sql < arr[i][0]:
     377                expression = result_func(*(e for _, e in sorted(arr)), copy=False)
     378                break
     379        else:
     380            # we didn't have to sort but maybe we need to dedup
     381            if len(deduped) < len(flattened):
     382                expression = result_func(*deduped.values(), copy=False)
     383
     384    return expression
     385
     386
     387def absorb_and_eliminate(expression, root=True):
     388    """
     389    absorption:
     390        A AND (A OR B) -> A
     391        A OR (A AND B) -> A
     392        A AND (NOT A OR B) -> A AND B
     393        A OR (NOT A AND B) -> A OR B
     394    elimination:
     395        (A AND B) OR (A AND NOT B) -> A
     396        (A OR B) AND (A OR NOT B) -> A
     397    """
     398    if isinstance(expression, exp.Connector) and (root or not expression.same_parent):
     399        kind = exp.Or if isinstance(expression, exp.And) else exp.And
     400
     401        for a, b in itertools.permutations(expression.flatten(), 2):
     402            if isinstance(a, kind):
     403                aa, ab = a.unnest_operands()
     404
     405                # absorb
     406                if is_complement(b, aa):
     407                    aa.replace(exp.true() if kind == exp.And else exp.false())
     408                elif is_complement(b, ab):
     409                    ab.replace(exp.true() if kind == exp.And else exp.false())
     410                elif (set(b.flatten()) if isinstance(b, kind) else {b}) < set(a.flatten()):
     411                    a.replace(exp.false() if kind == exp.And else exp.true())
     412                elif isinstance(b, kind):
     413                    # eliminate
     414                    rhs = b.unnest_operands()
     415                    ba, bb = rhs
     416
     417                    if aa in rhs and (is_complement(ab, ba) or is_complement(ab, bb)):
     418                        a.replace(aa)
     419                        b.replace(aa)
     420                    elif ab in rhs and (is_complement(aa, ba) or is_complement(aa, bb)):
     421                        a.replace(ab)
     422                        b.replace(ab)
     423
     424    return expression
     425
     426
     427def propagate_constants(expression, root=True):
     428    """
     429    Propagate constants for conjunctions in DNF:
     430
     431    SELECT * FROM t WHERE a = b AND b = 5 becomes
     432    SELECT * FROM t WHERE a = 5 AND b = 5
     433
     434    Reference: https://www.sqlite.org/optoverview.html
     435    """
     436
     437    if (
     438        isinstance(expression, exp.And)
     439        and (root or not expression.same_parent)
     440        and sqlglot.optimizer.normalize.normalized(expression, dnf=True)
     441    ):
     442        constant_mapping = {}
     443        for expr in walk_in_scope(expression, prune=lambda node: isinstance(node, exp.If)):
     444            if isinstance(expr, exp.EQ):
     445                l, r = expr.left, expr.right
     446
     447                # TODO: create a helper that can be used to detect nested literal expressions such
     448                # as CAST(123456 AS BIGINT), since we usually want to treat those as literals too
     449                if isinstance(l, exp.Column) and isinstance(r, exp.Literal):
     450                    constant_mapping[l] = (id(l), r)
     451
     452        if constant_mapping:
     453            for column in find_all_in_scope(expression, exp.Column):
     454                parent = column.parent
     455                column_id, constant = constant_mapping.get(column) or (None, None)
     456                if (
     457                    column_id is not None
     458                    and id(column) != column_id
     459                    and not (isinstance(parent, exp.Is) and isinstance(parent.expression, exp.Null))
     460                ):
     461                    column.replace(constant.copy())
     462
     463    return expression
     464
     465
     466INVERSE_DATE_OPS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Type[exp.Expression]] = {
     467    exp.DateAdd: exp.Sub,
     468    exp.DateSub: exp.Add,
     469    exp.DatetimeAdd: exp.Sub,
     470    exp.DatetimeSub: exp.Add,
     471}
     472
     473INVERSE_OPS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Type[exp.Expression]] = {
     474    **INVERSE_DATE_OPS,
     475    exp.Add: exp.Sub,
     476    exp.Sub: exp.Add,
     477}
     478
     479
     480def _is_number(expression: exp.Expression) -> bool:
     481    return expression.is_number
     482
     483
     484def _is_interval(expression: exp.Expression) -> bool:
     485    return isinstance(expression, exp.Interval) and extract_interval(expression) is not None
     486
     487
     488@catch(ModuleNotFoundError, UnsupportedUnit)
     489def simplify_equality(expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
     490    """
     491    Use the subtraction and addition properties of equality to simplify expressions:
     492
     493        x + 1 = 3 becomes x = 2
     494
     495    There are two binary operations in the above expression: + and =
     496    Here's how we reference all the operands in the code below:
     497
     498          l     r
     499        x + 1 = 3
     500        a   b
     501    """
     502    if isinstance(expression, COMPARISONS):
     503        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
     504
     505        if l.__class__ not in INVERSE_OPS:
     506            return expression
     507
     508        if r.is_number:
     509            a_predicate = _is_number
     510            b_predicate = _is_number
     511        elif _is_date_literal(r):
     512            a_predicate = _is_date_literal
     513            b_predicate = _is_interval
     514        else:
     515            return expression
     516
     517        if l.__class__ in INVERSE_DATE_OPS:
     518            l = t.cast(exp.IntervalOp, l)
     519            a = l.this
     520            b = l.interval()
     521        else:
     522            l = t.cast(exp.Binary, l)
     523            a, b = l.left, l.right
     524
     525        if not a_predicate(a) and b_predicate(b):
     526            pass
     527        elif not a_predicate(b) and b_predicate(a):
     528            a, b = b, a
     529        else:
     530            return expression
     531
     532        return expression.__class__(
     533            this=a, expression=INVERSE_OPS[l.__class__](this=r, expression=b)
     534        )
     535    return expression
     536
     537
     538def simplify_literals(expression, root=True):
     539    if isinstance(expression, exp.Binary) and not isinstance(expression, exp.Connector):
     540        return _flat_simplify(expression, _simplify_binary, root)
     541
     542    if isinstance(expression, exp.Neg):
     543        this = expression.this
     544        if this.is_number:
     545            value = this.name
     546            if value[0] == "-":
     547                return exp.Literal.number(value[1:])
     548            return exp.Literal.number(f"-{value}")
     549
     550    if type(expression) in INVERSE_DATE_OPS:
     551        return _simplify_binary(expression, expression.this, expression.interval()) or expression
     552
     553    return expression
     554
     555
     556NULL_OK = (exp.NullSafeEQ, exp.NullSafeNEQ, exp.PropertyEQ)
     557
     558
     559def _simplify_integer_cast(expr: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
     560    if isinstance(expr, exp.Cast) and isinstance(expr.this, exp.Cast):
     561        this = _simplify_integer_cast(expr.this)
     562    else:
     563        this = expr.this
     564
     565    if isinstance(expr, exp.Cast) and this.is_int:
     566        num = int(this.name)
     567
     568        # Remove the (up)cast from small (byte-sized) integers in predicates which is side-effect free. Downcasts on any
     569        # integer type might cause overflow, thus the cast cannot be eliminated and the behavior is
     570        # engine-dependent
     571        if (
     572            TINYINT_MIN <= num <= TINYINT_MAX and expr.to.this in exp.DataType.SIGNED_INTEGER_TYPES
     573        ) or (
     574            UTINYINT_MIN <= num <= UTINYINT_MAX
     575            and expr.to.this in exp.DataType.UNSIGNED_INTEGER_TYPES
     576        ):
     577            return this
     578
     579    return expr
     580
     581
     582def _simplify_binary(expression, a, b):
     583    if isinstance(expression, COMPARISONS):
     584        a = _simplify_integer_cast(a)
     585        b = _simplify_integer_cast(b)
     586
     587    if isinstance(expression, exp.Is):
     588        if isinstance(b, exp.Not):
     589            c = b.this
     590            not_ = True
     591        else:
     592            c = b
     593            not_ = False
     594
     595        if is_null(c):
     596            if isinstance(a, exp.Literal):
     597                return exp.true() if not_ else exp.false()
     598            if is_null(a):
     599                return exp.false() if not_ else exp.true()
     600    elif isinstance(expression, NULL_OK):
     601        return None
     602    elif is_null(a) or is_null(b):
     603        return exp.null()
     604
     605    if a.is_number and b.is_number:
     606        num_a = int(a.name) if a.is_int else Decimal(a.name)
     607        num_b = int(b.name) if b.is_int else Decimal(b.name)
     608
     609        if isinstance(expression, exp.Add):
     610            return exp.Literal.number(num_a + num_b)
     611        if isinstance(expression, exp.Mul):
     612            return exp.Literal.number(num_a * num_b)
     613
     614        # We only simplify Sub, Div if a and b have the same parent because they're not associative
     615        if isinstance(expression, exp.Sub):
     616            return exp.Literal.number(num_a - num_b) if a.parent is b.parent else None
     617        if isinstance(expression, exp.Div):
     618            # engines have differing int div behavior so intdiv is not safe
     619            if (isinstance(num_a, int) and isinstance(num_b, int)) or a.parent is not b.parent:
     620                return None
     621            return exp.Literal.number(num_a / num_b)
     622
     623        boolean = eval_boolean(expression, num_a, num_b)
     624
     625        if boolean:
     626            return boolean
     627    elif a.is_string and b.is_string:
     628        boolean = eval_boolean(expression, a.this, b.this)
     629
     630        if boolean:
     631            return boolean
     632    elif _is_date_literal(a) and isinstance(b, exp.Interval):
     633        date, b = extract_date(a), extract_interval(b)
     634        if date and b:
     635            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Add, exp.DateAdd, exp.DatetimeAdd)):
     636                return date_literal(date + b, extract_type(a))
     637            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Sub, exp.DateSub, exp.DatetimeSub)):
     638                return date_literal(date - b, extract_type(a))
     639    elif isinstance(a, exp.Interval) and _is_date_literal(b):
     640        a, date = extract_interval(a), extract_date(b)
     641        # you cannot subtract a date from an interval
     642        if a and b and isinstance(expression, exp.Add):
     643            return date_literal(a + date, extract_type(b))
     644    elif _is_date_literal(a) and _is_date_literal(b):
     645        if isinstance(expression, exp.Predicate):
     646            a, b = extract_date(a), extract_date(b)
     647            boolean = eval_boolean(expression, a, b)
     648            if boolean:
     649                return boolean
     650
     651    return None
     652
     653
     654def simplify_parens(expression):
     655    if not isinstance(expression, exp.Paren):
     656        return expression
     657
     658    this = expression.this
     659    parent = expression.parent
     660    parent_is_predicate = isinstance(parent, exp.Predicate)
     661
     662    if (
     663        not isinstance(this, exp.Select)
     664        and not isinstance(parent, exp.SubqueryPredicate)
     665        and (
     666            not isinstance(parent, (exp.Condition, exp.Binary))
     667            or isinstance(parent, exp.Paren)
     668            or (
     669                not isinstance(this, exp.Binary)
     670                and not (isinstance(this, (exp.Not, exp.Is)) and parent_is_predicate)
     671            )
     672            or (isinstance(this, exp.Predicate) and not parent_is_predicate)
     673            or (isinstance(this, exp.Add) and isinstance(parent, exp.Add))
     674            or (isinstance(this, exp.Mul) and isinstance(parent, exp.Mul))
     675            or (isinstance(this, exp.Mul) and isinstance(parent, (exp.Add, exp.Sub)))
     676        )
     677    ):
     678        return this
     679    return expression
     680
     681
     682def _is_nonnull_constant(expression: exp.Expression) -> bool:
     683    return isinstance(expression, exp.NONNULL_CONSTANTS) or _is_date_literal(expression)
     684
     685
     686def _is_constant(expression: exp.Expression) -> bool:
     687    return isinstance(expression, exp.CONSTANTS) or _is_date_literal(expression)
     688
     689
     690def simplify_coalesce(expression):
     691    # COALESCE(x) -> x
     692    if (
     693        isinstance(expression, exp.Coalesce)
     694        and (not expression.expressions or _is_nonnull_constant(expression.this))
     695        # COALESCE is also used as a Spark partitioning hint
     696        and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Hint)
     697    ):
     698        return expression.this
     699
     700    if not isinstance(expression, COMPARISONS):
     701        return expression
     702
     703    if isinstance(expression.left, exp.Coalesce):
     704        coalesce = expression.left
     705        other = expression.right
     706    elif isinstance(expression.right, exp.Coalesce):
     707        coalesce = expression.right
     708        other = expression.left
     709    else:
     710        return expression
     711
     712    # This transformation is valid for non-constants,
     713    # but it really only does anything if they are both constants.
     714    if not _is_constant(other):
     715        return expression
     716
     717    # Find the first constant arg
