Edit on GitHub

sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 118        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 119        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 122        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 123        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 125        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 127        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 128        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 132        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 135        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 136        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 138        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 139        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 140        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 141        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 142        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 143        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 144        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 145        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 146        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 147        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 150        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 151        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 152        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 153        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 154        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 155        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 156        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 157        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 158        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 159        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 160        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 161        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 162        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 163        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 164        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 165        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 166        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 168        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 169        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 170        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 171        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 172            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 173        ),
 174        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 175        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 176        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 177        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 178        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 179        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 180        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 181        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 182        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 183        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 184        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 185        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 186        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 187        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 188        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 189        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 190        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 191        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 192        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 193        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 194        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 195        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 196        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 197        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 198        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 199        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 200        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 201        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 202        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 203        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 205    }
 206
 207    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 208    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 209    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 210    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 211
 212    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 213    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 214    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 215
 216    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 217    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 218
 219    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 220    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 221
 222    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 223    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 224
 225    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 226    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 227
 228    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 229    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 230
 231    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 232    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 233
 234    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 235    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 236
 237    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 238    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 239
 240    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 241    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 242
 243    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 244    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 245
 246    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 247    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 248
 249    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 250    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 251
 252    # Whether join hints should be generated
 253    JOIN_HINTS = True
 254
 255    # Whether table hints should be generated
 256    TABLE_HINTS = True
 257
 258    # Whether query hints should be generated
 259    QUERY_HINTS = True
 260
 261    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 262    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 263
 264    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 265    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 266
 267    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 268    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 269
 270    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 271    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 272
 273    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 274    RETURNING_END = True
 275
 276    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 277    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 278
 279    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 280    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 281
 282    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 283    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 284
 285    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 286    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 287
 288    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 289    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 290    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 291    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 292
 293    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 294    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 295
 296    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 297    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 298
 299    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 300    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 301
 302    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 303    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 304
 305    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 306    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 307
 308    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 309    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 310
 311    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 312    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 313
 314    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 315    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 316
 317    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 318    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 319
 320    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 321    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 322
 323    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 324    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 325
 326    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 327    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 328
 329    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 330    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 331
 332    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 333    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 334
 335    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 336    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 337
 338    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 339    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 340
 341    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 342    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 343
 344    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 345    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 346
 347    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 348    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 349
 350    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 351    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 352
 353    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 354    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 355
 356    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 357    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 358
 359    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 360    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 361
 362    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 363    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 364
 365    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 366    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 367
 368    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 369    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 370    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 371
 372    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 373    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 374
 375    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 376    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 377
 378    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 379    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 380
 381    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 382    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 383
 384    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 385    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 386
 387    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 388    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 389
 390    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 391    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 392    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 393    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 394
 395    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 396    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 397
 398    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 399    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 400
 401    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 402    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 403
 404    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 405    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 406
 407    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 408    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 409
 410    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 411    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 412
 413    # The HEX function name
 414    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 415
 416    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 417    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 418
 419    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 420    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 421
 422    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 423    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 424
 425    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 426    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 427
 428    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 429    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 430
 431    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 432    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 433
 434    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 435    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 436
 437    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 438        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 439        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 440        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 441        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 442        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 443        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 444        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 445        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 446        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 447        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 448    }
 449
 450    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 451        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 452        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 453        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 454        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 455        "DAYS": "DAY",
 456        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 457        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 458        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 459        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 460    }
 461
 462    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 463        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 464        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 465        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 466        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 467            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 468            if e.args.get("windows")
 469            else ""
 470        ),
 471        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 472    }
 473
 474    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 475
 476    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 477
 478    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 479    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 480
 481    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 482        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 484        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 488        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 490        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 497        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 498        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 499        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 502        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 508        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 509        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 510        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 511        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 512        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 513        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 514        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 515        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 517        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 518        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 523        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 524        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 525        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 526        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 527        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 528        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 529        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 530        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 531        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 532        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 533        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 534        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 535        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 536        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 539        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 541        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 542        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 543        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 544        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 545        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 546        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 547        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 548        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 549        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 550        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 551        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 552        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 553        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 554        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 555        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 556        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 557        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 558        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 559        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 560        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 561        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 563        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 564        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 565        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 566        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 567        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 568        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 569    }
 570
 571    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 572    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 573
 574    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 575    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 576        exp.Command,
 577        exp.Create,
 578        exp.Delete,
 579        exp.Drop,
 580        exp.From,
 581        exp.Insert,
 582        exp.Join,
 583        exp.MultitableInserts,
 584        exp.Select,
 585        exp.SetOperation,
 586        exp.Update,
 587        exp.Where,
 588        exp.With,
 589    )
 590
 591    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 592    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 593        exp.Binary,
 594        exp.SetOperation,
 595    )
 596
 597    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 598    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 599        exp.Column,
 600        exp.Literal,
 601        exp.Neg,
 602        exp.Paren,
 603    )
 604
 605    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 606        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 607        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 608        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 609        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 610    }
 611
 612    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 613    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 614
 615    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 616
 617    __slots__ = (
 618        "pretty",
 619        "identify",
 620        "normalize",
 621        "pad",
 622        "_indent",
 623        "normalize_functions",
 624        "unsupported_level",
 625        "max_unsupported",
 626        "leading_comma",
 627        "max_text_width",
 628        "comments",
 629        "dialect",
 630        "unsupported_messages",
 631        "_escaped_quote_end",
 632        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 633        "_next_name",
 634        "_identifier_start",
 635        "_identifier_end",
 636    )
 637
 638    def __init__(
 639        self,
 640        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 641        identify: str | bool = False,
 642        normalize: bool = False,
 643        pad: int = 2,
 644        indent: int = 2,
 645        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 646        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 647        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 648        leading_comma: bool = False,
 649        max_text_width: int = 80,
 650        comments: bool = True,
 651        dialect: DialectType = None,
 652    ):
 653        import sqlglot
 654        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 655
 656        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 657        self.identify = identify
 658        self.normalize = normalize
 659        self.pad = pad
 660        self._indent = indent
 661        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 662        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 663        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 664        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 665        self.comments = comments
 666        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 667
 668        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 669        self.normalize_functions = (
 670            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 671        )
 672
 673        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 674        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 675            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 676        )
 677        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 678
 679        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 680
 681        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 682        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 683
 684    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 685        """
 686        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 687
 688        Args:
 689            expression: The syntax tree.
 690            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 691                it is safer to copy.
 692
 693        Returns:
 694            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 695        """
 696        if copy:
 697            expression = expression.copy()
 698
 699        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 700
 701        self.unsupported_messages = []
 702        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 703
 704        if self.pretty:
 705            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 706
 707        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 708            return sql
 709
 710        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 711            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 712                logger.warning(msg)
 713        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 714            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 715
 716        return sql
 717
 718    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 719        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 720        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 721
 722        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 723            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 724
 725            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 726
 727        return expression
 728
 729    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 730        if (
 731            not expression.parent
 732            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 733            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 734        ):
 735            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 736
 737            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 738        return expression
 739
 740    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 741        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 742            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 743        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 744
 745    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 746        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 747
 748    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 749        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 750
 751    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 752        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 753        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 754        return comment
 755
 756    def maybe_comment(
 757        self,
 758        sql: str,
 759        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 760        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 761        separated: bool = False,
 762    ) -> str:
 763        comments = (
 764            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 765            if self.comments
 766            else None
 767        )
 768
 769        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 770            return sql
 771
 772        comments_sql = " ".join(
 773            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 774        )
 775
 776        if not comments_sql:
 777            return sql
 778
 779        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 780
 781        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 782            return (
 783                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 784                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 785                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 786            )
 787
 788        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 789
 790    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 791        this_sql = (
 792            self.sql(expression)
 793            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 794            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 795        )
 796        if not this_sql:
 797            return "()"
 798
 799        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 800        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 801
 802    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 803        original = self.identify
 804        self.identify = False
 805        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 806        self.identify = original
 807        return result
 808
 809    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 810        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 811            return name.upper()
 812        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 813            return name.lower()
 814        return name
 815
 816    def indent(
 817        self,
 818        sql: str,
 819        level: int = 0,
 820        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 821        skip_first: bool = False,
 822        skip_last: bool = False,
 823    ) -> str:
 824        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 825            return sql
 826
 827        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 828        lines = sql.split("\n")
 829
 830        return "\n".join(
 831            (
 832                line
 833                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 834                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 835            )
 836            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 837        )
 838
 839    def sql(
 840        self,
 841        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 842        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 843        comment: bool = True,
 844    ) -> str:
 845        if not expression:
 846            return ""
 847
 848        if isinstance(expression, str):
 849            return expression
 850
 851        if key:
 852            value = expression.args.get(key)
 853            if value:
 854                return self.sql(value)
 855            return ""
 856
 857        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 858
 859        if callable(transform):
 860            sql = transform(self, expression)
 861        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 862            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 863
 864            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 865                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 866            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 867                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 868            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 869                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 870            else:
 871                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 872        else:
 873            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 874
 875        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 876
 877    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 878        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 879        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 880        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 881
 882    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 883        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 884        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 885        options = expression.args.get("options")
 886        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 887        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 888        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 889        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 890        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 891
 892    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 893        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 894            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 895        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 896        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 897
 898    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 899        return ".".join(
 900            self.sql(part)
 901            for part in (
 902                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 903                expression.args.get("db"),
 904                expression.args.get("table"),
 905                expression.args.get("this"),
 906            )
 907            if part
 908        )
 909
 910    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 911        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 912
 913        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 914            join_mark = ""
 915            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 916
 917        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 918
 919    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 921        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 922        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 923        return f"{position}{this}"
 924
 925    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 926        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 927        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 928        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 929        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 930        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 931        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 932        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 933        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 934
 935        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 936            kind = ""
 937
 938        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 939
 940    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 941        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 942        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 943        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 944
 945    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 947        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 948            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 949        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 950            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 951        else:
 952            persisted = ""
 953        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 954
 955    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 956        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 957
 958    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 959        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 960            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 961        else:
 962            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 963
 964        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 965
 966    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 967        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 968    ) -> str:
 969        this = ""
 970        if expression.this is not None:
 971            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 972            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 973
 974        start = expression.args.get("start")
 975        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 976        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 977        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 978        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 979        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 980        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 981        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 982        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 983        cycle_sql = ""
 984
 985        if cycle is not None:
 986            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 987            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 988
 989        sequence_opts = ""
 990        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 991            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 992            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 993
 994        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 995        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 996
 997        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 998
 999    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1000        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1001    ) -> str:
1002        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1003        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1004        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1005
1006    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1007        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1008    ) -> str:
1009        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1010
1011    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1012        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1013
1014    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1015        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1016
1017    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1018        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1019        if desc is not None:
1020            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1021        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1022
1023    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1024        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1025        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1026        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1027        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1028        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1029        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1030        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1031        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1032
1033    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1034        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1035
1036    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1037        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1038        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1039        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1040        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1041
1042        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1043
1044        properties_sql = ""
1045        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1046            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1047        ):
1048            properties_sql = self.sql(
1049                exp.Properties(
1050                    expressions=[
1051                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1052                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1053                    ]
1054                )
1055            )
1056
1057            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1058                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1059            elif not self.pretty:
1060                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1061                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1062
1063        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1064        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1065
1066        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1067        if expression_sql:
1068            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1069
1070            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1071                postalias_props_sql = ""
1072                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1073                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1074                        exp.Properties(
1075                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1076                        ),
1077                        wrapped=False,
1078                    )
1079                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1080                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1081
1082        postindex_props_sql = ""
1083        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1084            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1085                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1086                wrapped=False,
1087                prefix=" ",
1088            )
1089
1090        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1091        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1092        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1093
1094        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1095        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1096        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1097
1098        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1099        if clustered is None:
1100            clustered_sql = ""
1101        elif clustered:
1102            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1103        else:
1104            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1105
1106        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1107        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1108            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1109                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1110                sep=" ",
1111                prefix=" ",
1112                wrapped=False,
1113            )
1114
1115        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1116
1117        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1118        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1119            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1120                exp.Properties(
1121                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1122                ),
1123                sep=" ",
1124                prefix=" ",
1125                wrapped=False,
1126            )
1127
1128        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1129        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1130        no_schema_binding = (
1131            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1132        )
1133
1134        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1135        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1136
1137        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1138        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1139
1140    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1141        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1142        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1143        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1144        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1145        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1146        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1147        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1148        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1149        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1150        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1151
1152        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1153        if cache is None:
1154            cache_str = ""
1155        elif cache is True:
1156            cache_str = " CACHE"
1157        else:
1158            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1159
1160        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1161        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1162
1163        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1164
1165    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1166        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1167        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1168        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1169        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1170
1171    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1172        style = expression.args.get("style")
1173        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1174        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1175        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1176        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1177
1178    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1179        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1180        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1181
1182    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1183        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1184        if with_:
1185            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1186        return sql
1187
1188    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1189        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1190        recursive = (
1191            "RECURSIVE "
1192            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1193            else ""
1194        )
1195
1196        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1197
1198    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1199        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1200        if alias:
1201            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1202
1203        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1204
1205        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1206        if materialized is False:
1207            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1208        elif materialized:
1209            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1210
1211        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1212
1213    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1214        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1215        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1216        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1217
1218        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1219            columns = ""
1220            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1221
1222        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1223            alias = self._next_name()
1224
1225        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1226
1227    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1228        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1229        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1230            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1231        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1232
1233    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1234        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1235        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1236            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1237        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1238
1239    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1240        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1241        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1242            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1243        return this
1244
1245    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1246        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1247        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1248
1249        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1250            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1251            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1252        else:
1253            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1254            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1255
1256        if escape:
1257            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1258            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1259        else:
1260            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1261            escape_sql = ""
1262
1263        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1264            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1265
1266        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1267
1268    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1269        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1270        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1271
1272    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1273        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1274        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1275        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1276        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1277
1278    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1279        nested = ""
1280        values = ""
1281        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1282
1283        type_value = expression.this
1284        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1285            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1286        else:
1287            type_sql = (
1288                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1289                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1290                else type_value
1291            )
1292
1293        if interior:
1294            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1295                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1296                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1297                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1298                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1299                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1300            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1301                nested = f" {interior}"
1302            else:
1303                nested = f"({interior})"
1304
1305        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1306        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1307            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1308            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1309        ):
1310            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1311
1312        return type_sql
1313
1314    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1315        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1316        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1317        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1318        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1319
1320    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1321        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1322        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1323        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1324        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1325        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1326        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1327        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1328        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1329        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1330        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1331        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1332        if self.RETURNING_END:
1333            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1334        else:
1335            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1336        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1337
1338    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1339        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1340        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1341        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1342        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1343        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1344        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1345        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1346        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1347        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1348        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1349        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1350        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1351        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1352        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1353        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1354
1355    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1356        op_type = type(expression)
1357        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1358
1359        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1360        if (
1361            distinct is False
1362            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1363            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1364        ):
1365            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1366
1367        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1368
1369        if distinct is None:
1370            distinct = default_distinct
1371            if distinct is None:
1372                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1373
1374        if distinct is default_distinct:
1375            kind = ""
1376        else:
1377            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1378
1379        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1380        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1381