     718    for arg_index, arg in enumerate(coalesce.expressions):
     719        if _is_constant(arg):
     720            break
     721    else:
     722        return expression
     723
     724    coalesce.set("expressions", coalesce.expressions[:arg_index])
     725
     726    # Remove the COALESCE function. This is an optimization, skipping a simplify iteration,
     727    # since we already remove COALESCE at the top of this function.
     728    coalesce = coalesce if coalesce.expressions else coalesce.this
     729
     730    # This expression is more complex than when we started, but it will get simplified further
     731    return exp.paren(
     732        exp.or_(
     733            exp.and_(
     734                coalesce.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
     735                expression.copy(),
     736                copy=False,
     737            ),
     738            exp.and_(
     739                coalesce.is_(exp.null()),
     740                type(expression)(this=arg.copy(), expression=other.copy()),
     741                copy=False,
     742            ),
     743            copy=False,
     744        )
     745    )
     746
     747
     748CONCATS = (exp.Concat, exp.DPipe)
     749
     750
     751def simplify_concat(expression):
     752    """Reduces all groups that contain string literals by concatenating them."""
     753    if not isinstance(expression, CONCATS) or (
     754        # We can't reduce a CONCAT_WS call if we don't statically know the separator
     755        isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs) and not expression.expressions[0].is_string
     756    ):
     757        return expression
     758
     759    if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
     760        sep_expr, *expressions = expression.expressions
     761        sep = sep_expr.name
     762        concat_type = exp.ConcatWs
     763        args = {}
     764    else:
     765        expressions = expression.expressions
     766        sep = ""
     767        concat_type = exp.Concat
     768        args = {
     769            "safe": expression.args.get("safe"),
     770            "coalesce": expression.args.get("coalesce"),
     771        }
     772
     773    new_args = []
     774    for is_string_group, group in itertools.groupby(
     775        expressions or expression.flatten(), lambda e: e.is_string
     776    ):
     777        if is_string_group:
     778            new_args.append(exp.Literal.string(sep.join(string.name for string in group)))
     779        else:
     780            new_args.extend(group)
     781
     782    if len(new_args) == 1 and new_args[0].is_string:
     783        return new_args[0]
     784
     785    if concat_type is exp.ConcatWs:
     786        new_args = [sep_expr] + new_args
     787    elif isinstance(expression, exp.DPipe):
     788        return reduce(lambda x, y: exp.DPipe(this=x, expression=y), new_args)
     789
     790    return concat_type(expressions=new_args, **args)
     791
     792
     793def simplify_conditionals(expression):
     794    """Simplifies expressions like IF, CASE if their condition is statically known."""
     795    if isinstance(expression, exp.Case):
     796        this = expression.this
     797        for case in expression.args["ifs"]:
     798            cond = case.this
     799            if this:
     800                # Convert CASE x WHEN matching_value ... to CASE WHEN x = matching_value ...
     801                cond = cond.replace(this.pop().eq(cond))
     802
     803            if always_true(cond):
     804                return case.args["true"]
     805
     806            if always_false(cond):
     807                case.pop()
     808                if not expression.args["ifs"]:
     809                    return expression.args.get("default") or exp.null()
     810    elif isinstance(expression, exp.If) and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Case):
     811        if always_true(expression.this):
     812            return expression.args["true"]
     813        if always_false(expression.this):
     814            return expression.args.get("false") or exp.null()
     815
     816    return expression
     817
     818
     819def simplify_startswith(expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
     820    """
     821    Reduces a prefix check to either TRUE or FALSE if both the string and the
     822    prefix are statically known.
     823
     824    Example:
     825        >>> from sqlglot import parse_one
     826        >>> simplify_startswith(parse_one("STARTSWITH('foo', 'f')")).sql()
     827        'TRUE'
     828    """
     829    if (
     830        isinstance(expression, exp.StartsWith)
     831        and expression.this.is_string
     832        and expression.expression.is_string
     833    ):
     834        return exp.convert(expression.name.startswith(expression.expression.name))
     835
     836    return expression
     837
     838
     839DateRange = t.Tuple[datetime.date, datetime.date]
     840
     841
     842def _datetrunc_range(date: datetime.date, unit: str, dialect: Dialect) -> t.Optional[DateRange]:
     843    """
     844    Get the date range for a DATE_TRUNC equality comparison:
     845
     846    Example:
     847        _datetrunc_range(date(2021-01-01), 'year') == (date(2021-01-01), date(2022-01-01))
     848    Returns:
     849        tuple of [min, max) or None if a value can never be equal to `date` for `unit`
     850    """
     851    floor = date_floor(date, unit, dialect)
     852
     853    if date != floor:
     854        # This will always be False, except for NULL values.
     855        return None
     856
     857    return floor, floor + interval(unit)
     858
     859
     860def _datetrunc_eq_expression(
     861    left: exp.Expression, drange: DateRange, target_type: t.Optional[exp.DataType]
     862) -> exp.Expression:
     863    """Get the logical expression for a date range"""
     864    return exp.and_(
     865        left >= date_literal(drange[0], target_type),
     866        left < date_literal(drange[1], target_type),
     867        copy=False,
     868    )
     869
     870
     871def _datetrunc_eq(
     872    left: exp.Expression,
     873    date: datetime.date,
     874    unit: str,
     875    dialect: Dialect,
     876    target_type: t.Optional[exp.DataType],
     877) -> t.Optional[exp.Expression]:
     878    drange = _datetrunc_range(date, unit, dialect)
     879    if not drange:
     880        return None
     881
     882    return _datetrunc_eq_expression(left, drange, target_type)
     883
     884
     885def _datetrunc_neq(
     886    left: exp.Expression,
     887    date: datetime.date,
     888    unit: str,
     889    dialect: Dialect,
     890    target_type: t.Optional[exp.DataType],
     891) -> t.Optional[exp.Expression]:
     892    drange = _datetrunc_range(date, unit, dialect)
     893    if not drange:
     894        return None
     895
     896    return exp.and_(
     897        left < date_literal(drange[0], target_type),
     898        left >= date_literal(drange[1], target_type),
     899        copy=False,
     900    )
     901
     902
     903DATETRUNC_BINARY_COMPARISONS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], DateTruncBinaryTransform] = {
     904    exp.LT: lambda l, dt, u, d, t: l
     905    < date_literal(dt if dt == date_floor(dt, u, d) else date_floor(dt, u, d) + interval(u), t),
     906    exp.GT: lambda l, dt, u, d, t: l >= date_literal(date_floor(dt, u, d) + interval(u), t),
     907    exp.LTE: lambda l, dt, u, d, t: l < date_literal(date_floor(dt, u, d) + interval(u), t),
     908    exp.GTE: lambda l, dt, u, d, t: l >= date_literal(date_ceil(dt, u, d), t),
     909    exp.EQ: _datetrunc_eq,
     910    exp.NEQ: _datetrunc_neq,
     911}
     912DATETRUNC_COMPARISONS = {exp.In, *DATETRUNC_BINARY_COMPARISONS}
     913DATETRUNCS = (exp.DateTrunc, exp.TimestampTrunc)
     914
     915
     916def _is_datetrunc_predicate(left: exp.Expression, right: exp.Expression) -> bool:
     917    return isinstance(left, DATETRUNCS) and _is_date_literal(right)
     918
     919
     920@catch(ModuleNotFoundError, UnsupportedUnit)
     921def simplify_datetrunc(expression: exp.Expression, dialect: Dialect) -> exp.Expression:
     922    """Simplify expressions like `DATE_TRUNC('year', x) >= CAST('2021-01-01' AS DATE)`"""
     923    comparison = expression.__class__
     924
     925    if isinstance(expression, DATETRUNCS):
     926        this = expression.this
     927        trunc_type = extract_type(this)
     928        date = extract_date(this)
     929        if date and expression.unit:
     930            return date_literal(date_floor(date, expression.unit.name.lower(), dialect), trunc_type)
     931    elif comparison not in DATETRUNC_COMPARISONS:
     932        return expression
     933
     934    if isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
     935        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
     936
     937        if not _is_datetrunc_predicate(l, r):
     938            return expression
     939
     940        l = t.cast(exp.DateTrunc, l)
     941        trunc_arg = l.this
     942        unit = l.unit.name.lower()
     943        date = extract_date(r)
     944
     945        if not date:
     946            return expression
     947
     948        return (
     949            DATETRUNC_BINARY_COMPARISONS[comparison](
     950                trunc_arg, date, unit, dialect, extract_type(trunc_arg, r)
     951            )
     952            or expression
     953        )
     954
     955    if isinstance(expression, exp.In):
     956        l = expression.this
     957        rs = expression.expressions
     958
     959        if rs and all(_is_datetrunc_predicate(l, r) for r in rs):
     960            l = t.cast(exp.DateTrunc, l)
     961            unit = l.unit.name.lower()
     962
     963            ranges = []
     964            for r in rs:
     965                date = extract_date(r)
     966                if not date:
     967                    return expression
     968                drange = _datetrunc_range(date, unit, dialect)
     969                if drange:
     970                    ranges.append(drange)
     971
     972            if not ranges:
     973                return expression
     974
     975            ranges = merge_ranges(ranges)
     976            target_type = extract_type(l, *rs)
     977
     978            return exp.or_(
     979                *[_datetrunc_eq_expression(l, drange, target_type) for drange in ranges], copy=False
     980            )
     981
     982    return expression
     983
     984
     985def sort_comparison(expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
     986    if expression.__class__ in COMPLEMENT_COMPARISONS:
     987        l, r = expression.this, expression.expression
     988        l_column = isinstance(l, exp.Column)
     989        r_column = isinstance(r, exp.Column)
     990        l_const = _is_constant(l)
     991        r_const = _is_constant(r)
     992
     993        if (l_column and not r_column) or (r_const and not l_const):
     994            return expression
     995        if (r_column and not l_column) or (l_const and not r_const) or (gen(l) > gen(r)):
     996            return INVERSE_COMPARISONS.get(expression.__class__, expression.__class__)(
     997                this=r, expression=l
     998            )
     999    return expression
    1000
    1001
    1002# CROSS joins result in an empty table if the right table is empty.
    1003# So we can only simplify certain types of joins to CROSS.
    1004# Or in other words, LEFT JOIN x ON TRUE != CROSS JOIN x
    1005JOINS = {
    1006    ("", ""),
    1007    ("", "INNER"),
    1008    ("RIGHT", ""),
    1009    ("RIGHT", "OUTER"),
    1010}
    1011
    1012
    1013def remove_where_true(expression):
    1014    for where in expression.find_all(exp.Where):
    1015        if always_true(where.this):
    1016            where.pop()
    1017    for join in expression.find_all(exp.Join):
    1018        if (
    1019            always_true(join.args.get("on"))
    1020            and not join.args.get("using")
    1021            and not join.args.get("method")
    1022            and (join.side, join.kind) in JOINS
    1023        ):
    1024            join.args["on"].pop()
    1025            join.set("side", None)
    1026            join.set("kind", "CROSS")
    1027
    1028
    1029def always_true(expression):
    1030    return (isinstance(expression, exp.Boolean) and expression.this) or isinstance(
    1031        expression, exp.Literal
    1032    )
    1033
    1034
    1035def always_false(expression):
    1036    return is_false(expression) or is_null(expression)
    1037
    1038
    1039def is_complement(a, b):
    1040    return isinstance(b, exp.Not) and b.this == a
    1041
    1042
    1043def is_false(a: exp.Expression) -> bool:
    1044    return type(a) is exp.Boolean and not a.this
    1045
    1046
    1047def is_null(a: exp.Expression) -> bool:
    1048    return type(a) is exp.Null
    1049
    1050
    1051def eval_boolean(expression, a, b):
    1052    if isinstance(expression, (exp.EQ, exp.Is)):
    1053        return boolean_literal(a == b)
    1054    if isinstance(expression, exp.NEQ):
    1055        return boolean_literal(a != b)
    1056    if isinstance(expression, exp.GT):
    1057        return boolean_literal(a > b)
    1058    if isinstance(expression, exp.GTE):
    1059        return boolean_literal(a >= b)
    1060    if isinstance(expression, exp.LT):
    1061        return boolean_literal(a < b)
    1062    if isinstance(expression, exp.LTE):
    1063        return boolean_literal(a <= b)
    1064    return None
    1065
    1066
    1067def cast_as_date(value: t.Any) -> t.Optional[datetime.date]:
    1068    if isinstance(value, datetime.datetime):
    1069        return value.date()
    1070    if isinstance(value, datetime.date):
    1071        return value
    1072    try:
    1073        return datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(value).date()
    1074    except ValueError:
    1075        return None
    1076
    1077
    1078def cast_as_datetime(value: t.Any) -> t.Optional[datetime.datetime]:
    1079    if isinstance(value, datetime.datetime):
    1080        return value
    1081    if isinstance(value, datetime.date):
    1082        return datetime.datetime(year=value.year, month=value.month, day=value.day)
    1083    try:
    1084        return datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(value)
    1085    except ValueError:
    1086        return None
    1087
    1088
    1089def cast_value(value: t.Any, to: exp.DataType) -> t.Optional[t.Union[datetime.date, datetime.date]]:
    1090    if not value:
    1091        return None
    1092    if to.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    1093        return cast_as_date(value)
    1094    if to.is_type(*exp.DataType.TEMPORAL_TYPES):
    1095        return cast_as_datetime(value)
    1096    return None
    1097
    1098
    1099def extract_date(cast: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[t.Union[datetime.date, datetime.date]]:
    1100    if isinstance(cast, exp.Cast):
    1101        to = cast.to
    1102    elif isinstance(cast, exp.TsOrDsToDate) and not cast.args.get("format"):
    1103        to = exp.DataType.build(exp.DataType.Type.DATE)
    1104    else:
    1105        return None
    1106
    1107    if isinstance(cast.this, exp.Literal):
    1108        value: t.Any = cast.this.name
    1109    elif isinstance(cast.this, (exp.Cast, exp.TsOrDsToDate)):
    1110        value = extract_date(cast.this)
    1111    else:
    1112        return None
    1113    return cast_value(value, to)
    1114
    1115
    1116def _is_date_literal(expression: exp.Expression) -> bool:
    1117    return extract_date(expression) is not None
    1118
    1119
    1120def extract_interval(expression):
    1121    try:
    1122        n = int(expression.name)
    1123        unit = expression.text("unit").lower()
    1124        return interval(unit, n)
    1125    except (UnsupportedUnit, ModuleNotFoundError, ValueError):
    1126        return None
    1127
    1128
    1129def extract_type(*expressions):
    1130    target_type = None
    1131    for expression in expressions:
    1132        target_type = expression.to if isinstance(expression, exp.Cast) else expression.type
    1133        if target_type:
    1134            break
    1135
    1136    return target_type
    1137
    1138
    1139def date_literal(date, target_type=None):
    1140    if not target_type or not target_type.is_type(*exp.DataType.TEMPORAL_TYPES):
    1141        target_type = (
    1142            exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME
    1143            if isinstance(date, datetime.datetime)
    1144            else exp.DataType.Type.DATE
    1145        )
    1146
    1147    return exp.cast(exp.Literal.string(date), target_type)
    1148
    1149
    1150def interval(unit: str, n: int = 1):
    1151    from dateutil.relativedelta import relativedelta
    1152
    1153    if unit == "year":
    1154        return relativedelta(years=1 * n)
    1155    if unit == "quarter":
    1156        return relativedelta(months=3 * n)
    1157    if unit == "month":
    1158        return relativedelta(months=1 * n)
    1159    if unit == "week":
    1160        return relativedelta(weeks=1 * n)
    1161    if unit == "day":
    1162        return relativedelta(days=1 * n)
    1163    if unit == "hour":
    1164        return relativedelta(hours=1 * n)
    1165    if unit == "minute":
    1166        return relativedelta(minutes=1 * n)
    1167    if unit == "second":
    1168        return relativedelta(seconds=1 * n)
    1169
    1170    raise UnsupportedUnit(f"Unsupported unit: {unit}")
    1171
    1172
    1173def date_floor(d: datetime.date, unit: str, dialect: Dialect) -> datetime.date:
    1174    if unit == "year":
    1175        return d.replace(month=1, day=1)
    1176    if unit == "quarter":
    1177        if d.month <= 3:
    1178            return d.replace(month=1, day=1)
    1179        elif d.month <= 6:
    1180            return d.replace(month=4, day=1)
    1181        elif d.month <= 9:
    1182            return d.replace(month=7, day=1)
    1183        else:
    1184            return d.replace(month=10, day=1)
    1185    if unit == "month":
    1186        return d.replace(month=d.month, day=1)
    1187    if unit == "week":
    1188        # Assuming week starts on Monday (0) and ends on Sunday (6)
    1189        return d - datetime.timedelta(days=d.weekday() - dialect.WEEK_OFFSET)
    1190    if unit == "day":
    1191        return d
    1192
    1193    raise UnsupportedUnit(f"Unsupported unit: {unit}")
    1194
    1195
    1196def date_ceil(d: datetime.date, unit: str, dialect: Dialect) -> datetime.date:
    1197    floor = date_floor(d, unit, dialect)
    1198
    1199    if floor == d:
    1200        return d
    1201
    1202    return floor + interval(unit)
    1203
    1204
    1205def boolean_literal(condition):
    1206    return exp.true() if condition else exp.false()
    1207
    1208
    1209def _flat_simplify(expression, simplifier, root=True):
    1210    if root or not expression.same_parent:
    1211        operands = []
    1212        queue = deque(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
    1213        size = len(queue)
    1214
    1215        while queue:
    1216            a = queue.popleft()
    1217
    1218            for b in queue:
    1219                result = simplifier(expression, a, b)
    1220
    1221                if result and result is not expression:
    1222                    queue.remove(b)
    1223                    queue.appendleft(result)
    1224                    break
    1225            else:
    1226                operands.append(a)
    1227
    1228        if len(operands) < size:
    1229            return functools.reduce(
    1230                lambda a, b: expression.__class__(this=a, expression=b), operands
    1231            )
    1232    return expression
    1233
    1234
    1235def gen(expression: t.Any) -> str:
    1236    """Simple pseudo sql generator for quickly generating sortable and uniq strings.
    1237
    1238    Sorting and deduping sql is a necessary step for optimization. Calling the actual
    1239    generator is expensive so we have a bare minimum sql generator here.
    1240    """
    1241    return Gen().gen(expression)
    1242
    1243
    1244class Gen:
    1245    def __init__(self):
    1246        self.stack = []
    1247        self.sqls = []
    1248
    1249    def gen(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
    1250        self.stack = [expression]
    1251        self.sqls.clear()
    1252
    1253        while self.stack:
    1254            node = self.stack.pop()
    1255
    1256            if isinstance(node, exp.Expression):
    1257                exp_handler_name = f"{node.key}_sql"
    1258
    1259                if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
    1260                    getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(node)
    1261                elif isinstance(node, exp.Func):
    1262                    self._function(node)
    1263                else:
    1264                    key = node.key.upper()
    1265                    self.stack.append(f"{key} " if self._args(node) else key)
    1266            elif type(node) is list:
    1267                for n in reversed(node):
    1268                    if n is not None:
    1269                        self.stack.extend((n, ","))
    1270                if node:
    1271                    self.stack.pop()
    1272            else:
    1273                if node is not None:
    1274                    self.sqls.append(str(node))
    1275
    1276        return "".join(self.sqls)
    1277
    1278    def add_sql(self, e: exp.Add) -> None:
    1279        self._binary(e, " + ")
    1280
    1281    def alias_sql(self, e: exp.Alias) -> None:
    1282        self.stack.extend(
    1283            (
    1284                e.args.get("alias"),
    1285                " AS ",
    1286                e.args.get("this"),
    1287            )
    1288        )
    1289
    1290    def and_sql(self, e: exp.And) -> None:
    1291        self._binary(e, " AND ")
    1292
    1293    def anonymous_sql(self, e: exp.Anonymous) -> None:
    1294        this = e.this
    1295        if isinstance(this, str):
    1296            name = this.upper()
    1297        elif isinstance(this, exp.Identifier):
    1298            name = this.this
    1299            name = f'"{name}"' if this.quoted else name.upper()
    1300        else:
    1301            raise ValueError(
    1302                f"Anonymous.this expects a str or an Identifier, got '{this.__class__.__name__}'."
    1303            )
    1304
    1305        self.stack.extend(
    1306            (
    1307                ")",
    1308                e.expressions,
    1309                "(",
    1310                name,
    1311            )
    1312        )
    1313
    1314    def between_sql(self, e: exp.Between) -> None:
    1315        self.stack.extend(
    1316            (
    1317                e.args.get("high"),
    1318                " AND ",
    1319                e.args.get("low"),
    1320                " BETWEEN ",
    1321                e.this,
    1322            )
    1323        )
    1324
    1325    def boolean_sql(self, e: exp.Boolean) -> None:
    1326        self.stack.append("TRUE" if e.this else "FALSE")
    1327
    1328    def bracket_sql(self, e: exp.Bracket) -> None:
    1329        self.stack.extend(
    1330            (
    1331                "]",
    1332                e.expressions,
    1333                "[",
    1334                e.this,
    1335            )
    1336        )
    1337
    1338    def column_sql(self, e: exp.Column) -> None:
    1339        for p in reversed(e.parts):
    1340            self.stack.extend((p, "."))
    1341        self.stack.pop()
    1342
    1343    def datatype_sql(self, e: exp.DataType) -> None:
    1344        self._args(e, 1)
    1345        self.stack.append(f"{e.this.name} ")
    1346
    1347    def div_sql(self, e: exp.Div) -> None:
    1348        self._binary(e, " / ")
    1349
    1350    def dot_sql(self, e: exp.Dot) -> None:
    1351        self._binary(e, ".")
    1352
    1353    def eq_sql(self, e: exp.EQ) -> None:
    1354        self._binary(e, " = ")
    1355
    1356    def from_sql(self, e: exp.From) -> None:
    1357        self.stack.extend((e.this, "FROM "))
    1358
    1359    def gt_sql(self, e: exp.GT) -> None:
    1360        self._binary(e, " > ")
    1361
    1362    def gte_sql(self, e: exp.GTE) -> None:
    1363        self._binary(e, " >= ")
    1364
    1365    def identifier_sql(self, e: exp.Identifier) -> None:
    1366        self.stack.append(f'"{e.this}"' if e.quoted else e.this)
    1367
    1368    def ilike_sql(self, e: exp.ILike) -> None:
    1369        self._binary(e, " ILIKE ")
    1370
    1371    def in_sql(self, e: exp.In) -> None:
    1372        self.stack.append(")")
    1373        self._args(e, 1)
    1374        self.stack.extend(
    1375            (
    1376                "(",
    1377                " IN ",
    1378                e.this,
    1379            )
    1380        )
    1381
    1382    def intdiv_sql(self, e: exp.IntDiv) -> None:
    1383        self._binary(e, " DIV ")
    1384
    1385    def is_sql(self, e: exp.Is) -> None:
    1386        self._binary(e, " IS ")
    1387
    1388    def like_sql(self, e: exp.Like) -> None:
    1389        self._binary(e, " Like ")
    1390
    1391    def literal_sql(self, e: exp.Literal) -> None:
    1392        self.stack.append(f"'{e.this}'" if e.is_string else e.this)
    1393
    1394    def lt_sql(self, e: exp.LT) -> None:
    1395        self._binary(e, " < ")
    1396
    1397    def lte_sql(self, e: exp.LTE) -> None:
    1398        self._binary(e, " <= ")
    1399
    1400    def mod_sql(self, e: exp.Mod) -> None:
    1401        self._binary(e, " % ")
    1402
    1403    def mul_sql(self, e: exp.Mul) -> None:
    1404        self._binary(e, " * ")
    1405
    1406    def neg_sql(self, e: exp.Neg) -> None:
    1407        self._unary(e, "-")
    1408
    1409    def neq_sql(self, e: exp.NEQ) -> None:
    1410        self._binary(e, " <> ")
    1411
    1412    def not_sql(self, e: exp.Not) -> None:
    1413        self._unary(e, "NOT ")
    1414
    1415    def null_sql(self, e: exp.Null) -> None:
    1416        self.stack.append("NULL")
    1417
    1418    def or_sql(self, e: exp.Or) -> None:
    1419        self._binary(e, " OR ")
    1420
    1421    def paren_sql(self, e: exp.Paren) -> None:
    1422        self.stack.extend(
    1423            (
    1424                ")",
    1425                e.this,
    1426                "(",
    1427            )
    1428        )
    1429
    1430    def sub_sql(self, e: exp.Sub) -> None:
    1431        self._binary(e, " - ")
    1432
    1433    def subquery_sql(self, e: exp.Subquery) -> None:
    1434        self._args(e, 2)
    1435        alias = e.args.get("alias")
    1436        if alias:
    1437            self.stack.append(alias)
    1438        self.stack.extend((")", e.this, "("))
    1439
    1440    def table_sql(self, e: exp.Table) -> None:
    1441        self._args(e, 4)
    1442        alias = e.args.get("alias")
    1443        if alias:
    1444            self.stack.append(alias)
    1445        for p in reversed(e.parts):
    1446            self.stack.extend((p, "."))
    1447        self.stack.pop()
    1448
    1449    def tablealias_sql(self, e: exp.TableAlias) -> None:
    1450        columns = e.columns
    1451
    1452        if columns:
    1453            self.stack.extend((")", columns, "("))
    1454
    1455        self.stack.extend((e.this, " AS "))
    1456
    1457    def var_sql(self, e: exp.Var) -> None:
    1458        self.stack.append(e.this)
    1459
    1460    def _binary(self, e: exp.Binary, op: str) -> None:
    1461        self.stack.extend((e.expression, op, e.this))
    1462
    1463    def _unary(self, e: exp.Unary, op: str) -> None:
    1464        self.stack.extend((e.this, op))
    1465
    1466    def _function(self, e: exp.Func) -> None:
    1467        self.stack.extend(
    1468            (
    1469                ")",
    1470                list(e.args.values()),
    1471                "(",
    1472                e.sql_name(),
    1473            )
    1474        )
    1475
    1476    def _args(self, node: exp.Expression, arg_index: int = 0) -> bool:
    1477        kvs = []
    1478        arg_types = list(node.arg_types)[arg_index:] if arg_index else node.arg_types
    1479
    1480        for k in arg_types or arg_types:
    1481            v = node.args.get(k)
    1482
    1483            if v is not None:
    1484                kvs.append([f":{k}", v])
    1485        if kvs:
    1486            self.stack.append(kvs)
    1487            return True
    1488        return False