1382    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1383        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1384            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1385            order = expression.args.get("order")
1386
1387            if limit or order:
1388                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1389                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1390                )
1391
1392                if limit:
1393                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1394                if order:
1395                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1396                return self.sql(select)
1397
1398        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1399        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1400
1401        while stack:
1402            node = stack.pop()
1403
1404            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1405                stack.append(node.expression)
1406                stack.append(
1407                    self.maybe_comment(
1408                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1409                    )
1410                )
1411                stack.append(node.this)
1412            else:
1413                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1414
1415        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1416        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1417        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1418
1419    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1420        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1421        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1422        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1423        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1424        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1425            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1426        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1427        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1428
1429    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1430        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1431            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1432            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1433            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1434
1435        agg = expression.this
1436        agg_arg = agg.this
1437        cond = expression.expression.this
1438        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1439        return self.sql(agg)
1440
1441    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1442        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1443            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1444            return ""
1445
1446        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1447
1448    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1449        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1450        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1451        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1452        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1453        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1454        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1455        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1456        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1457        if include:
1458            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1459        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1460        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1461        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1462        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1463        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1464        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1465
1466        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1467
1468    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1469        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1470        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1471        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1472        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1473        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1474        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1475        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1476
1477        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1478
1479        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1480        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1481
1482    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1483        text = expression.name
1484        lower = text.lower()
1485        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1486        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1487        if (
1488            expression.quoted
1489            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1490            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1491            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1492        ):
1493            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1494        return text
1495
1496    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1497        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1498        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1499            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1500
1501        return text
1502
1503    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1504        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1505        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1506            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1507        return text
1508
1509    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1510        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1511        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1512        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1513        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1514        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1515
1516    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1517        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1518        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1519
1520    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1521        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1522
1523    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1524        root_properties = []
1525        with_properties = []
1526
1527        for p in expression.expressions:
1528            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1529            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1530                with_properties.append(p)
1531            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1532                root_properties.append(p)
1533
1534        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1535        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1536
1537        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1538            with_props = " " + with_props
1539
1540        return root_props + with_props
1541
1542    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1543        if properties.expressions:
1544            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1545        return ""
1546
1547    def properties(
1548        self,
1549        properties: exp.Properties,
1550        prefix: str = "",
1551        sep: str = ", ",
1552        suffix: str = "",
1553        wrapped: bool = True,
1554    ) -> str:
1555        if properties.expressions:
1556            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1557            if expressions:
1558                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1559                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1560        return ""
1561
1562    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1563        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1564
1565    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1566        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1567        for p in properties.expressions:
1568            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1569            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1570                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1571            else:
1572                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1573
1574        return properties_locs
1575
1576    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1577        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1578            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1579        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1580
1581    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1582        property_cls = expression.__class__
1583        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1584            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1585
1586        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1587        if not property_name:
1588            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1589
1590        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1591
1592    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1593        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1594            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1595            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1596
1597            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1598            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1599                like = f"({like})"
1600
1601            return like
1602
1603        if expression.expressions:
1604            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1605
1606        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1607        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1608
1609    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1610        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1611        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1612        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1613
1614    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1615        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1616        local = expression.args.get("local")
1617        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1618        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1619        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1620        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1621        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1622
1623    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1624        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1625        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1626        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1627
1628    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1629        if expression.args.get("default"):
1630            property = "DEFAULT"
1631        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1632            property = "ON"
1633        else:
1634            property = "OFF"
1635        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1636
1637    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1638        if expression.args.get("no"):
1639            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1640        if expression.args.get("default"):
1641            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1642
1643        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1644        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1645
1646    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1647        default = expression.args.get("default")
1648        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1649        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1650        if default or minimum or maximum:
1651            if default:
1652                prop = "DEFAULT"
1653            elif minimum:
1654                prop = "MINIMUM"
1655            else:
1656                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1657            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1658        units = expression.args.get("units")
1659        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1660        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1661
1662    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1663        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1664        always = expression.args.get("always")
1665        default = expression.args.get("default")
1666        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1667        never = expression.args.get("never")
1668
1669        if autotemp is not None:
1670            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1671        elif always:
1672            prop = "ALWAYS"
1673        elif default:
1674            prop = "DEFAULT"
1675        elif manual:
1676            prop = "MANUAL"
1677        elif never:
1678            prop = "NEVER"
1679        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1680
1681    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1682        no = expression.args.get("no")
1683        no = " NO" if no else ""
1684        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1685        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1686        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1687        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1688        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1689
1690    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1691        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1692            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1693        if expression.this:
1694            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1695            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1696            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1697
1698        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1699        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1700        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1701
1702    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1703        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1704
1705        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1706        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1707            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1708        else:
1709            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1710
1711        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1712
1713    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1714        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1715        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1716        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1717        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1718        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1719        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1720        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1721
1722    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1723        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1724        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1725        statistics_sql = ""
1726        if statistics is not None:
1727            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1728        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1729
1730    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1731        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1732        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1733        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1734        data_consistency = (
1735            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1736        )
1737        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1738        retention_period = (
1739            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1740        )
1741
1742        if this:
1743            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1744        else:
1745            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1746
1747        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1748
1749        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1750
1751    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1752        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1753        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1754
1755        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1756            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1757        else:
1758            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1759
1760        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1761        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1762        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1763        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1764        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1765        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1766        if is_function:
1767            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1768        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1769
1770        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1771        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1772        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1773        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1774        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1775        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1776        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1777        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1778
1779        if self.RETURNING_END:
1780            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1781        else:
1782            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1783
1784        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1785        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1786        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1787        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1788
1789        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1790        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1791
1792        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1793        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1794
1795    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1796        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1797
1798    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1799        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1800        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1802        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1803        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1804
1805    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1806        return expression.name
1807
1808    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1809        return expression.name
1810
1811    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1812        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1813
1814        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1815        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1816
1817        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1818        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1819        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1820
1821        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1822        if expressions:
1823            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1824            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1825
1826        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1827
1828    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1829        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1830
1831    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1832        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1833        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1834        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1835        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1836        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1837        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1838        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1839        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1840        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1841        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1842        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1843        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1844        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1845
1846    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1847        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1848
1849    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1850        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1851        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1852        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1853        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1854
1855    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1856        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1857        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1858        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1859        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1860
1861    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1862        return ".".join(
1863            self.sql(part)
1864            for part in (
1865                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1866                expression.args.get("db"),
1867                expression.args.get("this"),
1868            )
1869            if part is not None
1870        )
1871
1872    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1873        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1874        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1875        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1876        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1877        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1878        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1879        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1880        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1881
1882        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1883        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1884            sample_pre_alias = sample
1885            sample_post_alias = ""
1886        else:
1887            sample_pre_alias = ""
1888            sample_post_alias = sample
1889
1890        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1891        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1892        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1893        joins = self.indent(
1894            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1895        )
1896        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1897
1898        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1899        if file_format:
1900            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1901            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1902            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1903
1904        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1905        if ordinality:
1906            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1907            alias = ""
1908
1909        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1910        if when:
1911            table = f"{table} {when}"
1912
1913        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1914        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1915
1916        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1917        if rows_from:
1918            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1919
1920        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1921
1922    def tablesample_sql(
1923        self,
1924        expression: exp.TableSample,
1925        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1926    ) -> str:
1927        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1928        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1929        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1930        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1931        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1932        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1933        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1934        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1935        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1936
1937        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1938        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1939            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1940
1941        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1942        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1943            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1944
1945        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1946        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1947            expr = f"({expr})"
1948
1949        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1950
1951    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1952        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1953
1954        if expression.this:
1955            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1956            if not expressions:
1957                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1958
1959            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1960            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1961            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1962            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1963            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1964
1965        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1966        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1967        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1968
1969        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1970
1971        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1972        if include_nulls is not None:
1973            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1974        else:
1975            nulls = ""
1976
1977        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1978        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1979        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1980
1981    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1982        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1983        kind = expression.text("kind")
1984        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1985        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1986
1987    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1988        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1989
1990    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1991        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1992        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1993        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1994        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1995        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1996        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1997        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1998        if self.RETURNING_END:
1999            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2000        else:
2001            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2002        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2003        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2004
2005    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2006        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2007
2008        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2009        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2010            args = self.expressions(expression)
2011            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2012            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2013            values = (
2014                f"({values})"
2015                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2016                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2017                else values
2018            )
2019            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2020
2021        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2022        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2023        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2024
2025        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2026
2027        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2028            row = tup.expressions
2029
2030            if i == 0 and column_names:
2031                row = [
2032                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2033                ]
2034
2035            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2036
2037        if self.pretty:
2038            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2039            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2040            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2041            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2042            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2043
2044        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2045        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2046        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2047
2048    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2049        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2050
2051    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2052    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2053        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2054        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2055        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2056
2057    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2058        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2059
2060    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2061        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2062        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2063
2064    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2065        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2066        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2067
2068    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2069        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2070        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2071
2072    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2073        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2074        if group_by_all is True:
2075            modifier = " ALL"
2076        elif group_by_all is False:
2077            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2078        else:
2079            modifier = ""
2080
2081        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2082
2083        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2084        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2085        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2086
2087        groupings = csv(
2088            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2089            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2090            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2091            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2092            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2093        )
2094
2095        if (
2096            expression.expressions
2097            and groupings
2098            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2099        ):
2100            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2101
2102        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2103
2104    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2105        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2106        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2107
2108    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2109        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2110        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2111        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2112        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2113        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2114        return start + connect
2115
2116    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2117        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2118
2119    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2120        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2121            side = None
2122        else:
2123            side = expression.side
2124
2125        op_sql = " ".join(
2126            op
2127            for op in (
2128                expression.method,
2129                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2130                side,
2131                expression.kind,
2132                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2133            )
2134            if op
2135        )
2136        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2137        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2138        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2139        using = expression.args.get("using")
2140
2141        if not on_sql and using:
2142            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2143
2144        this = expression.this
2145        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2146
2147        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2148        if exprs:
2149            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2150
2151        if on_sql:
2152            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2153            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2154            if using:
2155                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2156            else:
2157                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2158        elif not op_sql:
2159            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2160                return f" {this_sql}"
2161
2162            return f", {this_sql}"
2163
2164        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2165            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2166
2167        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2168
2169    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2170        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2171        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2172        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2173
2174    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2175        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2176
2177        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2178        if cross_apply is True:
2179            op = "INNER JOIN "
2180        elif cross_apply is False:
2181            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2182        else:
2183            op = ""
2184
2185        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2186
2187    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2188        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2189
2190        if expression.args.get("view"):
2191            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2192            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2193            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2194            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2195            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2196            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2197
2198        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2199        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2200        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2201
2202    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2203        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2204
2205        args = [
2206            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2207            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2208            if e
2209        ]
2210
2211        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2212        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2213        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2214        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2215
2216        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2217
2218    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2219        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2220        value = expression.expression
2221        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2222        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2223        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2224        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2225
2226    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2227        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2228        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2229        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2230        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2231        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2232        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2233        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2234        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2235
2236    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2237        expressions = (
2238            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2239        )
2240        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2241        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2242
2243    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2244        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2245
2246    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2247        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2248            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2249            return ""
2250
2251        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2252        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2253        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2254        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2255
2256        if wait is not None:
2257            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2258                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2259            else:
2260                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2261
2262        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2263
2264    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2265        text = expression.this or ""
2266        if expression.is_string:
2267            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2268        return text
2269
2270    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2271        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2272            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2273            text = "".join(
2274                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2275            )
2276
2277        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2278            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2279        )
2280
2281    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2282        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2283        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2284        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2285        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2286        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2287        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2288        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2289        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2290        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2291        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2292        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2293
2294    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2295        return "NULL"
2296
2297    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2298        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2299
2300    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2301        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2302        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2303        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2304        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2305
2306    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2307        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2308        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2309        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2310        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2311        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2312        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2313        interpolated_values = [
2314            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2315            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2316        ]
2317        interpolate = (
2318            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2319        )
2320        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2321
2322    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2323        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2324
2325    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2326        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2327
2328    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2329        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2330
2331    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2332        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2333        asc = not desc
2334
2335        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2336        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2337        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2338        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2339        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2340
2341        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2342
2343        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2344        nulls_sort_change = ""
2345        if nulls_first and (
2346            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2347        ):
2348            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2349        elif (
2350            nulls_last
2351            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2352            and not nulls_are_last
2353        ):
2354            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2355
2356        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2357        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2358            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2359            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2360                self.unsupported(
2361                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2362                )
2363                nulls_sort_change = ""
2364            elif (
2365                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
2366                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
2367                and (
2368                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2369                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2370                )
2371            ):
2372                self.unsupported(
2373                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2374                )
2375                nulls_sort_change = ""
2376            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2377                if expression.this.is_int:
2378                    self.unsupported(
2379                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2380                    )
2381                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2382                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2383                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2384                nulls_sort_change = ""
2385
2386        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2387        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2388
2389        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2390
2391    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2392        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2393        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2394
2395        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2396
2397        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2398
2399    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2400        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2401        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2402        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2403        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2404        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2405        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2406        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2407        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2408        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2409        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2410        definition_sqls = [
2411            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2412            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2413        ]
2414        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2415        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2416        body = "".join(
2417            (
2418                partition,
2419                order,
2420                measures,
2421                rows,
2422                after,
2423                pattern,
2424                define,
2425            )
2426        )
2427        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2428        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2429        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2430
2431    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2432        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2433
2434        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2435            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2436        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2437            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2438
2439        return csv(
2440            *sqls,
2441            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2442            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2443            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2444            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2445            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2446            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2447            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2448            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2449            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2450            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2451            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2452            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2453            self.options_modifier(expression),
2454            sep="",
2455        )
2456
2457    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2458        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2459        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2460
2461    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2462        return ""
2463
2464    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2465        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2466    ) -> t.List[str]:
2467        return [
2468            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2469            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2470        ]
2471
2472    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2473        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2474        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2475        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2476
2477    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2478        into = expression.args.get("into")
2479        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2480            into.pop()
2481
2482        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2483        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2484        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2485        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2486
2487        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2488        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2489            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2490            limit.pop()
2491        else:
2492            top = ""
2493
2494        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2495
2496        if kind:
2497            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2498                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2499            else:
2500                if kind == "STRUCT":
2501                    expressions = self.expressions(
2502                        sqls=[
2503                            self.sql(
2504                                exp.Struct(
2505                                    expressions=[
2506                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2507                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2508                                        else e
2509                                        for e in expression.expressions
2510                                    ]
2511                                )
2512                            )
2513                        ]
2514                    )
2515                kind = ""
2516
2517        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2518        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2519
2520        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2521        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2522        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2523        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2524        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2525            expression,
2526            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2527            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2528            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2529        )
2530
2531        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2532        if expression.args.get("with"):
2533            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2534            expression.pop_comments()
2535
2536        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2537
2538        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2539            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2540                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2541            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2542                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2543            else:
2544                table_kind = ""
2545            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2546
2547        return sql
2548
2549    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2550        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2551        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2552        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2553
2554    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2555        if expression.expressions:
2556            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2557        return ""
2558
2559    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2560        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2561        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2562        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2563        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2564        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2565        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2566        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2567
2568    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2569        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2570        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2571
2572    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2573        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2574        kind = expression.text("kind")
2575        if kind:
2576            kind = f"{kind}."
2577        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2578
2579    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2580        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2581
2582    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2583        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2584        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2585        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2586        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2587            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2588
2589            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2590            expression.set("sample", None)
2591
2592        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2593        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2594        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2595
2596    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2597        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2598        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2599
2600    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2601        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2602
2603        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2604        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2605
2606        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2607            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2608                alias.append("columns", offset)
2609
2610        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2611            columns = alias.columns
2612            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2613        else:
2614            alias = self.sql(alias)
2615
2616        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2617        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2618            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2619        else:
2620            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2621                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2622            elif offset:
2623                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2624            else:
2625                suffix = alias
2626
2627        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2628
2629    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2630        return ""
2631
2632    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2633        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2634        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2635
2636    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2637        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2638        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2639        order = expression.args.get("order")
2640        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2641        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2642        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2643        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2644
2645        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2646
2647        first = expression.args.get("first")
2648        if first is None:
2649            first = ""
2650        else:
2651            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2652
2653        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2654            return f"{this} {alias}"
2655
2656        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2657        return f"{this} ({args})"
2658
2659    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2660        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2661        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2662
2663    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2664        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2665        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2666        end = (
2667            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2668            or "CURRENT ROW"
2669        )
2670        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2671
2672    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2673        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2674        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2675        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2676
2677    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2678        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2679        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2680        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2681        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2682
2683    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2684        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2685    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2686        return apply_index_offset(
2687            expression.this,
2688            expression.expressions,
2689            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2690        )
2691
2692    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2693        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2694        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2695        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2696
2697    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2698        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2699
2700    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2701        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2702        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2703            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2704                this = self.wrap(this)
2705            return f"ANY{this}"
2706        return f"ANY {this}"
2707
2708    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2709        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2710
2711    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2712        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2713        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2714
2715        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2716            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2717            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2718
2719        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2720
2721        if default:
2722            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2723
2724        statements.append("END")
2725
2726        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2727            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2728
2729        return " ".join(statements)
2730
2731    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2732        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2733        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2734        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2735
2736    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2737        order = expression.args.get("order")
2738        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2739        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2740
2741    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2742        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2743        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2744        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2745
2746    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2747        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2748
2749        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2750            func_name = "LTRIM"
2751        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2752            func_name = "RTRIM"
2753        else:
2754            func_name = "TRIM"
2755
2756        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2757
2758    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2759        args = expression.expressions
2760        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2761            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2762
2763        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2764            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2765
2766        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2767            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2768
2769        return args
2770
2771    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2772        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2773
2774        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2775        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2776            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2777
2778        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2779
2780    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2781        return self.func(
2782            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2783        )
2784
2785    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2786        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2787        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2788
2789    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2790        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2791        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2792        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2793        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2794        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2795        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2796        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2797        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2798
2799    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2800        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2801        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2802        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2803        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2804
2805    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2806        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2807
2808    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2809        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2810        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2811        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2812
2813    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2814        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2815
2816    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2817        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2818
2819        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2820            path = self.escape_str(path)
2821
2822        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2823            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2824
2825        return path
2826
2827    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2828        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2829            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2830            if not callable(transform):
2831                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2832                return ""
2833
2834            return transform(self, expression)
2835
2836        if isinstance(expression, int):
2837            return str(expression)
2838
2839        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2840            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2841            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2842        else:
2843            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2844            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2845
2846        return escaped
2847
2848    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2849        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2850
2851    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2852        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2853        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2854
2855        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2856        if unique_keys is not None:
2857            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2858        else:
2859            unique_keys = ""
2860
2861        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2862        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2863        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2864        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2865
2866        return self.func(
2867            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2868            *expression.expressions,
2869            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2870        )
2871
2872    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2873        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2874
2875    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2876        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2877        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2878        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2879        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2880        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2881        return self.func(
2882            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2883        )
2884
2885    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2886        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2887        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2888        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2889        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2890        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2891        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2892        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2893        return self.func(
2894            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2895            this,
2896            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2897        )
2898
2899    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2900        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2901        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2902        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2903
2904        if nested_schema:
2905            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2906
2907        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2908        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2909        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2910        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2911
2912    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2913        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2914
2915    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2917        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2918        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2919        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2920        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2921        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2922        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2923        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2924        return self.func(
2925            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2926        )
2927
2928    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2929        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2930        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2931        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2932        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2933        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2934        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2935
2936    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2937        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2938        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2939        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2940        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2941        with_ = (
2942            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2943            if expressions
2944            else ""
2945        )
2946        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2947
2948    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2949        query = expression.args.get("query")
2950        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2951        field = expression.args.get("field")
2952        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2953
2954        if query:
2955            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2956        elif unnest:
2957            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2958        elif field:
2959            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2960        else:
2961            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2962
2963        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2964
2965    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2966        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2967
2968    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2969        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2970        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2971            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2972        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2973
2974        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2975            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2976            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2977
2978        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2979        if this:
2980            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2981            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2982
2983        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2984
2985    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2986        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2987
2988    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2989        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2990        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2991        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2992        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2993        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2994        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2995
2996    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2997        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
2998        parent = expression.parent
2999        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3000        return self.func(
3001            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3002        )
3003
3004    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3005        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3006        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3007
3008    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3009        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3010        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3011        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3012        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3013
3014    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3015        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3016
3017    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3018        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3019        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3020        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3021
3022    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3023        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3024
3025        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3026        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3027
3028        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3029            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3030        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3031            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3032
3033        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3034
3035    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3036        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3037
3038    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3039        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3040        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3041        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3042
3043    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3044        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3045        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3046        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3047
3048    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3049        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3050        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3051        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3052
3053    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3054        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3055
3056    def and_sql(
3057        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3058    ) -> str:
3059        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3060
3061    def or_sql(
3062        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3063    ) -> str:
3064        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3065
3066    def xor_sql(
3067        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3068    ) -> str:
3069        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3070
3071    def connector_sql(
3072        self,
3073        expression: exp.Connector,
3074        op: str,
3075        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3076    ) -> str:
3077        if stack is not None:
3078            if expression.expressions:
3079                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3080            else:
3081                stack.append(expression.right)
3082                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3083                    for comment in expression.comments:
3084                        if comment:
3085                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3086                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3087            return op
3088
3089        stack = [expression]
3090        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3091        ops = set()
3092
3093        while stack:
3094            node = stack.pop()
3095            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3096                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3097            else:
3098                sql = self.sql(node)
3099                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3100                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3101                else:
3102                    sqls.append(sql)
3103
3104        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3105        return sep.join(sqls)
3106
3107    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3108        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3109
3110    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3111        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3112
3113    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3114        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3115
3116    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3117        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3118
3119    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3120        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3121
3122    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3123        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3124
3125    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3126        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3127        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3128        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3129        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3130        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3131        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3132        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3133
3134    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3135        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3136        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3137
3138    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3139        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3140            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3141        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3142
3143    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3144        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3145
3146    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3147        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3148        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3149        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3150        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3151        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3152        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3153
3154    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3155        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3156        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3157        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3158        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3159        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3160        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3161        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3162        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3163        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3164
3165    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3166        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3167        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3168        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3169        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3170
3171        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3172            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3173
3174        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3175
3176    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3177        return "BEGIN"
3178
3179    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3180        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3181        if chain is not None:
3182            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3183
3184        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3185
3186    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3187        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3188        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3189        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3190
3191    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3192        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3193
3194        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3195        if dtype:
3196            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3197            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3198            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3199            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3200            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3201
3202        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3203        if default:
3204            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3205
3206        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3207        if comment:
3208            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3209
3210        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3211        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3212
3213        if not drop and not allow_null:
3214            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3215
3216        if allow_null is not None:
3217            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3218            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3219
3220        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3221
3222    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3223        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3224        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3225            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3226        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3227
3228    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3229        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3230        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3231        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3232        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3233        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3234
3235    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3236        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3237            # Remove db from tables
3238            expression = expression.transform(
3239                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3240            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3241        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3242        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3243
3244    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3245        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3246        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3247        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3248        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3249
3250    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3251        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3252        return f"SET {exprs}"
3253
3254    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3255        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3256
3257        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3258            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3259        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3260            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3261        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3262            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3263        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3264            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3265        else:
3266            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3267
3268        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3269        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3270        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3271        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3272        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3273        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3274        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3275        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3276
3277        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3278
3279    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3280        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3281            return self.expressions(
3282                expression,
3283                key="actions",
3284                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3285                skip_first=True,
3286            )
3287        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3288
3289    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3290        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3291        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3292        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3293
3294    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3295        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3296
3297    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3298        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3299
3300        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3301            case = exp.case()
3302            for arg in expression.expressions:
3303                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3304            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3305
3306        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3307
3308        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3309        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3310        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3311
3312    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3313        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3314
3315    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3316        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3317
3318    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3319        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3320        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3321        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3322        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3323
3324    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3325        return self.sql(
3326            exp.Cast(
3327                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3328                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3329            )
3330        )
3331
3332    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3333        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3334            return self.func(
3335                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3336            )
3337        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3338
3339    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3340        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3341
3342        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3343            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3344
3345        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3346            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3347                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3348
3349        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3350            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3351                return self.sql(
3352                    exp.cast(
3353                        l / r,
3354                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3355                    )
3356                )
3357
3358        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3359
3360    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3361        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3362
3363    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3364        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3365
3366    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3367        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3368
3369    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3370        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3371
3372    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3373        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3374
3375    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3376        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3377
3378    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3379        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3380
3381    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3382        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3383
3384    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3385        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3386
3387    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3388        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3389
3390    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3391        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3392
3393    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3394        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3395            return self.sql(
3396                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3397            )
3398        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3399
3400    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3401        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3402
3403    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3404        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3405
3406    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3407        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3408
3409    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3410        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3411
3412    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3413        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3414
3415    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3416        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3417
3418    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3419        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3420
3421    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3422        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3423
3424    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3425        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3426
3427    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3428        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3429
3430    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3431        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3432
3433    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3434        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3435
3436    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3437        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3438
3439    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3440        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3441            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3442            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3443
3444        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3445
3446    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3447        this = expression.this
3448        expr = expression.expression
3449
3450        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3451            this, expr = expr, this
3452        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3453            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3454                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3455
3456            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3457
3458        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3459
3460    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3461        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3462        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3463        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3464        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3465        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3466
3467    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3468        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3469        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3470        binary_type = type(expression)
3471
3472        while stack:
3473            node = stack.pop()
3474
3475            if type(node) is binary_type:
3476                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3477                if op_func:
3478                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3479
3480                stack.append(node.right)
3481                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3482                stack.append(node.left)
3483            else:
3484                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3485
3486        return "".join(sqls)
3487
3488    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3489        args = []
3490
3491        for key in expression.arg_types:
3492            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3493
3494            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3495                for value in arg_value:
3496                    args.append(value)
3497            elif arg_value is not None:
3498                args.append(arg_value)
3499
3500        if self.normalize_functions:
3501            name = expression.sql_name()
3502        else:
3503            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3504
3505        return self.func(name, *args)
3506
3507    def func(
3508        self,
3509        name: str,
3510        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3511        prefix: str = "(",
3512        suffix: str = ")",
3513        normalize: bool = True,
3514    ) -> str:
3515        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3516        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3517
3518    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3519        arg_sqls = tuple(
3520            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3521        )
3522        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3523            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3524        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3525
3526    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3527        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3528
3529    def format_time(
3530        self,
3531        expression: exp.Expression,
3532        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3533        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3534    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3535        return format_time(
3536            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3537            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3538            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3539        )
3540
3541    def expressions(
3542        self,
3543        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3544        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3545        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3546        flat: bool = False,
3547        indent: bool = True,
3548        skip_first: bool = False,
3549        skip_last: bool = False,
3550        sep: str = ", ",
3551        prefix: str = "",
3552        dynamic: bool = False,
3553        new_line: bool = False,
3554    ) -> str:
3555        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3556
3557        if not expressions:
3558            return ""
3559
3560        if flat:
3561            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3562
3563        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3564        result_sqls = []
3565
3566        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3567            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3568            if not sql:
3569                continue
3570
3571            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3572
3573            if self.pretty:
3574                if self.leading_comma:
3575                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3576                else:
3577                    result_sqls.append(
3578                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3579                    )
3580            else:
3581                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3582
3583        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3584            if new_line:
3585                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3586                result_sqls.append("")
3587            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3588        else:
3589            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3590
3591        return (
3592            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3593            if indent
3594            else result_sql
3595        )
3596
3597    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3598        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3599        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3600        if flat:
3601            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3602        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3603
3604    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3605        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3606        if not property_name:
3607            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3608        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3609
3610    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3611        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3612
3613    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3614        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3615
3616    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3617        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3618        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3619        expressions = (
3620            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3621        )
3622        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3623
3624    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3625        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3626        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3627        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3628
3629    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3630        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3631
3632    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3633        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3634        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3635        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3636        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3637
3638        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3639        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3640            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3641            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3642            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3643            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3644        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3645            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3646                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3647            else:
3648                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3649        else:
3650            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3651        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3652
3653    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3654        table = expression.this
3655        table_alias = ""
3656
3657        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3658        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3659            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3660            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3661
3662        this = self.sql(table)
3663        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3664        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3665        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3666        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3667        if returning:
3668            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
3669
3670        sep = self.sep()
3671
3672        return self.prepend_ctes(
3673            expression,
3674            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
3675        )
3676
3677    @unsupported_args("format")
3678    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3679        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3680
3681    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3682        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3683            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3684            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3685
3686        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3687        if not fmt:
3688            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3689            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3690
3691        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3692
3693    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3694        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3695        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3696        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3697        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3698        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3699
3700    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3701        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3702        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3703        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3704        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3705
3706    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3707        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3708
3709    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3710        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3711
3712    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3713    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3714        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3715        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3716        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3717        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3718        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3719        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3720        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3721
3722    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3723        return ""
3724
3725    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3726        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3727        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3728        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3729        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3730        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3731
3732    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3733        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3734        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3735
3736        if having:
3737            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3738
3739        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3740
3741    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3742        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3743        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3744        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3745        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3746        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3747        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3748        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3749        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3750        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3751        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3752        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3753        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3754        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3755
3756    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3757        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3758        if key_block_size:
3759            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3760
3761        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3762        if using:
3763            return f"USING {using}"
3764
3765        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3766        if parser:
3767            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3768
3769        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3770        if comment:
3771            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3772
3773        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3774        if visible is not None:
3775            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3776
3777        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3778        if engine_attr:
3779            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3780
3781        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3782        if secondary_engine_attr:
3783            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3784
3785        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3786        return ""
3787
3788    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3789        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3790        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3791
3792    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3793        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3794        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3795        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3796        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3797        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3798        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3799        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3800        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3801        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3802        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3803        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3804
3805    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3806        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3807            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3808
3809        case = exp.Case().when(
3810            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3811            expression.args["true"],
3812            copy=False,
3813        )
3814        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3815        if else_cond:
3816            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3817
3818        return self.sql(case)
3819
3820    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3821        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3822        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3823        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3824        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3825        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3826        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3827
3828    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3829        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3830
3831    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3832        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3833
3834    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3835        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3836        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3837        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3838        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3839        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3840        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3841
3842    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3844        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3845        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3846
3847    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3849        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3850        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3851
3852    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3853        arg = expression.this
3854        if not arg.type:
3855            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3856
3857            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3858
3859        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3860            return self.sql(arg)
3861
3862        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3863        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3864
3865    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3866        this = expression.this
3867        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3868            return self.sql(this)
3869
3870        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3871
3872    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3873        this = expression.this
3874        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3875            return self.sql(this)
3876
3877        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3878
3879    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3880        this = expression.this
3881        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3882
3883        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3884            return self.sql(
3885                exp.cast(
3886                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3887                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3888                )
3889            )
3890
3891        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3892            return self.sql(this)
3893
3894        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3895
3896    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3897        return self.sql(
3898            exp.func(
3899                "DATEDIFF",
3900                expression.this,
3901                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3902                "day",
3903            )
3904        )
3905
3906    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3907        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3908            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3909
3910        unit = expression.text("unit")
3911        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3912            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3913
3914        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3915
3916    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3917        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3918
3919        return self.func(
3920            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3921        )
3922
3923    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3924        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3925            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3926            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3927            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3928            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3929
3930        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3931
3932        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3933        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3934            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3935
3936        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3937
3938    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3939        expression.set(
3940            "expressions",
3941            [
3942                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3943                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3944                else e
3945                for e in expression.expressions
3946            ],
3947        )
3948
3949        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3950
3951    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3952        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3953        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3954
3955        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3956
3957    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3958        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3959        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3960
3961        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3962
3963        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3964        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3965
3966        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3967        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3968
3969        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3970        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3971
3972        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3973        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3974
3975        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3976
3977    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3978    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3979    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3980        to = expression.this
3981        value = expression.expression
3982        style = expression.args.get("style")
3983        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3984        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3985
3986        if not to or not value:
3987            return ""
3988
3989        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3990        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3991            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3992
3993        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3994        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3995
3996        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3997        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3998            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3999
4000            style_value = style.name
4001            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4002            if not converted_style:
4003                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4004
4005            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4006
4007            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4008                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4009            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
4010                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4011            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4012                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4013            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4014                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4015
4016        if not transformed:
4017            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4018
4019        return self.sql(transformed)
4020
4021    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4022        this = expression.this
4023        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4024            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4025            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4026
4027        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4028            return f".{this}"
4029
4030        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4031        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
4032
4033    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4034        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4035        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4036
4037    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4038        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4039            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4040
4041            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4042
4043        return expression
4044
4045    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4046        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4047            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4048            mods = sorted(
4049                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4050                key=lambda x: 0
4051                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4052                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4053            )
4054
4055            if mods:
4056                mod = mods[0]
4057                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4058                this.meta["inline"] = True
4059                mod.this.replace(this)
4060                return self.sql(expression.this)
4061
4062            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4063
4064            if agg_func:
4065                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4066
4067        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4068
4069    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4070        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4071        if self.pretty:
4072            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4073        return string
4074
4075    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4076        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4077
4078        if expression.expressions:
4079            upper = option.upper()
4080
4081            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4082            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4083
4084            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4085            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4086            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4087            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4088
4089        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4090
4091        if not value:
4092            return option
4093
4094        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4095
4096        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4097
4098    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4099        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4100        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4101            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4102            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4103            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4104        else:
4105            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4106            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4107            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4108
4109        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4110        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4111
4112        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4113        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4114
4115        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4116        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4117
4118        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4119        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4120
4121        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4122
4123    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4124        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4125        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4126
4127        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4128        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4129        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4130        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4131
4132        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4133        params = self.expressions(
4134            expression,
4135            key="params",
4136            sep=sep,
4137            new_line=True,
4138            skip_last=True,
4139            skip_first=True,
4140            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4141        )
4142
4143        if params:
4144            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4145                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4146            elif not self.pretty:
4147                params = f" {params}"
4148
4149        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4150
4151    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4152        return ""
4153
4154    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4155        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4156        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4157        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4158        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4159        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4160
4161        if filter_col or retention_period:
4162            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4163
4164        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4165
4166    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4167        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4168    ) -> str:
4169        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4170        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4171        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4172        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4173
4174    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4175        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4176        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4177        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4178
4179    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4180        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4181
4182    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4183        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4184        expr = expression.expression
4185
4186        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4187            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4188            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4189        else:
4190            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4191
4192        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4193
4194    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4195        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4196            return self.sql(expression.this)
4197
4198        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4199
4200    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4201        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4202        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4203
4204        if lower and upper:
4205            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4206        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4207
4208    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4209        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4210        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4211        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4212        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4213        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4214        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4215
4216        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4217
4218    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4219        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4220
4221        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4222        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4223            fill_pattern = "' '"
4224
4225        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4226
4227    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4228        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4229        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4230
4231    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4232        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4233
4234        parent = expression.parent
4235        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4236            parent = parent.parent
4237
4238        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4239            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4240
4241        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4242            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4243
4244        return self.sql(generate_series)
4245
4246    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4247        exprs = expression.expressions
4248        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4249            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4250        else:
4251            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4252
4253        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4254
4255    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4256        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4257            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4258
4259        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4260        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4261        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4262
4263        if source_tz and timestamp:
4264            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4265                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4266            )
4267
4268        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4269
4270        return self.sql(expr)
4271
4272    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4273        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4274        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4275
4276        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4277
4278        if _with is None:
4279            with_sql = ""
4280        elif not _with:
4281            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4282        else:
4283            with_sql = " WITH"
4284
4285        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4286
4287        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4288
4289    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4290        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4291            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4292
4293        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4294        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4295        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4296
4297        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4298        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4299
4300        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4301
4302    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4303        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4304        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4305        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4306        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4307        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4308
4309    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4310        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4311        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4312        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4313        return res
4314
4315    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4316        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4317        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4318        empty = (
4319            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4320            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4321            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4322        )
4323
4324        error = expression.args.get("error")
4325        error = (
4326            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4327            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4328            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4329        )
4330
4331        if error and empty:
4332            error = (
4333                f"{empty} {error}"
4334                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4335                else f"{error} {empty}"
4336            )
4337            empty = ""
4338
4339        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4340
4341        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4342
4343    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4344        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4345        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4346
4347        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4348        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4349
4350        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4351        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4352
4353        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4354
4355        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4356
4357    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4358        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4359
4360        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4361            parent = expression.parent
4362            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4363                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4364                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4365            else:
4366                # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4367                this = expression.this
4368                this_sql = (
4369                    self.expressions(this)
4370                    if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4371                    else self.sql(expression, "this")
4372                )
4373                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4374
4375        return array_agg
4376
4377    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4378        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4379        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4380
4381        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4382
4383    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4384        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4385
4386        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4387        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4388
4389        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4390        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4391
4392        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4393
4394        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4395
4396        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4397
4398    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4399        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4400        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4401        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4402
4403        return f"{this}{columns}"
4404
4405    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4406        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4407
4408        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4409        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4410
4411        return f"{kind}{this}"
4412
4413    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4414        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4415        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4416            func = f"*{func}"
4417
4418        return func
4419
4420    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4421        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4422        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4423        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4424        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4425        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4426
4427        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
def unsupported_args( *args: Union[str, Tuple[str, str]]) -> Callable[[Callable[[~G, ~E], str]], Callable[[~G, ~E], str]]:
30def unsupported_args(
31    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
32) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
33    """
34    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
35    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
36    """
37    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
38    for arg in args:
39        if isinstance(arg, str):
40            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
41        else:
42            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
43
44    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
45        @wraps(func)
46        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
47            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
48            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
49
50            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
51                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
52                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
53                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
54                    )
55                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
56
57            return func(generator, expression)
58
59        return _func
60
61    return decorator

Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an Expression subclass as unsupported. It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).