FINAL = 'final'
TINYINT_MIN = -128
TINYINT_MAX = 127
UTINYINT_MIN = 0
UTINYINT_MAX = 255
class UnsupportedUnit(builtins.Exception): View Source

    34class UnsupportedUnit(Exception):
    35    pass

Common base class for all non-exit exceptions.

##### Inherited Members

builtins.Exception
  Exception
builtins.BaseException
  with_traceback
  args

def simplify( expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, constant_propagation: bool = False, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect , Type[ sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect ], NoneType] = None): View Source

     38def simplify(
     39    expression: exp.Expression, constant_propagation: bool = False, dialect: DialectType = None
     40):
     41    """
     42    Rewrite sqlglot AST to simplify expressions.
     43
     44    Example:
     45        >>> import sqlglot
     46        >>> expression = sqlglot.parse_one("TRUE AND TRUE")
     47        >>> simplify(expression).sql()
     48        'TRUE'
     49
     50    Args:
     51        expression (sqlglot.Expression): expression to simplify
     52        constant_propagation: whether the constant propagation rule should be used
     53
     54    Returns:
     55        sqlglot.Expression: simplified expression
     56    """
     57
     58    dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
     59
     60    def _simplify(expression, root=True):
     61        if expression.meta.get(FINAL):
     62            return expression
     63
     64        # group by expressions cannot be simplified, for example
     65        # select x + 1 + 1 FROM y GROUP BY x + 1 + 1
     66        # the projection must exactly match the group by key
     67        group = expression.args.get("group")
     68
     69        if group and hasattr(expression, "selects"):
     70            groups = set(group.expressions)
     71            group.meta[FINAL] = True
     72
     73            for e in expression.selects:
     74                for node in e.walk():
     75                    if node in groups:
     76                        e.meta[FINAL] = True
     77                        break
     78
     79            having = expression.args.get("having")
     80            if having:
     81                for node in having.walk():
     82                    if node in groups:
     83                        having.meta[FINAL] = True
     84                        break
     85
     86        # Pre-order transformations
     87        node = expression
     88        node = rewrite_between(node)
     89        node = uniq_sort(node, root)
     90        node = absorb_and_eliminate(node, root)
     91        node = simplify_concat(node)
     92        node = simplify_conditionals(node)
     93
     94        if constant_propagation:
     95            node = propagate_constants(node, root)
     96
     97        exp.replace_children(node, lambda e: _simplify(e, False))
     98
     99        # Post-order transformations
    100        node = simplify_not(node)
    101        node = flatten(node)
    102        node = simplify_connectors(node, root)
    103        node = remove_complements(node, root)
    104        node = simplify_coalesce(node)
    105        node.parent = expression.parent
    106        node = simplify_literals(node, root)
    107        node = simplify_equality(node)
    108        node = simplify_parens(node)
    109        node = simplify_datetrunc(node, dialect)
    110        node = sort_comparison(node)
    111        node = simplify_startswith(node)
    112
    113        if root:
    114            expression.replace(node)
    115        return node
    116
    117    expression = while_changing(expression, _simplify)
    118    remove_where_true(expression)
    119    return expression

Rewrite sqlglot AST to simplify expressions.

###### Example:

>     >>> import sqlglot
>     >>> expression = sqlglot.parse_one("TRUE AND TRUE")
>     >>> simplify(expression).sql()
>     'TRUE'

###### Arguments:

- expression (sqlglot.Expression): expression to simplify
- constant_propagation: whether the constant propagation rule should be used

###### Returns:

> sqlglot.Expression: simplified expression

def catch(*exceptions): View Source

    122def catch(*exceptions):
    123    """Decorator that ignores a simplification function if any of `exceptions` are raised"""
    124
    125    def decorator(func):
    126        def wrapped(expression, *args, **kwargs):
    127            try:
    128                return func(expression, *args, **kwargs)
    129            except exceptions:
    130                return expression
    131
    132        return wrapped
    133
    134    return decorator

Decorator that ignores a simplification function if any of `exceptions` are raised

def rewrite_between( expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression ) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression: View Source

    137def rewrite_between(expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
    138    """Rewrite x between y and z to x >= y AND x <= z.
    139
    140    This is done because comparison simplification is only done on lt/lte/gt/gte.
    141    """
    142    if isinstance(expression, exp.Between):
    143        negate = isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Not)
    144
    145        expression = exp.and_(
    146            exp.GTE(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.args["low"]),
    147            exp.LTE(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.args["high"]),
    148            copy=False,
    149        )
    150
    151        if negate:
    152            expression = exp.paren(expression, copy=False)
    153
    154    return expression

Rewrite x between y and z to x >= y AND x <= z.