class Generator:
  75class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  76    """
  77    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  78
  79    Args:
  80        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  81            Default: False.
  82        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  83            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  84            True or 'always': Always quote.
  85            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  86        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  87            Default: False.
  88        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  89            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  90            Default: 2.
  91        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  92            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  93            Default: 2.
  94        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  95            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  96            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  97            False: Disables function name normalization.
  98        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  99            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
 100        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 101            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 102            Default: 3
 103        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 104            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 105            Default: False
 106        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 107            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 108            line length.
 109            Default: 80
 110        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 111            Default: True
 112    """
 113
 114    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 115        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 116        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 117        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 118        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 119        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 120        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 123        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 124        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 126        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 128        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 129        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 133        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 135        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 136        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 137        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 139        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 140        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 141        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 142        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 143        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 144        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 145        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 146        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 147        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 148        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 150        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 151        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 152        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 153        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 154        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 155        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 156        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 157        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 158        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 159        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 160        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 161        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 162        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 163        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 164        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 165        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 166        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 168        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 169        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 170        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 171        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 172        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 173            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 174        ),
 175        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 176        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 177        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 178        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 179        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 180        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 181        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 182        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 183        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 184        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 185        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 186        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 187        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 188        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 189        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 190        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 191        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 192        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 193        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 194        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 195        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 196        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 197        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 198        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 199        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 200        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 201        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 202        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 203        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 205        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 206    }
 207
 208    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 209    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 210    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 211    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 212
 213    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 214    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 215    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 216
 217    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 218    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 219
 220    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 221    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 222
 223    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 224    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 225
 226    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 227    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 228
 229    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 230    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 231
 232    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 233    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 234
 235    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 236    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 237
 238    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 239    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 240
 241    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 242    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 243
 244    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 245    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 246
 247    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 248    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 249
 250    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 251    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 252
 253    # Whether join hints should be generated
 254    JOIN_HINTS = True
 255
 256    # Whether table hints should be generated
 257    TABLE_HINTS = True
 258
 259    # Whether query hints should be generated
 260    QUERY_HINTS = True
 261
 262    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 263    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 264
 265    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 266    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 267
 268    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 269    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 270
 271    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 272    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 273
 274    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 275    RETURNING_END = True
 276
 277    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 278    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 279
 280    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 281    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 282
 283    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 284    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 285
 286    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 287    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 288
 289    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 290    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 291    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 292    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 293
 294    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 295    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 296
 297    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 298    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 299
 300    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 301    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 302
 303    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 304    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 305
 306    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 307    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 308
 309    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 310    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 311
 312    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 313    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 314
 315    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 316    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 317
 318    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 319    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 320
 321    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 322    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 323
 324    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 325    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 326
 327    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 328    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 329
 330    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 331    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 332
 333    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 334    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 335
 336    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 337    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 338
 339    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 340    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 341
 342    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 343    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 344
 345    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 346    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 347
 348    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 349    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 350
 351    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 352    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 353
 354    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 355    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 356
 357    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 358    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 359
 360    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 361    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 362
 363    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 364    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 365
 366    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 367    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 368
 369    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 370    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 371    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 372
 373    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 374    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 375
 376    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 377    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 378
 379    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 380    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 381
 382    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 383    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 384
 385    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 386    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 387
 388    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 389    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 390
 391    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 392    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 393    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 394    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 395
 396    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 397    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 398
 399    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 400    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 401
 402    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 403    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 404
 405    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 406    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 407
 408    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 409    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 410
 411    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 412    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 413
 414    # The HEX function name
 415    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 416
 417    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 418    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 419
 420    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 421    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 422
 423    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 424    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 425
 426    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 427    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 428
 429    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 430    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 431
 432    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 433    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 434
 435    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 436    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 437
 438    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 439        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 440        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 441        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 442        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 443        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 444        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 445        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 446        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 447        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 448        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 449    }
 450
 451    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 452        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 453        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 454        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 455        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 456        "DAYS": "DAY",
 457        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 458        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 459        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 460        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 461    }
 462
 463    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 464        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 465        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 466        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 467        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 468            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 469            if e.args.get("windows")
 470            else ""
 471        ),
 472        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 473    }
 474
 475    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 476
 477    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 478
 479    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 480    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 481
 482    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 483        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 485        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 489        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 491        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 498        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 500        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 503        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 508        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 509        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 510        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 511        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 512        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 513        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 514        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 515        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 516        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 517        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 518        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 519        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 524        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 525        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 526        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 527        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 528        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 529        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 530        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 531        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 532        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 533        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 534        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 535        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 536        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 539        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 541        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 542        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 543        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 544        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 545        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 546        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 547        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 548        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 549        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 550        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 551        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 552        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 553        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 554        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 555        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 556        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 557        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 558        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 559        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 560        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 561        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 563        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 564        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 565        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 566        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 567        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 568        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 569        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 570    }
 571
 572    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 573    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 574
 575    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 576    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 577        exp.Command,
 578        exp.Create,
 579        exp.Delete,
 580        exp.Drop,
 581        exp.From,
 582        exp.Insert,
 583        exp.Join,
 584        exp.MultitableInserts,
 585        exp.Select,
 586        exp.SetOperation,
 587        exp.Update,
 588        exp.Where,
 589        exp.With,
 590    )
 591
 592    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 593    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 594        exp.Binary,
 595        exp.SetOperation,
 596    )
 597
 598    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 599    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 600        exp.Column,
 601        exp.Literal,
 602        exp.Neg,
 603        exp.Paren,
 604    )
 605
 606    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 607        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 608        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 609        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 610        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 611    }
 612
 613    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 614    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 615
 616    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 617
 618    __slots__ = (
 619        "pretty",
 620        "identify",
 621        "normalize",
 622        "pad",
 623        "_indent",
 624        "normalize_functions",
 625        "unsupported_level",
 626        "max_unsupported",
 627        "leading_comma",
 628        "max_text_width",
 629        "comments",
 630        "dialect",
 631        "unsupported_messages",
 632        "_escaped_quote_end",
 633        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 634        "_next_name",
 635        "_identifier_start",
 636        "_identifier_end",
 637    )
 638
 639    def __init__(
 640        self,
 641        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 642        identify: str | bool = False,
 643        normalize: bool = False,
 644        pad: int = 2,
 645        indent: int = 2,
 646        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 647        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 648        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 649        leading_comma: bool = False,
 650        max_text_width: int = 80,
 651        comments: bool = True,
 652        dialect: DialectType = None,
 653    ):
 654        import sqlglot
 655        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 656
 657        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 658        self.identify = identify
 659        self.normalize = normalize
 660        self.pad = pad
 661        self._indent = indent
 662        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 663        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 664        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 665        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 666        self.comments = comments
 667        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 668
 669        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 670        self.normalize_functions = (
 671            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 672        )
 673
 674        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 675        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 676            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 677        )
 678        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 679
 680        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 681
 682        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 683        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 684
 685    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 686        """
 687        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 688
 689        Args:
 690            expression: The syntax tree.
 691            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 692                it is safer to copy.
 693
 694        Returns:
 695            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 696        """
 697        if copy:
 698            expression = expression.copy()
 699
 700        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 701
 702        self.unsupported_messages = []
 703        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 704
 705        if self.pretty:
 706            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 707
 708        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 709            return sql
 710
 711        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 712            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 713                logger.warning(msg)
 714        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 715            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 716
 717        return sql
 718
 719    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 720        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 721        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 722
 723        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 724            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 725
 726            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 727
 728        return expression
 729
 730    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 731        if (
 732            not expression.parent
 733            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 734            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 735        ):
 736            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 737
 738            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 739        return expression
 740
 741    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 742        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 743            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 744        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 745
 746    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 747        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 748
 749    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 750        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 751
 752    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 753        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 754        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 755        return comment
 756
 757    def maybe_comment(
 758        self,
 759        sql: str,
 760        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 761        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 762        separated: bool = False,
 763    ) -> str:
 764        comments = (
 765            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 766            if self.comments
 767            else None
 768        )
 769
 770        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 771            return sql
 772
 773        comments_sql = " ".join(
 774            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 775        )
 776
 777        if not comments_sql:
 778            return sql
 779
 780        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 781
 782        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 783            return (
 784                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 785                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 786                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 787            )
 788
 789        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 790
 791    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 792        this_sql = (
 793            self.sql(expression)
 794            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 795            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 796        )
 797        if not this_sql:
 798            return "()"
 799
 800        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 801        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 802
 803    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 804        original = self.identify
 805        self.identify = False
 806        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 807        self.identify = original
 808        return result
 809
 810    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 811        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 812            return name.upper()
 813        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 814            return name.lower()
 815        return name
 816
 817    def indent(
 818        self,
 819        sql: str,
 820        level: int = 0,
 821        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 822        skip_first: bool = False,
 823        skip_last: bool = False,
 824    ) -> str:
 825        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 826            return sql
 827
 828        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 829        lines = sql.split("\n")
 830
 831        return "\n".join(
 832            (
 833                line
 834                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 835                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 836            )
 837            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 838        )
 839
 840    def sql(
 841        self,
 842        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 843        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 844        comment: bool = True,
 845    ) -> str:
 846        if not expression:
 847            return ""
 848
 849        if isinstance(expression, str):
 850            return expression
 851
 852        if key:
 853            value = expression.args.get(key)
 854            if value:
 855                return self.sql(value)
 856            return ""
 857
 858        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 859
 860        if callable(transform):
 861            sql = transform(self, expression)
 862        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 863            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 864
 865            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 866                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 867            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 868                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 869            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 870                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 871            else:
 872                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 873        else:
 874            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 875
 876        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 877
 878    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 879        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 880        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 881        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 882
 883    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 884        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 885        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 886        options = expression.args.get("options")
 887        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 888        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 889        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 890        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 891        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 892
 893    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 894        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 895            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 896        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 897        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 898
 899    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 900        return ".".join(
 901            self.sql(part)
 902            for part in (
 903                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 904                expression.args.get("db"),
 905                expression.args.get("table"),
 906                expression.args.get("this"),
 907            )
 908            if part
 909        )
 910
 911    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 912        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 913
 914        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 915            join_mark = ""
 916            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 917
 918        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 919
 920    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 922        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 923        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 924        return f"{position}{this}"
 925
 926    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 927        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 928        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 929        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 930        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 931        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 932        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 933        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 934        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 935
 936        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 937            kind = ""
 938
 939        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 940
 941    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 942        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 943        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 944        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 945
 946    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 948        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 949            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 950        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 951            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 952        else:
 953            persisted = ""
 954        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 955
 956    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 957        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 958
 959    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 960        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 961            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 962        else:
 963            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 964
 965        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 966
 967    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 968        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 969    ) -> str:
 970        this = ""
 971        if expression.this is not None:
 972            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 973            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 974
 975        start = expression.args.get("start")
 976        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 977        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 978        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 979        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 980        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 981        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 982        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 983        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 984        cycle_sql = ""
 985
 986        if cycle is not None:
 987            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 988            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 989
 990        sequence_opts = ""
 991        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 992            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 993            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 994
 995        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 996        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 997
 998        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 999
1000    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1001        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1002    ) -> str:
1003        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1004        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1005        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1006
1007    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1008        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1009    ) -> str:
1010        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1011
1012    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1013        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1014
1015    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1016        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1017
1018    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1019        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1020        if desc is not None:
1021            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1022        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1023
1024    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1026        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1027        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1028        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1029        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1030        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1031        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1032        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1033
1034    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1035        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1036
1037    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1038        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1039        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1040        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1041        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1042
1043        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1044
1045        properties_sql = ""
1046        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1047            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1048        ):
1049            properties_sql = self.sql(
1050                exp.Properties(
1051                    expressions=[
1052                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1053                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1054                    ]
1055                )
1056            )
1057
1058            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1059                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1060            elif not self.pretty:
1061                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1062                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1063
1064        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1065        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1066
1067        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1068        if expression_sql:
1069            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1070
1071            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1072                postalias_props_sql = ""
1073                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1074                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1075                        exp.Properties(
1076                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1077                        ),
1078                        wrapped=False,
1079                    )
1080                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1081                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1082
1083        postindex_props_sql = ""
1084        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1085            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1086                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1087                wrapped=False,
1088                prefix=" ",
1089            )
1090
1091        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1092        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1093        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1094
1095        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1096        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1097        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1098
1099        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1100        if clustered is None:
1101            clustered_sql = ""
1102        elif clustered:
1103            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1104        else:
1105            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1106
1107        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1108        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1109            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1110                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1111                sep=" ",
1112                prefix=" ",
1113                wrapped=False,
1114            )
1115
1116        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1117
1118        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1119        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1120            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1121                exp.Properties(
1122                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1123                ),
1124                sep=" ",
1125                prefix=" ",
1126                wrapped=False,
1127            )
1128
1129        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1130        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1131        no_schema_binding = (
1132            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1133        )
1134
1135        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1136        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1137
1138        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1139        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1140
1141    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1142        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1143        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1144        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1145        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1146        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1147        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1148        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1149        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1150        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1151        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1152
1153        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1154        if cache is None:
1155            cache_str = ""
1156        elif cache is True:
1157            cache_str = " CACHE"
1158        else:
1159            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1160
1161        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1162        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1163
1164        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1165
1166    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1167        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1168        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1169        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1170        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1171
1172    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1173        style = expression.args.get("style")
1174        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1175        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1176        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1177        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1178
1179    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1180        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1181        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1182
1183    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1184        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1185        if with_:
1186            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1187        return sql
1188
1189    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1190        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1191        recursive = (
1192            "RECURSIVE "
1193            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1194            else ""
1195        )
1196
1197        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1198
1199    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1200        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1201        if alias:
1202            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1203
1204        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1205
1206        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1207        if materialized is False:
1208            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1209        elif materialized:
1210            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1211
1212        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1213
1214    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1215        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1216        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1217        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1218
1219        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1220            columns = ""
1221            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1222
1223        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1224            alias = self._next_name()
1225
1226        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1227
1228    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1229        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1230        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1231            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1232        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1233
1234    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1235        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1236        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1237            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1238        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1239
1240    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1241        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1242        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1243            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1244        return this
1245
1246    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1247        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1248        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1249
1250        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1251            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1252            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1253        else:
1254            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1255            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1256
1257        if escape:
1258            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1259            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1260        else:
1261            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1262            escape_sql = ""
1263
1264        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1265            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1266
1267        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1268
1269    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1270        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1271        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1272
1273    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1274        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1275        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1276        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1277        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1278
1279    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1280        nested = ""
1281        values = ""
1282        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1283
1284        type_value = expression.this
1285        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1286            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1287        else:
1288            type_sql = (
1289                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1290                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1291                else type_value
1292            )
1293
1294        if interior:
1295            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1296                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1297                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1298                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1299                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1300                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1301            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1302                nested = f" {interior}"
1303            else:
1304                nested = f"({interior})"
1305
1306        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1307        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1308            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1309            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1310        ):
1311            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1312
1313        return type_sql
1314
1315    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1316        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1317        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1318        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1319        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1320
1321    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1322        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1323        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1324        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1325        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1326        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1327        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1328        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1329        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1330        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1331        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1332        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1333        if self.RETURNING_END:
1334            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1335        else:
1336            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1337        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1338
1339    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1340        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1341        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1342        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1343        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1344        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1345        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1346        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1347        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1348        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1349        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1350        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1351        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1352        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1353        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1354        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1355