This is done because comparison simplification is only done on lt/lte/gt/gte.

COMPLEMENT_COMPARISONS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.LT'>: <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GTE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GT'>: <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LTE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LTE'>: <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GT'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GTE'>: <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LT'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EQ'>: <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NEQ'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NEQ'>: <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EQ'>}
def simplify_not(expression): View Source

    167def simplify_not(expression):
    168    """
    169    Demorgan's Law
    170    NOT (x OR y) -> NOT x AND NOT y
    171    NOT (x AND y) -> NOT x OR NOT y
    172    """
    173    if isinstance(expression, exp.Not):
    174        this = expression.this
    175        if is_null(this):
    176            return exp.null()
    177        if this.__class__ in COMPLEMENT_COMPARISONS:
    178            return COMPLEMENT_COMPARISONS[this.__class__](
    179                this=this.this, expression=this.expression
    180            )
    181        if isinstance(this, exp.Paren):
    182            condition = this.unnest()
    183            if isinstance(condition, exp.And):
    184                return exp.paren(
    185                    exp.or_(
    186                        exp.not_(condition.left, copy=False),
    187                        exp.not_(condition.right, copy=False),
    188                        copy=False,
    189                    )
    190                )
    191            if isinstance(condition, exp.Or):
    192                return exp.paren(
    193                    exp.and_(
    194                        exp.not_(condition.left, copy=False),
    195                        exp.not_(condition.right, copy=False),
    196                        copy=False,
    197                    )
    198                )
    199            if is_null(condition):
    200                return exp.null()
    201        if always_true(this):
    202            return exp.false()
    203        if is_false(this):
    204            return exp.true()
    205        if isinstance(this, exp.Not):
    206            # double negation
    207            # NOT NOT x -> x
    208            return this.this
    209    return expression

Demorgan's Law NOT (x OR y) -> NOT x AND NOT y NOT (x AND y) -> NOT x OR NOT y

def flatten(expression): View Source

    212def flatten(expression):
    213    """
    214    A AND (B AND C) -> A AND B AND C
    215    A OR (B OR C) -> A OR B OR C
    216    """
    217    if isinstance(expression, exp.Connector):
    218        for node in expression.args.values():
    219            child = node.unnest()
    220            if isinstance(child, expression.__class__):
    221                node.replace(child)
    222    return expression

A AND (B AND C) -> A AND B AND C A OR (B OR C) -> A OR B OR C

def simplify_connectors(expression, root=True): View Source

    225def simplify_connectors(expression, root=True):
    226    def _simplify_connectors(expression, left, right):
    227        if left == right:
    228            return left
    229        if isinstance(expression, exp.And):
    230            if is_false(left) or is_false(right):
    231                return exp.false()
    232            if is_null(left) or is_null(right):
    233                return exp.null()
    234            if always_true(left) and always_true(right):
    235                return exp.true()
    236            if always_true(left):
    237                return right
    238            if always_true(right):
    239                return left
    240            return _simplify_comparison(expression, left, right)
    241        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Or):
    242            if always_true(left) or always_true(right):
    243                return exp.true()
    244            if is_false(left) and is_false(right):
    245                return exp.false()
    246            if (
    247                (is_null(left) and is_null(right))
    248                or (is_null(left) and is_false(right))
    249                or (is_false(left) and is_null(right))
    250            ):
    251                return exp.null()
    252            if is_false(left):
    253                return right
    254            if is_false(right):
    255                return left
    256            return _simplify_comparison(expression, left, right, or_=True)
    257
    258    if isinstance(expression, exp.Connector):
    259        return _flat_simplify(expression, _simplify_connectors, root)
    260    return expression

LT_LTE = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.LT'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LTE'>)
GT_GTE = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.GT'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GTE'>)
COMPARISONS = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.LT'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LTE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GT'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GTE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EQ'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NEQ'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Is'>)
INVERSE_COMPARISONS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.LT'>: <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GT'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GT'>: <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LT'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LTE'>: <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GTE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GTE'>: <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LTE'>}
NONDETERMINISTIC = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Rand'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Randn'>)
def remove_complements(expression, root=True): View Source

    346def remove_complements(expression, root=True):
    347    """
    348    Removing complements.
    349
    350    A AND NOT A -> FALSE
    351    A OR NOT A -> TRUE
    352    """
    353    if isinstance(expression, exp.Connector) and (root or not expression.same_parent):
    354        complement = exp.false() if isinstance(expression, exp.And) else exp.true()
    355
    356        for a, b in itertools.permutations(expression.flatten(), 2):
    357            if is_complement(a, b):
    358                return complement
    359    return expression

Removing complements.

A AND NOT A -> FALSE A OR NOT A -> TRUE

def uniq_sort(expression, root=True): View Source

    362def uniq_sort(expression, root=True):
    363    """
    364    Uniq and sort a connector.
    365
    366    C AND A AND B AND B -> A AND B AND C
    367    """
    368    if isinstance(expression, exp.Connector) and (root or not expression.same_parent):
    369        result_func = exp.and_ if isinstance(expression, exp.And) else exp.or_
    370        flattened = tuple(expression.flatten())
    371        deduped = {gen(e): e for e in flattened}
    372        arr = tuple(deduped.items())
    373
    374        # check if the operands are already sorted, if not sort them
    375        # A AND C AND B -> A AND B AND C
    376        for i, (sql, e) in enumerate(arr[1:]):
    377            if sql < arr[i][0]:
    378                expression = result_func(*(e for _, e in sorted(arr)), copy=False)
    379                break
    380        else:
    381            # we didn't have to sort but maybe we need to dedup
    382            if len(deduped) < len(flattened):
    383                expression = result_func(*deduped.values(), copy=False)
    384
    385    return expression

Uniq and sort a connector.

C AND A AND B AND B -> A AND B AND C

def absorb_and_eliminate(expression, root=True): View Source

    388def absorb_and_eliminate(expression, root=True):
    389    """
    390    absorption:
    391        A AND (A OR B) -> A
    392        A OR (A AND B) -> A
    393        A AND (NOT A OR B) -> A AND B
    394        A OR (NOT A AND B) -> A OR B
    395    elimination:
    396        (A AND B) OR (A AND NOT B) -> A
    397        (A OR B) AND (A OR NOT B) -> A
    398    """
    399    if isinstance(expression, exp.Connector) and (root or not expression.same_parent):
    400        kind = exp.Or if isinstance(expression, exp.And) else exp.And
    401
    402        for a, b in itertools.permutations(expression.flatten(), 2):
    403            if isinstance(a, kind):
    404                aa, ab = a.unnest_operands()
    405
    406                # absorb
    407                if is_complement(b, aa):
    408                    aa.replace(exp.true() if kind == exp.And else exp.false())
    409                elif is_complement(b, ab):
    410                    ab.replace(exp.true() if kind == exp.And else exp.false())
    411                elif (set(b.flatten()) if isinstance(b, kind) else {b}) < set(a.flatten()):
    412                    a.replace(exp.false() if kind == exp.And else exp.true())
    413                elif isinstance(b, kind):
    414                    # eliminate
    415                    rhs = b.unnest_operands()
    416                    ba, bb = rhs
    417
    418                    if aa in rhs and (is_complement(ab, ba) or is_complement(ab, bb)):
    419                        a.replace(aa)
    420                        b.replace(aa)
    421                    elif ab in rhs and (is_complement(aa, ba) or is_complement(aa, bb)):
    422                        a.replace(ab)
    423                        b.replace(ab)
    424
    425    return expression

absorption: A AND (A OR B) -> A A OR (A AND B) -> A A AND (NOT A OR B) -> A AND B A OR (NOT A AND B) -> A OR B elimination: (A AND B) OR (A AND NOT B) -> A (A OR B) AND (A OR NOT B) -> A

def propagate_constants(expression, root=True): View Source

    428def propagate_constants(expression, root=True):
    429    """
    430    Propagate constants for conjunctions in DNF:
    431
    432    SELECT * FROM t WHERE a = b AND b = 5 becomes
    433    SELECT * FROM t WHERE a = 5 AND b = 5
    434
    435    Reference: https://www.sqlite.org/optoverview.html
    436    """
    437
    438    if (
    439        isinstance(expression, exp.And)
    440        and (root or not expression.same_parent)
    441        and sqlglot.optimizer.normalize.normalized(expression, dnf=True)
    442    ):
    443        constant_mapping = {}
    444        for expr in walk_in_scope(expression, prune=lambda node: isinstance(node, exp.If)):
    445            if isinstance(expr, exp.EQ):
    446                l, r = expr.left, expr.right
    447
    448                # TODO: create a helper that can be used to detect nested literal expressions such
    449                # as CAST(123456 AS BIGINT), since we usually want to treat those as literals too
    450                if isinstance(l, exp.Column) and isinstance(r, exp.Literal):
    451                    constant_mapping[l] = (id(l), r)
    452
    453        if constant_mapping:
    454            for column in find_all_in_scope(expression, exp.Column):
    455                parent = column.parent
    456                column_id, constant = constant_mapping.get(column) or (None, None)
    457                if (
    458                    column_id is not None
    459                    and id(column) != column_id
    460                    and not (isinstance(parent, exp.Is) and isinstance(parent.expression, exp.Null))
    461                ):
    462                    column.replace(constant.copy())
    463
    464    return expression

Propagate constants for conjunctions in DNF:

SELECT * FROM t WHERE a = b AND b = 5 becomes SELECT * FROM t WHERE a = 5 AND b = 5

Reference: https://www.sqlite.org/optoverview.html

INVERSE_DATE_OPS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Sub'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateSub'>: <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Add'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DatetimeAdd'>: <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Sub'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DatetimeSub'>: <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Add'>}
INVERSE_OPS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Sub'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateSub'>: <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Add'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DatetimeAdd'>: <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Sub'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DatetimeSub'>: <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Add'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Add'>: <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Sub'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Sub'>: <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Add'>}
def simplify_equality(expression, *args, **kwargs): View Source

    126        def wrapped(expression, *args, **kwargs):
    127            try:
    128                return func(expression, *args, **kwargs)
    129            except exceptions:
    130                return expression

###### Use the subtraction and addition properties of equality to simplify expressions:

> x + 1 = 3 becomes x = 2

There are two binary operations in the above expression: + and = Here's how we reference all the operands in the code below:

      l     r
    x + 1 = 3
    a   b

def simplify_literals(expression, root=True): View Source

    539def simplify_literals(expression, root=True):
    540    if isinstance(expression, exp.Binary) and not isinstance(expression, exp.Connector):
    541        return _flat_simplify(expression, _simplify_binary, root)
    542
    543    if isinstance(expression, exp.Neg):
    544        this = expression.this
    545        if this.is_number:
    546            value = this.name
    547            if value[0] == "-":
    548                return exp.Literal.number(value[1:])
    549            return exp.Literal.number(f"-{value}")
    550
    551    if type(expression) in INVERSE_DATE_OPS:
    552        return _simplify_binary(expression, expression.this, expression.interval()) or expression
    553
    554    return expression

NULL_OK = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ'>)
def simplify_parens(expression): View Source

    655def simplify_parens(expression):
    656    if not isinstance(expression, exp.Paren):
    657        return expression
    658
    659    this = expression.this
    660    parent = expression.parent
    661    parent_is_predicate = isinstance(parent, exp.Predicate)
    662
    663    if (
    664        not isinstance(this, exp.Select)
    665        and not isinstance(parent, exp.SubqueryPredicate)
    666        and (
    667            not isinstance(parent, (exp.Condition, exp.Binary))
    668            or isinstance(parent, exp.Paren)
    669            or (
    670                not isinstance(this, exp.Binary)
    671                and not (isinstance(this, (exp.Not, exp.Is)) and parent_is_predicate)
    672            )
    673            or (isinstance(this, exp.Predicate) and not parent_is_predicate)
    674            or (isinstance(this, exp.Add) and isinstance(parent, exp.Add))
    675            or (isinstance(this, exp.Mul) and isinstance(parent, exp.Mul))
    676            or (isinstance(this, exp.Mul) and isinstance(parent, (exp.Add, exp.Sub)))
    677        )
    678    ):
    679        return this
    680    return expression

def simplify_coalesce(expression): View Source

    691def simplify_coalesce(expression):
    692    # COALESCE(x) -> x
    693    if (
    694        isinstance(expression, exp.Coalesce)
    695        and (not expression.expressions or _is_nonnull_constant(expression.this))
    696        # COALESCE is also used as a Spark partitioning hint
    697        and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Hint)
    698    ):
    699        return expression.this
    700
    701    if not isinstance(expression, COMPARISONS):
    702        return expression
    703
    704    if isinstance(expression.left, exp.Coalesce):
    705        coalesce = expression.left
    706        other = expression.right
    707    elif isinstance(expression.right, exp.Coalesce):
    708        coalesce = expression.right
    709        other = expression.left
    710    else:
    711        return expression
    712
    713    # This transformation is valid for non-constants,
    714    # but it really only does anything if they are both constants.
    715    if not _is_constant(other):
    716        return expression
    717
    718    # Find the first constant arg
    719    for arg_index, arg in enumerate(coalesce.expressions):
    720        if _is_constant(arg):
    721            break
    722    else:
    723        return expression
    724
    725    coalesce.set("expressions", coalesce.expressions[:arg_index])
    726
    727    # Remove the COALESCE function. This is an optimization, skipping a simplify iteration,
    728    # since we already remove COALESCE at the top of this function.
    729    coalesce = coalesce if coalesce.expressions else coalesce.this
    730
    731    # This expression is more complex than when we started, but it will get simplified further
    732    return exp.paren(
    733        exp.or_(
    734            exp.and_(
    735                coalesce.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    736                expression.copy(),
    737                copy=False,
    738            ),
    739            exp.and_(
    740                coalesce.is_(exp.null()),
    741                type(expression)(this=arg.copy(), expression=other.copy()),
    742                copy=False,
    743            ),
    744            copy=False,
    745        )
    746    )

CONCATS = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Concat'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DPipe'>)
def simplify_concat(expression): View Source

    752def simplify_concat(expression):
    753    """Reduces all groups that contain string literals by concatenating them."""
    754    if not isinstance(expression, CONCATS) or (
    755        # We can't reduce a CONCAT_WS call if we don't statically know the separator
    756        isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs) and not expression.expressions[0].is_string
    757    ):
    758        return expression
    759
    760    if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    761        sep_expr, *expressions = expression.expressions
    762        sep = sep_expr.name
    763        concat_type = exp.ConcatWs
    764        args = {}
    765    else:
    766        expressions = expression.expressions
    767        sep = ""
    768        concat_type = exp.Concat
    769        args = {
    770            "safe": expression.args.get("safe"),
    771            "coalesce": expression.args.get("coalesce"),
    772        }
    773
    774    new_args = []
    775    for is_string_group, group in itertools.groupby(
    776        expressions or expression.flatten(), lambda e: e.is_string
    777    ):
    778        if is_string_group:
    779            new_args.append(exp.Literal.string(sep.join(string.name for string in group)))
    780        else:
    781            new_args.extend(group)
    782
    783    if len(new_args) == 1 and new_args[0].is_string:
    784        return new_args[0]
    785
    786    if concat_type is exp.ConcatWs:
    787        new_args = [sep_expr] + new_args
    788    elif isinstance(expression, exp.DPipe):
    789        return reduce(lambda x, y: exp.DPipe(this=x, expression=y), new_args)
    790
    791    return concat_type(expressions=new_args, **args)

Reduces all groups that contain string literals by concatenating them.

def simplify_conditionals(expression): View Source

    794def simplify_conditionals(expression):
    795    """Simplifies expressions like IF, CASE if their condition is statically known."""
    796    if isinstance(expression, exp.Case):
    797        this = expression.this
    798        for case in expression.args["ifs"]:
    799            cond = case.this
    800            if this:
    801                # Convert CASE x WHEN matching_value ... to CASE WHEN x = matching_value ...
    802                cond = cond.replace(this.pop().eq(cond))
    803
    804            if always_true(cond):
    805                return case.args["true"]
    806
    807            if always_false(cond):
    808                case.pop()
    809                if not expression.args["ifs"]:
    810                    return expression.args.get("default") or exp.null()
    811    elif isinstance(expression, exp.If) and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Case):
    812        if always_true(expression.this):
    813            return expression.args["true"]
    814        if always_false(expression.this):
    815            return expression.args.get("false") or exp.null()
    816
    817    return expression

Simplifies expressions like IF, CASE if their condition is statically known.

def simplify_startswith( expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression ) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression: View Source

    820def simplify_startswith(expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
    821    """
    822    Reduces a prefix check to either TRUE or FALSE if both the string and the
    823    prefix are statically known.
    824
    825    Example:
    826        >>> from sqlglot import parse_one
    827        >>> simplify_startswith(parse_one("STARTSWITH('foo', 'f')")).sql()
    828        'TRUE'
    829    """
    830    if (
    831        isinstance(expression, exp.StartsWith)
    832        and expression.this.is_string
    833        and expression.expression.is_string
    834    ):
    835        return exp.convert(expression.name.startswith(expression.expression.name))
    836
    837    return expression

Reduces a prefix check to either TRUE or FALSE if both the string and the prefix are statically known.

###### Example:

>     >>> from sqlglot import parse_one
>     >>> simplify_startswith(parse_one("STARTSWITH('foo', 'f')")).sql()
>     'TRUE'

DateRange = typing.Tuple[datetime.date, datetime.date]
DATETRUNC_BINARY_COMPARISONS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression, datetime.date, str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, sqlglot.expressions.DataType], Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.LT'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GT'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LTE'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GTE'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EQ'>: <function _datetrunc_eq>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NEQ'>: <function _datetrunc_neq>}
DATETRUNC_COMPARISONS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.GTE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EQ'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LTE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GT'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LT'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NEQ'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.In'>}
DATETRUNCS = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateTrunc'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TimestampTrunc'>)
def simplify_datetrunc(expression, *args, **kwargs): View Source

    126        def wrapped(expression, *args, **kwargs):
    127            try:
    128                return func(expression, *args, **kwargs)
    129            except exceptions:
    130                return expression

Simplify expressions like `DATE_TRUNC('year', x) >= CAST('2021-01-01' AS DATE)`

def sort_comparison( expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression ) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression: View Source

     986def sort_comparison(expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
     987    if expression.__class__ in COMPLEMENT_COMPARISONS:
     988        l, r = expression.this, expression.expression
     989        l_column = isinstance(l, exp.Column)
     990        r_column = isinstance(r, exp.Column)
     991        l_const = _is_constant(l)
     992        r_const = _is_constant(r)
     993
     994        if (l_column and not r_column) or (r_const and not l_const):
     995            return expression
     996        if (r_column and not l_column) or (l_const and not r_const) or (gen(l) > gen(r)):
     997            return INVERSE_COMPARISONS.get(expression.__class__, expression.__class__)(
     998                this=r, expression=l
     999            )
    1000    return expression

JOINS = {('RIGHT', 'OUTER'), ('RIGHT', ''), ('', 'INNER'), ('', '')}
def remove_where_true(expression): View Source

    1014def remove_where_true(expression):
    1015    for where in expression.find_all(exp.Where):
    1016        if always_true(where.this):
    1017            where.pop()
    1018    for join in expression.find_all(exp.Join):
    1019        if (
    1020            always_true(join.args.get("on"))
    1021            and not join.args.get("using")
    1022            and not join.args.get("method")
    1023            and (join.side, join.kind) in JOINS
    1024        ):
    1025            join.args["on"].pop()
    1026            join.set("side", None)
    1027            join.set("kind", "CROSS")

def always_true(expression): View Source

    1030def always_true(expression):
    1031    return (isinstance(expression, exp.Boolean) and expression.this) or isinstance(
    1032        expression, exp.Literal
    1033    )

def always_false(expression): View Source

    1036def always_false(expression):
    1037    return is_false(expression) or is_null(expression)

def is_complement(a, b): View Source

    1040def is_complement(a, b):
    1041    return isinstance(b, exp.Not) and b.this == a

def is_false(a: sqlglot.expressions.Expression ) -> bool: View Source

    1044def is_false(a: exp.Expression) -> bool:
    1045    return type(a) is exp.Boolean and not a.this

def is_null(a: sqlglot.expressions.Expression ) -> bool: View Source

    1048def is_null(a: exp.Expression) -> bool:
    1049    return type(a) is exp.Null

def eval_boolean(expression, a, b): View Source

    1052def eval_boolean(expression, a, b):
    1053    if isinstance(expression, (exp.EQ, exp.Is)):
    1054        return boolean_literal(a == b)
    1055    if isinstance(expression, exp.NEQ):
    1056        return boolean_literal(a != b)
    1057    if isinstance(expression, exp.GT):
    1058        return boolean_literal(a > b)
    1059    if isinstance(expression, exp.GTE):
    1060        return boolean_literal(a >= b)
    1061    if isinstance(expression, exp.LT):
    1062        return boolean_literal(a < b)
    1063    if isinstance(expression, exp.LTE):
    1064        return boolean_literal(a <= b)
    1065    return None

def cast_as_date(value: Any) -> Optional[datetime.date]: View Source

    1068def cast_as_date(value: t.Any) -> t.Optional[datetime.date]:
    1069    if isinstance(value, datetime.datetime):
    1070        return value.date()
    1071    if isinstance(value, datetime.date):
    1072        return value
    1073    try:
    1074        return datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(value).date()
    1075    except ValueError:
    1076        return None

def cast_as_datetime(value: Any) -> Optional[datetime.datetime]: View Source

    1079def cast_as_datetime(value: t.Any) -> t.Optional[datetime.datetime]:
    1080    if isinstance(value, datetime.datetime):
    1081        return value
    1082    if isinstance(value, datetime.date):
    1083        return datetime.datetime(year=value.year, month=value.month, day=value.day)
    1084    try:
    1085        return datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(value)
    1086    except ValueError:
    1087        return None

def cast_value(value: Any, to: sqlglot.expressions.DataType ) -> Optional[datetime.date]: View Source