1356    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1357        op_type = type(expression)
1358        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1359
1360        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1361        if (
1362            distinct is False
1363            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1364            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1365        ):
1366            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1367
1368        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1369
1370        if distinct is None:
1371            distinct = default_distinct
1372            if distinct is None:
1373                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1374
1375        if distinct is default_distinct:
1376            kind = ""
1377        else:
1378            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1379
1380        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1381        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1382
1383    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1384        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1385            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1386            order = expression.args.get("order")
1387
1388            if limit or order:
1389                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1390                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1391                )
1392
1393                if limit:
1394                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1395                if order:
1396                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1397                return self.sql(select)
1398
1399        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1400        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1401
1402        while stack:
1403            node = stack.pop()
1404
1405            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1406                stack.append(node.expression)
1407                stack.append(
1408                    self.maybe_comment(
1409                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1410                    )
1411                )
1412                stack.append(node.this)
1413            else:
1414                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1415
1416        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1417        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1418        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1419
1420    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1421        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1422        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1423        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1424        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1425        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1426            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1427        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1428        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1429
1430    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1431        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1432            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1433            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1434            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1435
1436        agg = expression.this
1437        agg_arg = agg.this
1438        cond = expression.expression.this
1439        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1440        return self.sql(agg)
1441
1442    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1443        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1444            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1445            return ""
1446
1447        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1448
1449    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1450        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1451        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1452        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1453        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1454        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1455        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1456        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1457        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1458        if include:
1459            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1460        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1461        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1462        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1463        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1464        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1465        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1466
1467        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1468
1469    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1470        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1471        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1472        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1473        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1474        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1475        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1476        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1477
1478        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1479
1480        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1481        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1482
1483    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1484        text = expression.name
1485        lower = text.lower()
1486        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1487        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1488        if (
1489            expression.quoted
1490            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1491            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1492            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1493        ):
1494            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1495        return text
1496
1497    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1498        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1499        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1500            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1501
1502        return text
1503
1504    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1505        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1506        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1507            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1508        return text
1509
1510    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1511        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1512        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1513        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1514        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1515        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1516
1517    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1518        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1519        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1520
1521    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1522        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1523
1524    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1525        root_properties = []
1526        with_properties = []
1527
1528        for p in expression.expressions:
1529            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1530            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1531                with_properties.append(p)
1532            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1533                root_properties.append(p)
1534
1535        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1536        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1537
1538        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1539            with_props = " " + with_props
1540
1541        return root_props + with_props
1542
1543    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1544        if properties.expressions:
1545            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1546        return ""
1547
1548    def properties(
1549        self,
1550        properties: exp.Properties,
1551        prefix: str = "",
1552        sep: str = ", ",
1553        suffix: str = "",
1554        wrapped: bool = True,
1555    ) -> str:
1556        if properties.expressions:
1557            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1558            if expressions:
1559                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1560                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1561        return ""
1562
1563    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1564        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1565
1566    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1567        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1568        for p in properties.expressions:
1569            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1570            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1571                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1572            else:
1573                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1574
1575        return properties_locs
1576
1577    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1578        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1579            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1580        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1581
1582    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1583        property_cls = expression.__class__
1584        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1585            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1586
1587        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1588        if not property_name:
1589            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1590
1591        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1592
1593    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1594        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1595            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1596            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1597
1598            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1599            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1600                like = f"({like})"
1601
1602            return like
1603
1604        if expression.expressions:
1605            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1606
1607        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1608        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1609
1610    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1611        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1612        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1613        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1614
1615    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1616        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1617        local = expression.args.get("local")
1618        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1619        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1620        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1621        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1622        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1623
1624    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1625        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1626        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1627        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1628
1629    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1630        if expression.args.get("default"):
1631            property = "DEFAULT"
1632        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1633            property = "ON"
1634        else:
1635            property = "OFF"
1636        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1637
1638    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1639        if expression.args.get("no"):
1640            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1641        if expression.args.get("default"):
1642            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1643
1644        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1645        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1646
1647    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1648        default = expression.args.get("default")
1649        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1650        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1651        if default or minimum or maximum:
1652            if default:
1653                prop = "DEFAULT"
1654            elif minimum:
1655                prop = "MINIMUM"
1656            else:
1657                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1658            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1659        units = expression.args.get("units")
1660        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1661        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1662
1663    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1664        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1665        always = expression.args.get("always")
1666        default = expression.args.get("default")
1667        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1668        never = expression.args.get("never")
1669
1670        if autotemp is not None:
1671            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1672        elif always:
1673            prop = "ALWAYS"
1674        elif default:
1675            prop = "DEFAULT"
1676        elif manual:
1677            prop = "MANUAL"
1678        elif never:
1679            prop = "NEVER"
1680        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1681
1682    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1683        no = expression.args.get("no")
1684        no = " NO" if no else ""
1685        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1686        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1687        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1688        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1689        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1690
1691    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1692        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1693            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1694        if expression.this:
1695            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1696            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1697            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1698
1699        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1700        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1701        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1702
1703    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1704        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1705
1706        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1707        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1708            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1709        else:
1710            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1711
1712        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1713
1714    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1715        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1716        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1717        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1718        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1719        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1720        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1721        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1722
1723    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1724        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1725        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1726        statistics_sql = ""
1727        if statistics is not None:
1728            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1729        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1730
1731    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1732        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1733        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1734        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1735        data_consistency = (
1736            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1737        )
1738        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1739        retention_period = (
1740            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1741        )
1742
1743        if this:
1744            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1745        else:
1746            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1747
1748        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1749
1750        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1751
1752    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1753        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1754        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1755
1756        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1757            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1758        else:
1759            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1760
1761        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1762        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1763        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1764        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1765        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1766        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1767        if is_function:
1768            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1769        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1770
1771        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1772        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1773        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1774        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1775        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1776        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1777        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1778        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1779
1780        if self.RETURNING_END:
1781            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1782        else:
1783            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1784
1785        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1786        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1787        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1788        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1789
1790        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1791        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1792
1793        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1794        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1795
1796    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1797        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1798
1799    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1800        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1801        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1802        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1803        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1804        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1805
1806    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1807        return expression.name
1808
1809    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1810        return expression.name
1811
1812    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1813        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1814
1815        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1816        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1817
1818        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1819        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1820        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1821
1822        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1823        if expressions:
1824            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1825            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1826
1827        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1828
1829    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1830        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1831
1832    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1833        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1834        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1835        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1836        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1837        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1838        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1839        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1840        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1841        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1842        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1843        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1844        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1845        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1846
1847    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1848        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1849
1850    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1851        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1852        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1853        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1854        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1855
1856    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1857        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1858        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1859        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1860        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1861
1862    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1863        return ".".join(
1864            self.sql(part)
1865            for part in (
1866                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1867                expression.args.get("db"),
1868                expression.args.get("this"),
1869            )
1870            if part is not None
1871        )
1872
1873    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1874        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1875        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1876        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1877        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1878        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1879        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1880        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1881        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1882
1883        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1884        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1885            sample_pre_alias = sample
1886            sample_post_alias = ""
1887        else:
1888            sample_pre_alias = ""
1889            sample_post_alias = sample
1890
1891        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1892        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1893        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1894        joins = self.indent(
1895            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1896        )
1897        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1898
1899        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1900        if file_format:
1901            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1902            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1903            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1904
1905        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1906        if ordinality:
1907            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1908            alias = ""
1909
1910        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1911        if when:
1912            table = f"{table} {when}"
1913
1914        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1915        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1916
1917        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1918        if rows_from:
1919            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1920
1921        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1922
1923    def tablesample_sql(
1924        self,
1925        expression: exp.TableSample,
1926        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1927    ) -> str:
1928        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1929        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1930        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1931        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1932        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1933        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1934        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1935        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1936        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1937
1938        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1939        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1940            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1941
1942        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1943        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1944            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1945
1946        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1947        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1948            expr = f"({expr})"
1949
1950        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1951
1952    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1953        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1954
1955        if expression.this:
1956            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1957            if not expressions:
1958                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1959
1960            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1961            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1962            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1963            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1964            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1965
1966        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1967        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1968        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1969
1970        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1971
1972        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1973        if include_nulls is not None:
1974            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1975        else:
1976            nulls = ""
1977
1978        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1979        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1980        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1981
1982    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1983        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1984        kind = expression.text("kind")
1985        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1986        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1987
1988    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1989        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1990
1991    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1992        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1993        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1994        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1995        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1996        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1997        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1998        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1999        if self.RETURNING_END:
2000            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2001        else:
2002            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2003        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2004        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2005
2006    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2007        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2008
2009        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2010        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2011            args = self.expressions(expression)
2012            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2013            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2014            values = (
2015                f"({values})"
2016                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2017                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2018                else values
2019            )
2020            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2021
2022        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2023        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2024        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2025
2026        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2027
2028        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2029            row = tup.expressions
2030
2031            if i == 0 and column_names:
2032                row = [
2033                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2034                ]
2035
2036            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2037
2038        if self.pretty:
2039            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2040            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2041            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2042            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2043            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2044
2045        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2046        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2047        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2048
2049    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2050        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2051
2052    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2053    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2054        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2055        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2056        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2057
2058    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2059        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2060
2061    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2062        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2063        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2064
2065    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2066        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2067        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2068
2069    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2070        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2071        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2072
2073    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2074        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2075        if group_by_all is True:
2076            modifier = " ALL"
2077        elif group_by_all is False:
2078            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2079        else:
2080            modifier = ""
2081
2082        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2083
2084        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2085        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2086        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2087
2088        groupings = csv(
2089            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2090            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2091            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2092            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2093            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2094        )
2095
2096        if (
2097            expression.expressions
2098            and groupings
2099            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2100        ):
2101            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2102
2103        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2104
2105    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2106        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2107        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2108
2109    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2110        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2111        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2112        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2113        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2114        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2115        return start + connect
2116
2117    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2118        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2119
2120    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2121        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2122            side = None
2123        else:
2124            side = expression.side
2125
2126        op_sql = " ".join(
2127            op
2128            for op in (
2129                expression.method,
2130                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2131                side,
2132                expression.kind,
2133                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2134            )
2135            if op
2136        )
2137        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2138        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2139        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2140        using = expression.args.get("using")
2141
2142        if not on_sql and using:
2143            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2144
2145        this = expression.this
2146        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2147
2148        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2149        if exprs:
2150            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2151
2152        if on_sql:
2153            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2154            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2155            if using:
2156                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2157            else:
2158                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2159        elif not op_sql:
2160            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2161                return f" {this_sql}"
2162
2163            return f", {this_sql}"
2164
2165        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2166            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2167
2168        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2169
2170    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2171        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2172        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2173        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2174
2175    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2176        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2177
2178        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2179        if cross_apply is True:
2180            op = "INNER JOIN "
2181        elif cross_apply is False:
2182            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2183        else:
2184            op = ""
2185
2186        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2187
2188    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2189        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2190
2191        if expression.args.get("view"):
2192            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2193            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2194            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2195            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2196            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2197            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2198
2199        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2200        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2201        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2202
2203    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2204        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2205
2206        args = [
2207            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2208            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2209            if e
2210        ]
2211
2212        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2213        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2214        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2215        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2216
2217        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2218
2219    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2220        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2221        value = expression.expression
2222        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2223        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2224        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2225        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2226
2227    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2228        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2229        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2230        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2231        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2232        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2233        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2234        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2235        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2236
2237    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2238        expressions = (
2239            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2240        )
2241        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2242        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2243
2244    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2245        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2246
2247    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2248        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2249            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2250            return ""
2251
2252        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2253        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2254        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2255        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2256
2257        if wait is not None:
2258            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2259                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2260            else:
2261                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2262
2263        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2264
2265    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2266        text = expression.this or ""
2267        if expression.is_string:
2268            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2269        return text
2270
2271    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2272        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2273            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2274            text = "".join(
2275                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2276            )
2277
2278        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2279            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2280        )
2281
2282    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2283        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2284        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2285        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2286        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2287        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2288        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2289        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2290        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2291        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2292        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2293        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2294
2295    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2296        return "NULL"
2297
2298    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2299        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2300
2301    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2302        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2303        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2304        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2305        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2306
2307    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2308        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2309        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2310        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2311        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2312        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2313        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2314        interpolated_values = [
2315            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2316            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2317        ]
2318        interpolate = (
2319            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2320        )
2321        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2322
2323    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2324        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2325
2326    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2327        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2328
2329    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2330        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2331
2332    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2333        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2334        asc = not desc
2335
2336        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2337        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2338        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2339        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2340        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2341
2342        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2343
2344        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2345        nulls_sort_change = ""
2346        if nulls_first and (
2347            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2348        ):
2349            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2350        elif (
2351            nulls_last
2352            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2353            and not nulls_are_last
2354        ):
2355            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2356
2357        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2358        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2359            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2360            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2361                self.unsupported(
2362                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2363                )
2364                nulls_sort_change = ""
2365            elif (
2366                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
2367                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
2368                and (
2369                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2370                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2371                )
2372            ):
2373                self.unsupported(
2374                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2375                )
2376                nulls_sort_change = ""
2377            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2378                if expression.this.is_int:
2379                    self.unsupported(
2380                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2381                    )
2382                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2383                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2384                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2385                nulls_sort_change = ""
2386
2387        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2388        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2389
2390        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2391
2392    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2393        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2394        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2395
2396        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2397
2398        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2399
2400    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2401        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2402        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2403        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2404        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2405        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2406        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2407        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2408        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2409        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2410        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2411        definition_sqls = [
2412            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2413            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2414        ]
2415        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2416        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2417        body = "".join(
2418            (
2419                partition,
2420                order,
2421                measures,
2422                rows,
2423                after,
2424                pattern,
2425                define,
2426            )
2427        )
2428        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2429        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2430        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2431
2432    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2433        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2434
2435        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2436            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2437        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2438            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2439
2440        return csv(
2441            *sqls,
2442            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2443            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2444            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2445            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2446            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2447            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2448            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2449            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2450            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2451            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2452            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2453            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2454            self.options_modifier(expression),
2455            sep="",
2456        )
2457
2458    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2459        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2460        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2461
2462    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2463        return ""
2464
2465    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2466        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2467    ) -> t.List[str]:
2468        return [
2469            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2470            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2471        ]
2472
2473    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2474        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2475        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2476        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2477
2478    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2479        into = expression.args.get("into")
2480        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2481            into.pop()
2482
2483        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2484        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2485        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2486        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2487
2488        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2489        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2490            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2491            limit.pop()
2492        else:
2493            top = ""
2494
2495        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2496
2497        if kind:
2498            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2499                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2500            else:
2501                if kind == "STRUCT":
2502                    expressions = self.expressions(
2503                        sqls=[
2504                            self.sql(
2505                                exp.Struct(
2506                                    expressions=[
2507                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2508                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2509                                        else e
2510                                        for e in expression.expressions
2511                                    ]
2512                                )
2513                            )
2514                        ]
2515                    )
2516                kind = ""
2517
2518        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2519        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2520
2521        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2522        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2523        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2524        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2525        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2526            expression,
2527            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2528            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2529            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2530        )
2531
2532        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2533        if expression.args.get("with"):
2534            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2535            expression.pop_comments()
2536
2537        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2538
2539        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2540            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2541                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2542            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2543                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2544            else:
2545                table_kind = ""
2546            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2547
2548        return sql
2549
2550    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2551        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2552        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2553        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2554
2555    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2556        if expression.expressions:
2557            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2558        return ""
2559
2560    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2561        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2562        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2563        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2564        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2565        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2566        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2567        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2568
2569    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2570        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2571        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2572
2573    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2574        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2575        kind = expression.text("kind")
2576        if kind:
2577            kind = f"{kind}."