    1090def cast_value(value: t.Any, to: exp.DataType) -> t.Optional[t.Union[datetime.date, datetime.date]]:
    1091    if not value:
    1092        return None
    1093    if to.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    1094        return cast_as_date(value)
    1095    if to.is_type(*exp.DataType.TEMPORAL_TYPES):
    1096        return cast_as_datetime(value)
    1097    return None

def extract_date(cast: sqlglot.expressions.Expression ) -> Optional[datetime.date]: View Source

    1100def extract_date(cast: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[t.Union[datetime.date, datetime.date]]:
    1101    if isinstance(cast, exp.Cast):
    1102        to = cast.to
    1103    elif isinstance(cast, exp.TsOrDsToDate) and not cast.args.get("format"):
    1104        to = exp.DataType.build(exp.DataType.Type.DATE)
    1105    else:
    1106        return None
    1107
    1108    if isinstance(cast.this, exp.Literal):
    1109        value: t.Any = cast.this.name
    1110    elif isinstance(cast.this, (exp.Cast, exp.TsOrDsToDate)):
    1111        value = extract_date(cast.this)
    1112    else:
    1113        return None
    1114    return cast_value(value, to)

def extract_interval(expression): View Source

    1121def extract_interval(expression):
    1122    try:
    1123        n = int(expression.name)
    1124        unit = expression.text("unit").lower()
    1125        return interval(unit, n)
    1126    except (UnsupportedUnit, ModuleNotFoundError, ValueError):
    1127        return None

def extract_type(*expressions): View Source

    1130def extract_type(*expressions):
    1131    target_type = None
    1132    for expression in expressions:
    1133        target_type = expression.to if isinstance(expression, exp.Cast) else expression.type
    1134        if target_type:
    1135            break
    1136
    1137    return target_type

def date_literal(date, target_type=None): View Source

    1140def date_literal(date, target_type=None):
    1141    if not target_type or not target_type.is_type(*exp.DataType.TEMPORAL_TYPES):
    1142        target_type = (
    1143            exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME
    1144            if isinstance(date, datetime.datetime)
    1145            else exp.DataType.Type.DATE
    1146        )
    1147
    1148    return exp.cast(exp.Literal.string(date), target_type)

def interval(unit: str, n: int = 1): View Source

    1151def interval(unit: str, n: int = 1):
    1152    from dateutil.relativedelta import relativedelta
    1153
    1154    if unit == "year":
    1155        return relativedelta(years=1 * n)
    1156    if unit == "quarter":
    1157        return relativedelta(months=3 * n)
    1158    if unit == "month":
    1159        return relativedelta(months=1 * n)
    1160    if unit == "week":
    1161        return relativedelta(weeks=1 * n)
    1162    if unit == "day":
    1163        return relativedelta(days=1 * n)
    1164    if unit == "hour":
    1165        return relativedelta(hours=1 * n)
    1166    if unit == "minute":
    1167        return relativedelta(minutes=1 * n)
    1168    if unit == "second":
    1169        return relativedelta(seconds=1 * n)
    1170
    1171    raise UnsupportedUnit(f"Unsupported unit: {unit}")

def date_floor( d: datetime.date, unit: str, dialect: sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect ) -> datetime.date: View Source

    1174def date_floor(d: datetime.date, unit: str, dialect: Dialect) -> datetime.date:
    1175    if unit == "year":
    1176        return d.replace(month=1, day=1)
    1177    if unit == "quarter":
    1178        if d.month <= 3:
    1179            return d.replace(month=1, day=1)
    1180        elif d.month <= 6:
    1181            return d.replace(month=4, day=1)
    1182        elif d.month <= 9:
    1183            return d.replace(month=7, day=1)
    1184        else:
    1185            return d.replace(month=10, day=1)
    1186    if unit == "month":
    1187        return d.replace(month=d.month, day=1)
    1188    if unit == "week":
    1189        # Assuming week starts on Monday (0) and ends on Sunday (6)
    1190        return d - datetime.timedelta(days=d.weekday() - dialect.WEEK_OFFSET)
    1191    if unit == "day":
    1192        return d
    1193
    1194    raise UnsupportedUnit(f"Unsupported unit: {unit}")

def date_ceil( d: datetime.date, unit: str, dialect: sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect ) -> datetime.date: View Source

    1197def date_ceil(d: datetime.date, unit: str, dialect: Dialect) -> datetime.date:
    1198    floor = date_floor(d, unit, dialect)
    1199
    1200    if floor == d:
    1201        return d
    1202
    1203    return floor + interval(unit)

def boolean_literal(condition): View Source

    1206def boolean_literal(condition):
    1207    return exp.true() if condition else exp.false()

def gen(expression: Any) -> str: View Source

    1236def gen(expression: t.Any) -> str:
    1237    """Simple pseudo sql generator for quickly generating sortable and uniq strings.
    1238
    1239    Sorting and deduping sql is a necessary step for optimization. Calling the actual
    1240    generator is expensive so we have a bare minimum sql generator here.
    1241    """
    1242    return Gen().gen(expression)

Simple pseudo sql generator for quickly generating sortable and uniq strings.

Sorting and deduping sql is a necessary step for optimization. Calling the actual generator is expensive so we have a bare minimum sql generator here.

class Gen: View Source

    1245class Gen:
    1246    def __init__(self):
    1247        self.stack = []
    1248        self.sqls = []
    1249
    1250    def gen(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
    1251        self.stack = [expression]
    1252        self.sqls.clear()
    1253
    1254        while self.stack:
    1255            node = self.stack.pop()
    1256
    1257            if isinstance(node, exp.Expression):
    1258                exp_handler_name = f"{node.key}_sql"
    1259
    1260                if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
    1261                    getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(node)
    1262                elif isinstance(node, exp.Func):
    1263                    self._function(node)
    1264                else:
    1265                    key = node.key.upper()
    1266                    self.stack.append(f"{key} " if self._args(node) else key)
    1267            elif type(node) is list:
    1268                for n in reversed(node):
    1269                    if n is not None:
    1270                        self.stack.extend((n, ","))
    1271                if node:
    1272                    self.stack.pop()
    1273            else:
    1274                if node is not None:
    1275                    self.sqls.append(str(node))
    1276
    1277        return "".join(self.sqls)
    1278
    1279    def add_sql(self, e: exp.Add) -> None:
    1280        self._binary(e, " + ")
    1281
    1282    def alias_sql(self, e: exp.Alias) -> None:
    1283        self.stack.extend(
    1284            (
    1285                e.args.get("alias"),
    1286                " AS ",
    1287                e.args.get("this"),
    1288            )
    1289        )
    1290
    1291    def and_sql(self, e: exp.And) -> None:
    1292        self._binary(e, " AND ")
    1293
    1294    def anonymous_sql(self, e: exp.Anonymous) -> None:
    1295        this = e.this
    1296        if isinstance(this, str):
    1297            name = this.upper()
    1298        elif isinstance(this, exp.Identifier):
    1299            name = this.this
    1300            name = f'"{name}"' if this.quoted else name.upper()
    1301        else:
    1302            raise ValueError(
    1303                f"Anonymous.this expects a str or an Identifier, got '{this.__class__.__name__}'."
    1304            )
    1305
    1306        self.stack.extend(
    1307            (
    1308                ")",
    1309                e.expressions,
    1310                "(",
    1311                name,
    1312            )
    1313        )
    1314
    1315    def between_sql(self, e: exp.Between) -> None:
    1316        self.stack.extend(
    1317            (
    1318                e.args.get("high"),
    1319                " AND ",
    1320                e.args.get("low"),
    1321                " BETWEEN ",
    1322                e.this,
    1323            )
    1324        )
    1325
    1326    def boolean_sql(self, e: exp.Boolean) -> None:
    1327        self.stack.append("TRUE" if e.this else "FALSE")
    1328
    1329    def bracket_sql(self, e: exp.Bracket) -> None:
    1330        self.stack.extend(
    1331            (
    1332                "]",
    1333                e.expressions,
    1334                "[",
    1335                e.this,
    1336            )
    1337        )
    1338
    1339    def column_sql(self, e: exp.Column) -> None:
    1340        for p in reversed(e.parts):
    1341            self.stack.extend((p, "."))
    1342        self.stack.pop()
    1343
    1344    def datatype_sql(self, e: exp.DataType) -> None:
    1345        self._args(e, 1)
    1346        self.stack.append(f"{e.this.name} ")
    1347
    1348    def div_sql(self, e: exp.Div) -> None:
    1349        self._binary(e, " / ")
    1350
    1351    def dot_sql(self, e: exp.Dot) -> None:
    1352        self._binary(e, ".")
    1353
    1354    def eq_sql(self, e: exp.EQ) -> None:
    1355        self._binary(e, " = ")
    1356
    1357    def from_sql(self, e: exp.From) -> None:
    1358        self.stack.extend((e.this, "FROM "))
    1359
    1360    def gt_sql(self, e: exp.GT) -> None:
    1361        self._binary(e, " > ")
    1362
    1363    def gte_sql(self, e: exp.GTE) -> None:
    1364        self._binary(e, " >= ")
    1365
    1366    def identifier_sql(self, e: exp.Identifier) -> None:
    1367        self.stack.append(f'"{e.this}"' if e.quoted else e.this)
    1368
    1369    def ilike_sql(self, e: exp.ILike) -> None:
    1370        self._binary(e, " ILIKE ")
    1371
    1372    def in_sql(self, e: exp.In) -> None:
    1373        self.stack.append(")")
    1374        self._args(e, 1)
    1375        self.stack.extend(
    1376            (
    1377                "(",
    1378                " IN ",
    1379                e.this,
    1380            )
    1381        )
    1382
    1383    def intdiv_sql(self, e: exp.IntDiv) -> None:
    1384        self._binary(e, " DIV ")
    1385
    1386    def is_sql(self, e: exp.Is) -> None:
    1387        self._binary(e, " IS ")
    1388
    1389    def like_sql(self, e: exp.Like) -> None:
    1390        self._binary(e, " Like ")
    1391
    1392    def literal_sql(self, e: exp.Literal) -> None:
    1393        self.stack.append(f"'{e.this}'" if e.is_string else e.this)
    1394
    1395    def lt_sql(self, e: exp.LT) -> None:
    1396        self._binary(e, " < ")
    1397
    1398    def lte_sql(self, e: exp.LTE) -> None:
    1399        self._binary(e, " <= ")
    1400
    1401    def mod_sql(self, e: exp.Mod) -> None:
    1402        self._binary(e, " % ")
    1403
    1404    def mul_sql(self, e: exp.Mul) -> None:
    1405        self._binary(e, " * ")
    1406
    1407    def neg_sql(self, e: exp.Neg) -> None:
    1408        self._unary(e, "-")
    1409
    1410    def neq_sql(self, e: exp.NEQ) -> None:
    1411        self._binary(e, " <> ")
    1412
    1413    def not_sql(self, e: exp.Not) -> None:
    1414        self._unary(e, "NOT ")
    1415
    1416    def null_sql(self, e: exp.Null) -> None:
    1417        self.stack.append("NULL")
    1418
    1419    def or_sql(self, e: exp.Or) -> None:
    1420        self._binary(e, " OR ")
    1421
    1422    def paren_sql(self, e: exp.Paren) -> None:
    1423        self.stack.extend(
    1424            (
    1425                ")",
    1426                e.this,
    1427                "(",
    1428            )
    1429        )
    1430
    1431    def sub_sql(self, e: exp.Sub) -> None:
    1432        self._binary(e, " - ")
    1433
    1434    def subquery_sql(self, e: exp.Subquery) -> None:
    1435        self._args(e, 2)
    1436        alias = e.args.get("alias")
    1437        if alias:
    1438            self.stack.append(alias)
    1439        self.stack.extend((")", e.this, "("))
    1440
    1441    def table_sql(self, e: exp.Table) -> None:
    1442        self._args(e, 4)
    1443        alias = e.args.get("alias")
    1444        if alias:
    1445            self.stack.append(alias)
    1446        for p in reversed(e.parts):
    1447            self.stack.extend((p, "."))
    1448        self.stack.pop()
    1449
    1450    def tablealias_sql(self, e: exp.TableAlias) -> None:
    1451        columns = e.columns
    1452
    1453        if columns:
    1454            self.stack.extend((")", columns, "("))
    1455
    1456        self.stack.extend((e.this, " AS "))
    1457
    1458    def var_sql(self, e: exp.Var) -> None:
    1459        self.stack.append(e.this)
    1460
    1461    def _binary(self, e: exp.Binary, op: str) -> None:
    1462        self.stack.extend((e.expression, op, e.this))
    1463
    1464    def _unary(self, e: exp.Unary, op: str) -> None:
    1465        self.stack.extend((e.this, op))
    1466
    1467    def _function(self, e: exp.Func) -> None:
    1468        self.stack.extend(
    1469            (
    1470                ")",
    1471                list(e.args.values()),
    1472                "(",
    1473                e.sql_name(),
    1474            )
    1475        )
    1476
    1477    def _args(self, node: exp.Expression, arg_index: int = 0) -> bool:
    1478        kvs = []
    1479        arg_types = list(node.arg_types)[arg_index:] if arg_index else node.arg_types
    1480
    1481        for k in arg_types or arg_types:
    1482            v = node.args.get(k)
    1483
    1484            if v is not None:
    1485                kvs.append([f":{k}", v])
    1486        if kvs:
    1487            self.stack.append(kvs)
    1488            return True
    1489        return False