2578        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2579
2580    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2581        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2582
2583    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2584        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2585        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2586        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2587        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2588            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2589
2590            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2591            expression.set("sample", None)
2592
2593        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2594        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2595        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2596
2597    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2598        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2599        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2600
2601    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2602        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2603
2604        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2605        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2606
2607        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2608            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2609                alias.append("columns", offset)
2610
2611        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2612            columns = alias.columns
2613            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2614        else:
2615            alias = self.sql(alias)
2616
2617        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2618        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2619            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2620        else:
2621            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2622                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2623            elif offset:
2624                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2625            else:
2626                suffix = alias
2627
2628        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2629
2630    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2631        return ""
2632
2633    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2634        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2635        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2636
2637    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2638        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2639        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2640        order = expression.args.get("order")
2641        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2642        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2643        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2644        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2645
2646        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2647
2648        first = expression.args.get("first")
2649        if first is None:
2650            first = ""
2651        else:
2652            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2653
2654        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2655            return f"{this} {alias}"
2656
2657        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2658        return f"{this} ({args})"
2659
2660    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2661        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2662        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2663
2664    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2665        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2666        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2667        end = (
2668            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2669            or "CURRENT ROW"
2670        )
2671        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2672
2673    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2674        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2675        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2676        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2677
2678    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2679        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2680        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2681        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2682        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2683
2684    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2685        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2686    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2687        return apply_index_offset(
2688            expression.this,
2689            expression.expressions,
2690            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2691        )
2692
2693    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2694        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2695        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2696        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2697
2698    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2699        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2700
2701    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2702        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2703        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2704            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2705                this = self.wrap(this)
2706            return f"ANY{this}"
2707        return f"ANY {this}"
2708
2709    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2710        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2711
2712    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2713        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2714        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2715
2716        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2717            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2718            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2719
2720        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2721
2722        if default:
2723            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2724
2725        statements.append("END")
2726
2727        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2728            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2729
2730        return " ".join(statements)
2731
2732    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2733        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2734        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2735        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2736
2737    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2738        order = expression.args.get("order")
2739        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2740        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2741
2742    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2743        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2744        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2745        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2746
2747    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2748        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2749
2750        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2751            func_name = "LTRIM"
2752        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2753            func_name = "RTRIM"
2754        else:
2755            func_name = "TRIM"
2756
2757        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2758
2759    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2760        args = expression.expressions
2761        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2762            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2763
2764        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2765            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2766
2767        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2768            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2769
2770        return args
2771
2772    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2773        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2774
2775        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2776        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2777            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2778
2779        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2780
2781    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2782        return self.func(
2783            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2784        )
2785
2786    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2787        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2788        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2789
2790    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2791        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2792        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2793        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2794        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2795        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2796        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2797        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2798        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2799
2800    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2801        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2802        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2803        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2804        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2805
2806    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2807        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2808
2809    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2810        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2811        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2812        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2813
2814    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2815        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2816
2817    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2818        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2819
2820        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2821            path = self.escape_str(path)
2822
2823        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2824            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2825
2826        return path
2827
2828    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2829        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2830            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2831            if not callable(transform):
2832                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2833                return ""
2834
2835            return transform(self, expression)
2836
2837        if isinstance(expression, int):
2838            return str(expression)
2839
2840        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2841            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2842            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2843        else:
2844            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2845            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2846
2847        return escaped
2848
2849    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2850        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2851
2852    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2853        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2854        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2855
2856        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2857        if unique_keys is not None:
2858            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2859        else:
2860            unique_keys = ""
2861
2862        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2863        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2864        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2865        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2866
2867        return self.func(
2868            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2869            *expression.expressions,
2870            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2871        )
2872
2873    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2874        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2875
2876    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2877        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2878        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2879        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2880        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2881        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2882        return self.func(
2883            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2884        )
2885
2886    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2887        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2888        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2889        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2890        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2891        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2892        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2893        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2894        return self.func(
2895            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2896            this,
2897            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2898        )
2899
2900    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2901        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2902        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2903        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2904
2905        if nested_schema:
2906            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2907
2908        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2909        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2910        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2911        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2912
2913    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2914        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2915
2916    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2917        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2918        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2919        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2920        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2921        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2922        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2923        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2924        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2925        return self.func(
2926            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2927        )
2928
2929    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2930        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2931        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2932        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2933        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2934        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2935        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2936
2937    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2939        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2940        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2941        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2942        with_ = (
2943            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2944            if expressions
2945            else ""
2946        )
2947        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2948
2949    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2950        query = expression.args.get("query")
2951        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2952        field = expression.args.get("field")
2953        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2954
2955        if query:
2956            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2957        elif unnest:
2958            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2959        elif field:
2960            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2961        else:
2962            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2963
2964        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2965
2966    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2967        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2968
2969    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2970        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2971        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2972            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2973        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2974
2975        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2976            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2977            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2978
2979        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2980        if this:
2981            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2982            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2983
2984        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2985
2986    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2987        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2988
2989    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2990        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2991        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2992        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2993        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2994        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2995        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2996
2997    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2998        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
2999        parent = expression.parent
3000        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3001        return self.func(
3002            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3003        )
3004
3005    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3006        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3007        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3008
3009    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3010        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3011        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3012        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3013        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3014
3015    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3016        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3017
3018    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3019        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3020        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3021        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3022
3023    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3024        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3025
3026        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3027        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3028
3029        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3030            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3031        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3032            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3033
3034        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3035
3036    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3037        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3038
3039    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3040        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3041        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3042        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3043
3044    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3045        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3046        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3047        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3048
3049    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3050        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3051        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3052        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3053
3054    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3055        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3056
3057    def and_sql(
3058        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3059    ) -> str:
3060        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3061
3062    def or_sql(
3063        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3064    ) -> str:
3065        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3066
3067    def xor_sql(
3068        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3069    ) -> str:
3070        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3071
3072    def connector_sql(
3073        self,
3074        expression: exp.Connector,
3075        op: str,
3076        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3077    ) -> str:
3078        if stack is not None:
3079            if expression.expressions:
3080                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3081            else:
3082                stack.append(expression.right)
3083                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3084                    for comment in expression.comments:
3085                        if comment:
3086                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3087                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3088            return op
3089
3090        stack = [expression]
3091        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3092        ops = set()
3093
3094        while stack:
3095            node = stack.pop()
3096            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3097                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3098            else:
3099                sql = self.sql(node)
3100                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3101                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3102                else:
3103                    sqls.append(sql)
3104
3105        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3106        return sep.join(sqls)
3107
3108    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3109        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3110
3111    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3112        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3113
3114    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3115        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3116
3117    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3118        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3119
3120    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3121        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3122
3123    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3124        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3125
3126    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3127        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3128        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3129        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3130        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3131        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3132        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3133        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3134
3135    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3136        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3137        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3138
3139    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3140        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3141            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3142        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3143
3144    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3145        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3146
3147    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3148        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3149        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3150        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3151        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3152        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3153        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3154
3155    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3156        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3157        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3158        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3159        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3160        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3161        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3162        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3163        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3164        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3165
3166    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3167        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3168        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3169        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3170        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3171
3172        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3173            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3174
3175        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3176
3177    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3178        return "BEGIN"
3179
3180    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3181        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3182        if chain is not None:
3183            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3184
3185        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3186
3187    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3188        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3189        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3190        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3191
3192    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3193        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3194
3195        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3196        if dtype:
3197            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3198            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3199            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3200            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3201            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3202
3203        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3204        if default:
3205            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3206
3207        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3208        if comment:
3209            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3210
3211        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3212        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3213
3214        if not drop and not allow_null:
3215            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3216
3217        if allow_null is not None:
3218            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3219            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3220
3221        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3222
3223    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3224        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3225        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3226            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3227        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3228
3229    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3230        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3231        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3232        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3233        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3234        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3235
3236    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3237        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3238            # Remove db from tables
3239            expression = expression.transform(
3240                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3241            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3242        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3243        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3244
3245    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3246        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3247        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3248        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3249        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3250
3251    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3252        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3253        return f"SET {exprs}"
3254
3255    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3256        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3257
3258        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3259            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3260        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3261            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3262        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3263            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3264        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3265            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3266        else:
3267            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3268
3269        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3270        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3271        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3272        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3273        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3274        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3275        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3276        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3277
3278        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3279
3280    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3281        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3282            return self.expressions(
3283                expression,
3284                key="actions",
3285                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3286                skip_first=True,
3287            )
3288        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3289
3290    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3291        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3292        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3293        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3294
3295    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3296        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3297
3298    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3299        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3300
3301        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3302            case = exp.case()
3303            for arg in expression.expressions:
3304                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3305            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3306
3307        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3308
3309        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3310        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3311        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3312
3313    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3314        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3315
3316    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3317        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3318
3319    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3320        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3321        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3322        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3323        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3324
3325    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3326        return self.sql(
3327            exp.Cast(
3328                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3329                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3330            )
3331        )
3332
3333    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3334        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3335            return self.func(
3336                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3337            )
3338        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3339
3340    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3341        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3342
3343        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3344            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3345
3346        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3347            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3348                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3349
3350        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3351            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3352                return self.sql(
3353                    exp.cast(
3354                        l / r,
3355                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3356                    )
3357                )
3358
3359        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3360
3361    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3362        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3363
3364    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3365        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3366
3367    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3368        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3369
3370    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3371        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3372
3373    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3374        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3375
3376    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3377        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3378
3379    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3380        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3381
3382    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3383        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3384
3385    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3386        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3387
3388    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3389        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3390
3391    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3392        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3393
3394    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3395        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3396            return self.sql(
3397                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3398            )
3399        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3400
3401    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3402        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3403
3404    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3405        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3406
3407    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3408        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3409
3410    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3411        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3412
3413    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3414        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3415
3416    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3417        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3418
3419    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3420        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3421
3422    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3423        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3424
3425    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3426        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3427
3428    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3429        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3430
3431    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3432        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3433
3434    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3435        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3436
3437    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3438        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3439
3440    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3441        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3442            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3443            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3444
3445        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3446
3447    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3448        this = expression.this
3449        expr = expression.expression
3450
3451        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3452            this, expr = expr, this
3453        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3454            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3455                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3456
3457            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3458
3459        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3460
3461    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3462        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3463        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3464        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3465        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3466        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3467
3468    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3469        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3470        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3471        binary_type = type(expression)
3472
3473        while stack:
3474            node = stack.pop()
3475
3476            if type(node) is binary_type:
3477                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3478                if op_func:
3479                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3480
3481                stack.append(node.right)
3482                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3483                stack.append(node.left)
3484            else:
3485                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3486
3487        return "".join(sqls)
3488
3489    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3490        args = []
3491
3492        for key in expression.arg_types:
3493            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3494
3495            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3496                for value in arg_value:
3497                    args.append(value)
3498            elif arg_value is not None:
3499                args.append(arg_value)
3500
3501        if self.normalize_functions:
3502            name = expression.sql_name()
3503        else:
3504            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3505
3506        return self.func(name, *args)
3507
3508    def func(
3509        self,
3510        name: str,
3511        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3512        prefix: str = "(",
3513        suffix: str = ")",
3514        normalize: bool = True,
3515    ) -> str:
3516        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3517        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3518
3519    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3520        arg_sqls = tuple(
3521            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3522        )
3523        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3524            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3525        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3526
3527    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3528        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3529
3530    def format_time(
3531        self,
3532        expression: exp.Expression,
3533        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3534        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3535    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3536        return format_time(
3537            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3538            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3539            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3540        )
3541
3542    def expressions(
3543        self,
3544        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3545        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3546        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3547        flat: bool = False,
3548        indent: bool = True,
3549        skip_first: bool = False,
3550        skip_last: bool = False,
3551        sep: str = ", ",
3552        prefix: str = "",
3553        dynamic: bool = False,
3554        new_line: bool = False,
3555    ) -> str:
3556        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3557
3558        if not expressions:
3559            return ""
3560
3561        if flat:
3562            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3563
3564        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3565        result_sqls = []
3566
3567        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3568            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3569            if not sql:
3570                continue
3571
3572            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3573
3574            if self.pretty:
3575                if self.leading_comma:
3576                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3577                else:
3578                    result_sqls.append(
3579                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3580                    )
3581            else:
3582                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3583
3584        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3585            if new_line:
3586                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3587                result_sqls.append("")
3588            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3589        else:
3590            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3591
3592        return (
3593            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3594            if indent
3595            else result_sql
3596        )
3597
3598    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3599        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3600        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3601        if flat:
3602            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3603        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3604
3605    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3606        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3607        if not property_name:
3608            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3609        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3610
3611    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3612        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3613
3614    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3615        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3616
3617    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3618        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3619        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3620        expressions = (
3621            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3622        )
3623        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3624
3625    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3626        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3627        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3628        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3629
3630    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3631        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3632
3633    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3634        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3635        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3636        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3637        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3638
3639        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3640        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3641            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3642            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3643            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3644            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3645        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3646            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3647                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3648            else:
3649                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3650        else:
3651            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3652        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3653
3654    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3655        table = expression.this
3656        table_alias = ""
3657
3658        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3659        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3660            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3661            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3662
3663        this = self.sql(table)
3664        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3665        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3666        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3667        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3668        if returning:
3669            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
3670
3671        sep = self.sep()
3672
3673        return self.prepend_ctes(
3674            expression,
3675            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
3676        )
3677
3678    @unsupported_args("format")
3679    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3680        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3681
3682    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3683        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3684            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3685            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3686
3687        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3688        if not fmt:
3689            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3690            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3691
3692        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3693
3694    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3695        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3696        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3697        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3698        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3699        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3700
3701    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3702        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3703        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3704        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3705        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3706
3707    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3708        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3709
3710    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3711        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3712
3713    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3714    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3715        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3716        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3717        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3718        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3719        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3720        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3721        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3722
3723    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3724        return ""
3725
3726    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3727        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3728        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3729        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3730        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3731        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3732
3733    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3734        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3735        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3736
3737        if having:
3738            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3739
3740        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3741
3742    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3743        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3744        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3745        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3746        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3747        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3748        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3749        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3750        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3751        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3752        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3753        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3754        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3755        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3756
3757    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3758        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3759        if key_block_size:
3760            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3761
3762        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3763        if using:
3764            return f"USING {using}"
3765
3766        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3767        if parser:
3768            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3769
3770        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3771        if comment:
3772            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3773
3774        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3775        if visible is not None:
3776            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3777
3778        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3779        if engine_attr:
3780            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3781
3782        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3783        if secondary_engine_attr:
3784            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3785
3786        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3787        return ""
3788
3789    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3790        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3791        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3792
3793    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3794        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3795        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3797        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3798        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3799        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3800        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3801        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3802        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3803        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3804        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3805
3806    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3807        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3808            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3809
3810        case = exp.Case().when(
3811            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3812            expression.args["true"],
3813            copy=False,
3814        )
3815        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3816        if else_cond:
3817            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3818
3819        return self.sql(case)
3820
3821    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3823        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3824        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3825        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3826        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3827        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3828
3829    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3830        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3831
3832    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3833        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3834
3835    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3836        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3837        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3838        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3839        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3840        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3841        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3842
3843    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3844        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3845        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3846        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3847
3848    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3850        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3851        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3852
3853    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3854        arg = expression.this
3855        if not arg.type:
3856            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3857
3858            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3859
3860        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3861            return self.sql(arg)
3862
3863        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3864        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3865
3866    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3867        this = expression.this
3868        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3869            return self.sql(this)
3870
3871        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3872
3873    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3874        this = expression.this
3875        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3876            return self.sql(this)
3877
3878        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3879
3880    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3881        this = expression.this
3882        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3883
3884        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3885            return self.sql(
3886                exp.cast(
3887                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3888                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3889                )
3890            )
3891
3892        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3893            return self.sql(this)
3894
3895        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3896
3897    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3898        return self.sql(
3899            exp.func(
3900                "DATEDIFF",
3901                expression.this,
3902                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3903                "day",
3904            )
3905        )
3906
3907    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3908        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3909            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3910
3911        unit = expression.text("unit")
3912        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3913            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3914
3915        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3916
3917    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3918        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3919
3920        return self.func(
3921            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3922        )
3923
3924    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3925        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3926            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3927            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3928            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3929            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3930
3931        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3932
3933        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3934        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3935            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3936
3937        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3938
3939    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3940        expression.set(
3941            "expressions",
3942            [
3943                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3944                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3945                else e
3946                for e in expression.expressions
3947            ],
3948        )
3949
3950        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3951
3952    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3953        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3954        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3955
3956        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3957
3958    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3959        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3960        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3961
3962        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3963
3964        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3965        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3966
3967        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3968        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3969
3970        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3971        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3972
3973        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3974        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3975
3976        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3977
3978    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3979    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3980    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3981        to = expression.this
3982        value = expression.expression
3983        style = expression.args.get("style")
3984        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3985        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3986
3987        if not to or not value:
3988            return ""
3989
3990        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3991        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3992            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3993
3994        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3995        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3996
3997        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3998        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3999            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4000
4001            style_value = style.name
4002            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4003            if not converted_style:
4004                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4005
4006            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4007
4008            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4009                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4010            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
4011                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4012            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4013                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4014            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4015                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4016
4017        if not transformed:
4018            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4019
4020        return self.sql(transformed)
4021
4022    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4023        this = expression.this
4024        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4025            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4026            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4027
4028        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4029            return f".{this}"
4030
4031        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4032        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
4033
4034    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4035        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4036        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4037
4038    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4039        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4040            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4041
4042            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4043
4044        return expression
4045
4046    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4047        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4048            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4049            mods = sorted(
4050                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4051                key=lambda x: 0
4052                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4053                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4054            )
4055
4056            if mods:
4057                mod = mods[0]
4058                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4059                this.meta["inline"] = True
4060                mod.this.replace(this)
4061                return self.sql(expression.this)
4062
4063            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4064
4065            if agg_func:
4066                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4067
4068        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4069
4070    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4071        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4072        if self.pretty:
4073            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4074        return string
4075
4076    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4077        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4078
4079        if expression.expressions:
4080            upper = option.upper()
4081
4082            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4083            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4084
4085            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4086            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4087            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4088            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4089
4090        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4091
4092        if not value:
4093            return option
4094
4095        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4096
4097        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4098
4099    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4100        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4101        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4102            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4103            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4104            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4105        else:
4106            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4107            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4108            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4109
4110        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4111        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4112
4113        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4114        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4115
4116        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4117        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4118
4119        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4120        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4121
4122        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4123
4124    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4125        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4126        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4127
4128        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4129        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4130        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4131        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4132
4133        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4134        params = self.expressions(
4135            expression,
4136            key="params",
4137            sep=sep,
4138            new_line=True,
4139            skip_last=True,
4140            skip_first=True,
4141            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4142        )
4143
4144        if params:
4145            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4146                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4147            elif not self.pretty:
4148                params = f" {params}"
4149
4150        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4151
4152    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4153        return ""
4154
4155    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4156        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4157        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4158        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4159        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4160        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4161
4162        if filter_col or retention_period:
4163            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4164
4165        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4166
4167    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4168        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4169    ) -> str:
4170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4171        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4172        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4173        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4174
4175    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4176        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4177        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4178        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4179
4180    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4181        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4182
4183    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4184        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4185        expr = expression.expression
4186
4187        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4188            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4189            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4190        else:
4191            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4192
4193        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4194
4195    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4196        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4197            return self.sql(expression.this)
4198
4199        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4200
4201    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4202        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4203        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4204
4205        if lower and upper:
4206            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4207        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4208
4209    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4210        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4211        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4212        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4213        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4214        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4215        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4216
4217        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4218
4219    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4220        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4221
4222        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4223        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4224            fill_pattern = "' '"
4225
4226        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4227
4228    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4229        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4230        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4231
4232    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4233        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4234
4235        parent = expression.parent
4236        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4237            parent = parent.parent
4238
4239        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4240            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4241
4242        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4243            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4244
4245        return self.sql(generate_series)
4246
4247    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4248        exprs = expression.expressions
4249        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4250            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4251        else:
4252            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4253
4254        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4255
4256    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4257        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4258            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4259
4260        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4261        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4262        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4263
4264        if source_tz and timestamp:
4265            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4266                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4267            )
4268
4269        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4270
4271        return self.sql(expr)
4272
4273    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4274        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4275        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4276
4277        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4278
4279        if _with is None:
4280            with_sql = ""
4281        elif not _with:
4282            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4283        else:
4284            with_sql = " WITH"
4285
4286        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4287
4288        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4289
4290    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4291        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4292            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4293
4294        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4295        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4296        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4297
4298        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4299        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4300
4301        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4302
4303    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4304        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4305        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4306        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4307        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4308        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4309
4310    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4311        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4312        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4313        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4314        return res
4315
4316    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4317        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4318        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4319        empty = (
4320            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4321            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4322            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4323        )
4324
4325        error = expression.args.get("error")
4326        error = (
4327            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4328            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4329            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4330        )
4331
4332        if error and empty:
4333            error = (
4334                f"{empty} {error}"
4335                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4336                else f"{error} {empty}"
4337            )
4338            empty = ""
4339
4340        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4341
4342        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4343
4344    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4345        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4346        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4347
4348        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4349        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4350
4351        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4352        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4353
4354        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4355
4356        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4357
4358    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4359        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4360
4361        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4362            parent = expression.parent
4363            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4364                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4365                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4366            else:
4367                # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4368                this = expression.this
4369                this_sql = (
4370                    self.expressions(this)
4371                    if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4372                    else self.sql(expression, "this")
4373                )
4374                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4375
4376        return array_agg
4377
4378    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4379        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4380        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4381
4382        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4383
4384    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4385        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4386
4387        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4388        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4389
4390        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4391        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4392
4393        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4394
4395        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4396
4397        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4398
4399    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4400        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4401        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4402        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4403
4404        return f"{this}{columns}"
4405
4406    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4407        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4408
4409        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4410        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4411
4412        return f"{kind}{this}"
4413
4414    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4415        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4416        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4417            func = f"*{func}"
4418
4419        return func
4420
4421    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4422        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4423        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4424        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4425        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4426        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4427
4428        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
639    def __init__(
640        self,
641        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
642        identify: str | bool = False,
643        normalize: bool = False,
644        pad: int = 2,
645        indent: int = 2,
646        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
647        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
648        max_unsupported: int = 3,
649        leading_comma: bool = False,
650        max_text_width: int = 80,
651        comments: bool = True,
652        dialect: DialectType = None,
653    ):
654        import sqlglot
655        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
656
657        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
658        self.identify = identify
659        self.normalize = normalize
660        self.pad = pad
661        self._indent = indent
662        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
663        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
664        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
665        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
666        self.comments = comments
667        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
668
669        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
670        self.normalize_functions = (
671            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
672        )
673
674        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
675        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
676            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
677        )
678        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
679
680        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
681
682        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
683        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ArrayContainsAll'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ArrayOverlaps'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ConnectByRoot'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Except'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Intersect'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Operator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PivotAny'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Stream'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TagColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Uuid'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
PARSE_JSON_NAME: Optional[str] = 'PARSE_JSON'
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
685    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
686        """
687        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
688
689        Args:
690            expression: The syntax tree.
691            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
692                it is safer to copy.
693
694        Returns:
695            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
696        """
697        if copy:
698            expression = expression.copy()
699
700        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
701
702        self.unsupported_messages = []
703        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
704
705        if self.pretty:
706            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
707
708        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
709            return sql
710
711        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
712            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
713                logger.warning(msg)
714        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
715            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
716
717        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
719    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
720        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
721        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
722
723        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
724            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
725
726            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
727
728        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
741    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
742        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
743            raise UnsupportedError(message)
744        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
746    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
747        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
749    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
750        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
752    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
753        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
754        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
755        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
757    def maybe_comment(
758        self,
759        sql: str,
760        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
761        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
762        separated: bool = False,
763    ) -> str:
764        comments = (
765            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
766            if self.comments
767            else None
768        )
769
770        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
771            return sql
772
773        comments_sql = " ".join(
774            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
775        )
776
777        if not comments_sql:
778            return sql
779
780        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
781
782        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
783            return (
784                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
785                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
786                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
787            )
788
789        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
791    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
792        this_sql = (
793            self.sql(expression)
794            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
795            else self.sql(expression, "this")
796        )
797        if not this_sql:
798            return "()"
799
800        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
801        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
803    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
804        original = self.identify
805        self.identify = False
806        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
807        self.identify = original
808        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
810    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
811        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
812            return name.upper()
813        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
814            return name.lower()
815        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
817    def indent(
818        self,
819        sql: str,
820        level: int = 0,
821        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
822        skip_first: bool = False,
823        skip_last: bool = False,
824    ) -> str:
825        if not self.pretty or not sql:
826            return sql
827
828        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
829        lines = sql.split("\n")
830
831        return "\n".join(
832            (
833                line
834                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
835                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
836            )
837            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
838        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
840    def sql(
841        self,
842        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
843        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
844        comment: bool = True,
845    ) -> str:
846        if not expression:
847            return ""
848
849        if isinstance(expression, str):
850            return expression
851
852        if key:
853            value = expression.args.get(key)
854            if value:
855                return self.sql(value)
856            return ""
857
858        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
859
860        if callable(transform):
861            sql = transform(self, expression)
862        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
863            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
864
865            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
866                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
867            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
868                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
869            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
870                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
871            else:
872                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
873        else:
874            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
875
876        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
878    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
879        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
880        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
881        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
883    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
884        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
885        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
886        options = expression.args.get("options")
887        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
888        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
889        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
890        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
891        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
893    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
894        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
895            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
896        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
897        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
899    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
900        return ".".join(
901            self.sql(part)
902            for part in (
903                expression.args.get("catalog"),
904                expression.args.get("db"),
905                expression.args.get("table"),
906                expression.args.get("this"),
907            )
908            if part
909        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
911    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
912        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
913
914        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
915            join_mark = ""
916            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
917
918        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
920    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
922        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
923        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
924        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
926    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
927        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
928        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
929        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
930        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
931        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
932        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
933        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
934        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
935
936        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
937            kind = ""
938
939        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
941    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
942        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
943        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
944        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
946    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
948        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
949            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
950        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
951            persisted = " PERSISTED"
952        else:
953            persisted = ""
954        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
956    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
957        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
959    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
960        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
961            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
962        else:
963            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
964
965        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
967    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
968        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
969    ) -> str:
970        this = ""
971        if expression.this is not None:
972            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
973            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
974
975        start = expression.args.get("start")
976        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
977        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
978        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
979        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
980        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
981        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
982        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
983        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
984        cycle_sql = ""
985
986        if cycle is not None:
987            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
988            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
989
990        sequence_opts = ""
991        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
992            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
993            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
994
995        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
996        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
997
998        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
1000    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1001        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1002    ) -> str:
1003        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1004        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1005        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
1007    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1008        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1009    ) -> str:
1010        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1012    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1013        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1015    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1016        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1018    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1019        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1020        if desc is not None:
1021            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1022        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1024    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1026        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1027        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1028        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1029        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1030        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1031        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1032        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
1034    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1035        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
1037    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1038        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1039        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1040        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1041        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1042
1043        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1044
1045        properties_sql = ""
1046        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1047            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1048        ):
1049            properties_sql = self.sql(
1050                exp.Properties(
1051                    expressions=[
1052                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1053                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1054                    ]
1055                )
1056            )
1057
1058            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1059                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1060            elif not self.pretty:
1061                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1062                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1063
1064        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1065        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1066
1067        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1068        if expression_sql:
1069            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1070
1071            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1072                postalias_props_sql = ""
1073                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1074                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1075                        exp.Properties(
1076                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1077                        ),
1078                        wrapped=False,
1079                    )
1080                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1081                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1082
1083        postindex_props_sql = ""
1084        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1085            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1086                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1087                wrapped=False,
1088                prefix=" ",
1089            )
1090
1091        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1092        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1093        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1094
1095        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1096        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1097        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1098
1099        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1100        if clustered is None:
1101            clustered_sql = ""
1102        elif clustered:
1103            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1104        else:
1105            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1106
1107        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1108        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1109            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1110                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1111                sep=" ",
1112                prefix=" ",
1113                wrapped=False,
1114            )
1115
1116        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1117
1118        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1119        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1120            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1121                exp.Properties(
1122                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1123                ),
1124                sep=" ",
1125                prefix=" ",
1126                wrapped=False,
1127            )
1128
1129        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1130        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1131        no_schema_binding = (
1132            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1133        )
1134
1135        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1136        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1137
1138        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1139        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1141    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1142        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1143        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1144        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1145        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1146        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1147        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1148        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1149        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1150        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1151        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1152
1153        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1154        if cache is None:
1155            cache_str = ""
1156        elif cache is True:
1157            cache_str = " CACHE"
1158        else:
1159            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1160
1161        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1162        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1163
1164        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1166    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1167        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1168        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1169        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1170        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1172    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1173        style = expression.args.get("style")
1174        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1175        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1176        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1177        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1179    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1180        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1181        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1183    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1184        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1185        if with_:
1186            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1187        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1189    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1190        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1191        recursive = (
1192            "RECURSIVE "
1193            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1194            else ""
1195        )
1196
1197        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1199    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1200        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1201        if alias:
1202            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1203
1204        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1205
1206        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1207        if materialized is False:
1208            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1209        elif materialized:
1210            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1211
1212        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1214    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1215        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1216        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1217        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1218
1219        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1220            columns = ""
1221            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1222
1223        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1224            alias = self._next_name()
1225
1226        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1228    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1229        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1230        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1231            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1232        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1234    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1235        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1236        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1237            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1238        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1240    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1241        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1242        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1243            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1244        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1246    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1247        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1248        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1249
1250        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1251            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1252            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1253        else:
1254            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1255            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1256
1257        if escape:
1258            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1259            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1260        else:
1261            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1262            escape_sql = ""
1263
1264        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1265            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1266
1267        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1269    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1270        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1271        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1273    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1274        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1275        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1276        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1277        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1279    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1280        nested = ""
1281        values = ""
1282        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1283
1284        type_value = expression.this
1285        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1286            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1287        else:
1288            type_sql = (
1289                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1290                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1291                else type_value
1292            )
1293
1294        if interior:
1295            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1296                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1297                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1298                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1299                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1300                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1301            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1302                nested = f" {interior}"
1303            else:
1304                nested = f"({interior})"
1305
1306        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1307        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1308            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1309            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1310        ):
1311            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1312
1313        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1315    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1316        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1317        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1318        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1319        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1321    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1322        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1323        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1324        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1325        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1326        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1327        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1328        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1329        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1330        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1331        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1332        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1333        if self.RETURNING_END:
1334            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1335        else:
1336            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1337        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1339    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1340        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1341        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1342        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1343        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1344        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1345        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1346        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1347        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1348        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1349        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1350        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1351        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1352        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1353        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1354        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
1356    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1357        op_type = type(expression)
1358        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1359
1360        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1361        if (
1362            distinct is False
1363            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1364            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1365        ):
1366            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1367
1368        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1369
1370        if distinct is None:
1371            distinct = default_distinct
1372            if distinct is None:
1373                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1374
1375        if distinct is default_distinct:
1376            kind = ""
1377        else:
1378            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1379
1380        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1381        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
1383    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1384        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1385            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1386            order = expression.args.get("order")
1387
1388            if limit or order:
1389                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1390                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1391                )
1392
1393                if limit:
1394                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1395                if order:
1396                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1397                return self.sql(select)
1398
1399        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1400        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1401
1402        while stack:
1403            node = stack.pop()
1404
1405            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1406                stack.append(node.expression)
1407                stack.append(
1408                    self.maybe_comment(
1409                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1410                    )
1411                )
1412                stack.append(node.this)
1413            else:
1414                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1415
1416        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1417        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1418        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1420    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1421        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1422        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1423        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1424        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1425        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1426            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1427        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1428        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1430    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1431        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1432            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1433            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1434            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1435
1436        agg = expression.this
1437        agg_arg = agg.this
1438        cond = expression.expression.this
1439        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1440        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1442    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1443        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1444            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1445            return ""
1446
1447        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1449    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1450        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1451        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1452        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1453        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1454        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1455        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1456        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1457        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1458        if include:
1459            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1460        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1461        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1462        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1463        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1464        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1465        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1466
1467        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1469    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1470        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1471        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1472        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1473        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1474        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1475        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1476        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1477
1478        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1479
1480        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1481        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1483    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1484        text = expression.name
1485        lower = text.lower()
1486        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1487        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1488        if (
1489            expression.quoted
1490            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1491            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1492            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1493        ):
1494            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1495        return text
def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str:
1497    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1498        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1499        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1500            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1501
1502        return text
def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str:
1504    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1505        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1506        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1507            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1508        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1510    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1511        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1512        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1513        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1514        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1515        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1517    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1518        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1519        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1521    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1522        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1524    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1525        root_properties = []
1526        with_properties = []
1527
1528        for p in expression.expressions:
1529            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1530            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1531                with_properties.append(p)
1532            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1533                root_properties.append(p)
1534
1535        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1536        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1537
1538        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1539            with_props = " " + with_props
1540
1541        return root_props + with_props
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1543    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1544        if properties.expressions:
1545            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1546        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1548    def properties(
1549        self,
1550        properties: exp.Properties,
1551        prefix: str = "",
1552        sep: str = ", ",
1553        suffix: str = "",
1554        wrapped: bool = True,
1555    ) -> str:
1556        if properties.expressions:
1557            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1558            if expressions:
1559                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1560                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1561        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1563    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1564        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1566    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1567        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1568        for p in properties.expressions:
1569            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1570            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1571                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1572            else:
1573                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1574
1575        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1577    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1578        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1579            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1580        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1582    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1583        property_cls = expression.__class__
1584        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1585            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1586
1587        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1588        if not property_name:
1589            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1590