stack
sqls
def gen(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression ) -> str: View Source

    1250    def gen(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
    1251        self.stack = [expression]
    1252        self.sqls.clear()
    1253
    1254        while self.stack:
    1255            node = self.stack.pop()
    1256
    1257            if isinstance(node, exp.Expression):
    1258                exp_handler_name = f"{node.key}_sql"
    1259
    1260                if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
    1261                    getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(node)
    1262                elif isinstance(node, exp.Func):
    1263                    self._function(node)
    1264                else:
    1265                    key = node.key.upper()
    1266                    self.stack.append(f"{key} " if self._args(node) else key)
    1267            elif type(node) is list:
    1268                for n in reversed(node):
    1269                    if n is not None:
    1270                        self.stack.extend((n, ","))
    1271                if node:
    1272                    self.stack.pop()
    1273            else:
    1274                if node is not None:
    1275                    self.sqls.append(str(node))
    1276
    1277        return "".join(self.sqls)

def add_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Add ) -> None: View Source

    1279    def add_sql(self, e: exp.Add) -> None:
    1280        self._binary(e, " + ")

def alias_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Alias ) -> None: View Source

    1282    def alias_sql(self, e: exp.Alias) -> None:
    1283        self.stack.extend(
    1284            (
    1285                e.args.get("alias"),
    1286                " AS ",
    1287                e.args.get("this"),
    1288            )
    1289        )

def and_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.And ) -> None: View Source

    1291    def and_sql(self, e: exp.And) -> None:
    1292        self._binary(e, " AND ")

def anonymous_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous ) -> None: View Source

    1294    def anonymous_sql(self, e: exp.Anonymous) -> None:
    1295        this = e.this
    1296        if isinstance(this, str):
    1297            name = this.upper()
    1298        elif isinstance(this, exp.Identifier):
    1299            name = this.this
    1300            name = f'"{name}"' if this.quoted else name.upper()
    1301        else:
    1302            raise ValueError(
    1303                f"Anonymous.this expects a str or an Identifier, got '{this.__class__.__name__}'."
    1304            )
    1305
    1306        self.stack.extend(
    1307            (
    1308                ")",
    1309                e.expressions,
    1310                "(",
    1311                name,
    1312            )
    1313        )

def between_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Between ) -> None: View Source

    1315    def between_sql(self, e: exp.Between) -> None:
    1316        self.stack.extend(
    1317            (
    1318                e.args.get("high"),
    1319                " AND ",
    1320                e.args.get("low"),
    1321                " BETWEEN ",
    1322                e.this,
    1323            )
    1324        )

def boolean_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean ) -> None: View Source

    1326    def boolean_sql(self, e: exp.Boolean) -> None:
    1327        self.stack.append("TRUE" if e.this else "FALSE")

def bracket_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket ) -> None: View Source

    1329    def bracket_sql(self, e: exp.Bracket) -> None:
    1330        self.stack.extend(
    1331            (
    1332                "]",
    1333                e.expressions,
    1334                "[",
    1335                e.this,
    1336            )
    1337        )

def column_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Column ) -> None: View Source

    1339    def column_sql(self, e: exp.Column) -> None:
    1340        for p in reversed(e.parts):
    1341            self.stack.extend((p, "."))
    1342        self.stack.pop()

def datatype_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.DataType ) -> None: View Source

    1344    def datatype_sql(self, e: exp.DataType) -> None:
    1345        self._args(e, 1)
    1346        self.stack.append(f"{e.this.name} ")

def div_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Div ) -> None: View Source

    1348    def div_sql(self, e: exp.Div) -> None:
    1349        self._binary(e, " / ")

def dot_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Dot ) -> None: View Source

    1351    def dot_sql(self, e: exp.Dot) -> None:
    1352        self._binary(e, ".")

def eq_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.EQ ) -> None: View Source

    1354    def eq_sql(self, e: exp.EQ) -> None:
    1355        self._binary(e, " = ")

def from_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.From ) -> None: View Source

    1357    def from_sql(self, e: exp.From) -> None:
    1358        self.stack.extend((e.this, "FROM "))

def gt_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.GT ) -> None: View Source

    1360    def gt_sql(self, e: exp.GT) -> None:
    1361        self._binary(e, " > ")

def gte_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.GTE ) -> None: View Source

    1363    def gte_sql(self, e: exp.GTE) -> None:
    1364        self._binary(e, " >= ")

def identifier_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier ) -> None: View Source

    1366    def identifier_sql(self, e: exp.Identifier) -> None:
    1367        self.stack.append(f'"{e.this}"' if e.quoted else e.this)

def ilike_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.ILike ) -> None: View Source

    1369    def ilike_sql(self, e: exp.ILike) -> None:
    1370        self._binary(e, " ILIKE ")

def in_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.In ) -> None: View Source

    1372    def in_sql(self, e: exp.In) -> None:
    1373        self.stack.append(")")
    1374        self._args(e, 1)
    1375        self.stack.extend(
    1376            (
    1377                "(",
    1378                " IN ",
    1379                e.this,
    1380            )
    1381        )

def intdiv_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv ) -> None: View Source

    1383    def intdiv_sql(self, e: exp.IntDiv) -> None:
    1384        self._binary(e, " DIV ")

def is_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Is ) -> None: View Source

    1386    def is_sql(self, e: exp.Is) -> None:
    1387        self._binary(e, " IS ")

def like_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Like ) -> None: View Source

    1389    def like_sql(self, e: exp.Like) -> None:
    1390        self._binary(e, " Like ")

def literal_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Literal ) -> None: View Source

    1392    def literal_sql(self, e: exp.Literal) -> None:
    1393        self.stack.append(f"'{e.this}'" if e.is_string else e.this)

def lt_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.LT ) -> None: View Source

    1395    def lt_sql(self, e: exp.LT) -> None:
    1396        self._binary(e, " < ")

def lte_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.LTE ) -> None: View Source

    1398    def lte_sql(self, e: exp.LTE) -> None:
    1399        self._binary(e, " <= ")

def mod_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Mod ) -> None: View Source

    1401    def mod_sql(self, e: exp.Mod) -> None:
    1402        self._binary(e, " % ")

def mul_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Mul ) -> None: View Source

    1404    def mul_sql(self, e: exp.Mul) -> None:
    1405        self._binary(e, " * ")

def neg_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Neg ) -> None: View Source

    1407    def neg_sql(self, e: exp.Neg) -> None:
    1408        self._unary(e, "-")

def neq_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ ) -> None: View Source

    1410    def neq_sql(self, e: exp.NEQ) -> None:
    1411        self._binary(e, " <> ")

def not_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Not ) -> None: View Source

    1413    def not_sql(self, e: exp.Not) -> None:
    1414        self._unary(e, "NOT ")

def null_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Null ) -> None: View Source

    1416    def null_sql(self, e: exp.Null) -> None:
    1417        self.stack.append("NULL")

def or_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Or ) -> None: View Source

    1419    def or_sql(self, e: exp.Or) -> None:
    1420        self._binary(e, " OR ")

def paren_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Paren ) -> None: View Source

    1422    def paren_sql(self, e: exp.Paren) -> None:
    1423        self.stack.extend(
    1424            (
    1425                ")",
    1426                e.this,
    1427                "(",
    1428            )
    1429        )

def sub_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Sub ) -> None: View Source

    1431    def sub_sql(self, e: exp.Sub) -> None:
    1432        self._binary(e, " - ")

def subquery_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery ) -> None: View Source

    1434    def subquery_sql(self, e: exp.Subquery) -> None:
    1435        self._args(e, 2)
    1436        alias = e.args.get("alias")
    1437        if alias:
    1438            self.stack.append(alias)
    1439        self.stack.extend((")", e.this, "("))

def table_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Table ) -> None: View Source

    1441    def table_sql(self, e: exp.Table) -> None:
    1442        self._args(e, 4)
    1443        alias = e.args.get("alias")
    1444        if alias:
    1445            self.stack.append(alias)
    1446        for p in reversed(e.parts):
    1447            self.stack.extend((p, "."))
    1448        self.stack.pop()

def tablealias_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias ) -> None: View Source

    1450    def tablealias_sql(self, e: exp.TableAlias) -> None:
    1451        columns = e.columns
    1452
    1453        if columns:
    1454            self.stack.extend((")", columns, "("))
    1455
    1456        self.stack.extend((e.this, " AS "))

def var_sql(self, e: sqlglot.expressions.Var ) -> None: View Source

    1458    def var_sql(self, e: exp.Var) -> None:
    1459        self.stack.append(e.this)