1591        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1593    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1594        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1595            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1596            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1597
1598            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1599            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1600                like = f"({like})"
1601
1602            return like
1603
1604        if expression.expressions:
1605            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1606
1607        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1608        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1610    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1611        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1612        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1613        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1615    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1616        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1617        local = expression.args.get("local")
1618        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1619        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1620        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1621        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1622        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1624    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1625        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1626        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1627        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1629    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1630        if expression.args.get("default"):
1631            property = "DEFAULT"
1632        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1633            property = "ON"
1634        else:
1635            property = "OFF"
1636        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1638    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1639        if expression.args.get("no"):
1640            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1641        if expression.args.get("default"):
1642            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1643
1644        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1645        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1647    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1648        default = expression.args.get("default")
1649        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1650        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1651        if default or minimum or maximum:
1652            if default:
1653                prop = "DEFAULT"
1654            elif minimum:
1655                prop = "MINIMUM"
1656            else:
1657                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1658            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1659        units = expression.args.get("units")
1660        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1661        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1663    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1664        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1665        always = expression.args.get("always")
1666        default = expression.args.get("default")
1667        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1668        never = expression.args.get("never")
1669
1670        if autotemp is not None:
1671            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1672        elif always:
1673            prop = "ALWAYS"
1674        elif default:
1675            prop = "DEFAULT"
1676        elif manual:
1677            prop = "MANUAL"
1678        elif never:
1679            prop = "NEVER"
1680        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1682    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1683        no = expression.args.get("no")
1684        no = " NO" if no else ""
1685        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1686        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1687        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1688        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1689        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1691    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1692        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1693            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1694        if expression.this:
1695            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1696            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1697            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1698
1699        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1700        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1701        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1703    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1704        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1705
1706        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1707        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1708            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1709        else:
1710            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1711
1712        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1714    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1715        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1716        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1717        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1718        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1719        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1720        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1721        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1723    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1724        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1725        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1726        statistics_sql = ""
1727        if statistics is not None:
1728            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1729        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1731    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1732        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1733        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1734        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1735        data_consistency = (
1736            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1737        )
1738        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1739        retention_period = (
1740            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1741        )
1742
1743        if this:
1744            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1745        else:
1746            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1747
1748        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1749
1750        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1752    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1753        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1754        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1755
1756        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1757            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1758        else:
1759            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1760
1761        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1762        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1763        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1764        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1765        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1766        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1767        if is_function:
1768            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1769        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1770
1771        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1772        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1773        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1774        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1775        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1776        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1777        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1778        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1779
1780        if self.RETURNING_END:
1781            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1782        else:
1783            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1784
1785        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1786        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1787        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1788        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1789
1790        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1791        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1792
1793        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1794        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1796    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1797        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1799    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1800        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1801        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1802        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1803        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1804        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1806    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1807        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1809    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1810        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1812    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1813        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1814
1815        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1816        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1817
1818        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1819        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1820        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1821
1822        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1823        if expressions:
1824            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1825            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1826
1827        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1829    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1830        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1832    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1833        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1834        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1835        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1836        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1837        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1838        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1839        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1840        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1841        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1842        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1843        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1844        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1845        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1847    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1848        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1850    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1851        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1852        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1853        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1854        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1856    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1857        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1858        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1859        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1860        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1862    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1863        return ".".join(
1864            self.sql(part)
1865            for part in (
1866                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1867                expression.args.get("db"),
1868                expression.args.get("this"),
1869            )
1870            if part is not None
1871        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1873    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1874        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1875        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1876        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1877        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1878        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1879        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1880        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1881        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1882
1883        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1884        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1885            sample_pre_alias = sample
1886            sample_post_alias = ""
1887        else:
1888            sample_pre_alias = ""
1889            sample_post_alias = sample
1890
1891        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1892        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1893        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1894        joins = self.indent(
1895            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1896        )
1897        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1898
1899        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1900        if file_format:
1901            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1902            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1903            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1904
1905        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1906        if ordinality:
1907            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1908            alias = ""
1909
1910        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1911        if when:
1912            table = f"{table} {when}"
1913
1914        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1915        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1916
1917        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1918        if rows_from:
1919            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1920
1921        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1923    def tablesample_sql(
1924        self,
1925        expression: exp.TableSample,
1926        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1927    ) -> str:
1928        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1929        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1930        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1931        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1932        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1933        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1934        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1935        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1936        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1937
1938        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1939        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1940            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1941
1942        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1943        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1944            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1945
1946        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1947        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1948            expr = f"({expr})"
1949
1950        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1952    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1953        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1954
1955        if expression.this:
1956            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1957            if not expressions:
1958                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1959
1960            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1961            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1962            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1963            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1964            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1965
1966        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1967        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1968        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1969
1970        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1971
1972        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1973        if include_nulls is not None:
1974            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1975        else:
1976            nulls = ""
1977
1978        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1979        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1980        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1982    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1983        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1984        kind = expression.text("kind")
1985        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1986        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1988    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1989        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1991    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1992        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1993        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1994        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1995        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1996        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1997        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1998        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1999        if self.RETURNING_END:
2000            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2001        else:
2002            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2003        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2004        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2006    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2007        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2008
2009        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2010        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2011            args = self.expressions(expression)
2012            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2013            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2014            values = (
2015                f"({values})"
2016                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2017                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2018                else values
2019            )
2020            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2021
2022        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2023        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2024        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2025
2026        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2027
2028        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2029            row = tup.expressions
2030
2031            if i == 0 and column_names:
2032                row = [
2033                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2034                ]
2035
2036            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2037
2038        if self.pretty:
2039            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2040            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2041            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2042            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2043            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2044
2045        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2046        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2047        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
2049    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2050        return self.sql(expression, "this")
@unsupported_args('expressions')
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
2052    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2053    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2054        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2055        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2056        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
2058    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2059        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GroupingSets) -> str:
2061    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2062        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2063        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
def rollup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollup) -> str:
2065    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2066        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2067        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
def cube_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cube) -> str:
2069    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2070        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2071        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
2073    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2074        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2075        if group_by_all is True:
2076            modifier = " ALL"
2077        elif group_by_all is False:
2078            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2079        else:
2080            modifier = ""
2081
2082        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2083
2084        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2085        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2086        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2087
2088        groupings = csv(
2089            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2090            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2091            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2092            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2093            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2094        )
2095
2096        if (
2097            expression.expressions
2098            and groupings
2099            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2100        ):
2101            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2102
2103        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
2105    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2106        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2107        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
2109    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2110        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2111        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2112        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2113        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2114        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2115        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
2117    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2118        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
2120    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2121        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2122            side = None
2123        else:
2124            side = expression.side
2125
2126        op_sql = " ".join(
2127            op
2128            for op in (
2129                expression.method,
2130                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2131                side,
2132                expression.kind,
2133                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2134            )
2135            if op
2136        )
2137        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2138        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2139        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2140        using = expression.args.get("using")
2141
2142        if not on_sql and using:
2143            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2144
2145        this = expression.this
2146        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2147
2148        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2149        if exprs:
2150            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2151
2152        if on_sql:
2153            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2154            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2155            if using:
2156                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2157            else:
2158                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2159        elif not op_sql:
2160            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2161                return f" {this_sql}"
2162
2163            return f", {this_sql}"
2164
2165        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2166            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2167
2168        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
2170    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2171        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2172        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2173        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2175    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2176        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2177
2178        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2179        if cross_apply is True:
2180            op = "INNER JOIN "
2181        elif cross_apply is False:
2182            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2183        else:
2184            op = ""
2185
2186        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2188    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2189        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2190
2191        if expression.args.get("view"):
2192            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2193            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2194            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2195            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2196            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2197            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2198
2199        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2200        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2201        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2203    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2204        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2205
2206        args = [
2207            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2208            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2209            if e
2210        ]
2211
2212        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2213        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2214        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2215        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2216
2217        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
2219    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2220        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2221        value = expression.expression
2222        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2223        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2224        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2225        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
2227    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2228        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2229        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2230        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2231        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2232        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2233        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2234        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2235        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2237    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2238        expressions = (
2239            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2240        )
2241        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2242        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2244    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2245        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2247    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2248        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2249            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2250            return ""
2251
2252        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2253        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2254        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2255        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2256
2257        if wait is not None:
2258            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2259                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2260            else:
2261                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2262
2263        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2265    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2266        text = expression.this or ""
2267        if expression.is_string:
2268            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2269        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2271    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2272        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2273            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2274            text = "".join(
2275                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2276            )
2277
2278        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2279            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2280        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2282    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2283        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2284        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2285        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2286        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2287        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2288        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2289        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2290        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2291        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2292        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2293        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2295    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2296        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2298    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2299        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2301    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2302        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2303        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2304        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2305        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2307    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2308        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2309        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2310        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2311        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2312        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2313        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2314        interpolated_values = [
2315            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2316            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2317        ]
2318        interpolate = (
2319            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2320        )
2321        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2323    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2324        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2326    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2327        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2329    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2330        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2332    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2333        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2334        asc = not desc
2335
2336        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2337        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2338        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2339        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2340        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2341
2342        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2343
2344        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2345        nulls_sort_change = ""
2346        if nulls_first and (
2347            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2348        ):
2349            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2350        elif (
2351            nulls_last
2352            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2353            and not nulls_are_last
2354        ):
2355            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2356
2357        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2358        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2359            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2360            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2361                self.unsupported(
2362                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2363                )
2364                nulls_sort_change = ""
2365            elif (
2366                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
2367                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
2368                and (
2369                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2370                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2371                )
2372            ):
2373                self.unsupported(
2374                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2375                )
2376                nulls_sort_change = ""
2377            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2378                if expression.this.is_int:
2379                    self.unsupported(
2380                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2381                    )
2382                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2383                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2384                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2385                nulls_sort_change = ""
2386
2387        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2388        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2389
2390        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2392    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2393        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2394        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2395
2396        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2397
2398        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2400    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2401        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2402        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2403        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2404        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2405        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2406        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2407        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2408        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2409        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2410        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2411        definition_sqls = [
2412            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2413            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2414        ]
2415        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2416        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2417        body = "".join(
2418            (
2419                partition,
2420                order,
2421                measures,
2422                rows,
2423                after,
2424                pattern,
2425                define,
2426            )
2427        )
2428        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2429        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2430        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2432    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2433        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2434
2435        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2436            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2437        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2438            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2439
2440        return csv(
2441            *sqls,
2442            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2443            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2444            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2445            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2446            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2447            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2448            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2449            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2450            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2451            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2452            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2453            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2454            self.options_modifier(expression),
2455            sep="",
2456        )
def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str:
2458    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2459        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2460        return f" {options}" if options else ""
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2462    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2463        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2465    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2466        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2467    ) -> t.List[str]:
2468        return [
2469            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2470            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2471        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2473    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2474        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2475        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2476        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2478    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2479        into = expression.args.get("into")
2480        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2481            into.pop()
2482
2483        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2484        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2485        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2486        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2487
2488        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2489        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2490            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2491            limit.pop()
2492        else:
2493            top = ""
2494
2495        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2496
2497        if kind:
2498            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2499                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2500            else:
2501                if kind == "STRUCT":
2502                    expressions = self.expressions(
2503                        sqls=[
2504                            self.sql(
2505                                exp.Struct(
2506                                    expressions=[
2507                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2508                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2509                                        else e
2510                                        for e in expression.expressions
2511                                    ]
2512                                )
2513                            )
2514                        ]
2515                    )
2516                kind = ""
2517
2518        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2519        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2520
2521        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2522        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2523        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2524        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2525        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2526            expression,
2527            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2528            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2529            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2530        )
2531
2532        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2533        if expression.args.get("with"):
2534            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2535            expression.pop_comments()
2536
2537        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2538
2539        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2540            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2541                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2542            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2543                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2544            else:
2545                table_kind = ""
2546            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2547
2548        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2550    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2551        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2552        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2553        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2555    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2556        if expression.expressions:
2557            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2558        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2560    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2561        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2562        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2563        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2564        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2565        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2566        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2567        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2569    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2570        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2571        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2573    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2574        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2575        kind = expression.text("kind")
2576        if kind:
2577            kind = f"{kind}."
2578        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2580    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2581        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2583    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2584        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2585        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2586        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2587        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2588            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2589
2590            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2591            expression.set("sample", None)
2592
2593        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2594        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2595        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2597    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2598        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2599        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2601    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2602        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2603
2604        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2605        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2606
2607        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2608            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2609                alias.append("columns", offset)
2610
2611        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2612            columns = alias.columns
2613            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2614        else:
2615            alias = self.sql(alias)
2616
2617        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2618        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2619            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2620        else:
2621            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2622                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2623            elif offset:
2624                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2625            else:
2626                suffix = alias
2627
2628        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2630    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2631        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2633    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2634        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2635        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2637    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2638        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2639        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2640        order = expression.args.get("order")
2641        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2642        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2643        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2644        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2645
2646        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2647
2648        first = expression.args.get("first")
2649        if first is None:
2650            first = ""
2651        else:
2652            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2653
2654        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2655            return f"{this} {alias}"
2656
2657        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2658        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2660    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2661        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2662        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2664    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2665        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2666        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2667        end = (
2668            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2669            or "CURRENT ROW"
2670        )
2671        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2673    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2674        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2675        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2676        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2678    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2679        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2680        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2681        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2682        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket, index_offset: Optional[int] = None) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2684    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2685        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2686    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2687        return apply_index_offset(
2688            expression.this,
2689            expression.expressions,
2690            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2691        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2693    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2694        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2695        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2696        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2698    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2699        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2701    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2702        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2703        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2704            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2705                this = self.wrap(this)
2706            return f"ANY{this}"
2707        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2709    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2710        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2712    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2713        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2714        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2715
2716        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2717            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2718            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2719
2720        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2721
2722        if default:
2723            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2724
2725        statements.append("END")
2726
2727        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2728            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2729
2730        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2732    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2733        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2734        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2735        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2737    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2738        order = expression.args.get("order")
2739        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2740        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2742    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2743        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2744        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2745        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2747    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2748        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2749
2750        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2751            func_name = "LTRIM"
2752        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2753            func_name = "RTRIM"
2754        else:
2755            func_name = "TRIM"
2756
2757        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2759    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2760        args = expression.expressions
2761        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2762            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2763
2764        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2765            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2766
2767        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2768            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2769
2770        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2772    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2773        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2774
2775        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2776        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2777            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2778
2779        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2781    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2782        return self.func(
2783            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2784        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2786    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2787        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2788        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2790    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2791        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2792        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2793        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2794        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2795        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2796        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2797        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2798        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2800    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2801        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2802        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2803        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2804        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2806    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2807        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2809    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2810        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2811        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2812        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2814    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2815        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2817    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2818        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2819
2820        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2821            path = self.escape_str(path)
2822
2823        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2824            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2825
2826        return path
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2828    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2829        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2830            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2831            if not callable(transform):
2832                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2833                return ""
2834
2835            return transform(self, expression)
2836
2837        if isinstance(expression, int):
2838            return str(expression)
2839
2840        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2841            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2842            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2843        else:
2844            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2845            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2846
2847        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2849    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2850        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2852    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2853        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2854        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2855
2856        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2857        if unique_keys is not None:
2858            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2859        else:
2860            unique_keys = ""
2861
2862        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2863        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2864        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2865        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2866
2867        return self.func(
2868            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2869            *expression.expressions,
2870            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2871        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2873    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2874        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2876    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2877        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2878        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2879        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2880        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2881        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2882        return self.func(
2883            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2884        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2886    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2887        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2888        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2889        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2890        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2891        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2892        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2893        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2894        return self.func(
2895            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2896            this,
2897            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2898        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2900    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2901        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2902        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2903        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2904
2905        if nested_schema:
2906            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2907
2908        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2909        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2910        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2911        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2913    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2914        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2916    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2917        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2918        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2919        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2920        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2921        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2922        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2923        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2924        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2925        return self.func(
2926            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2927        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2929    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2930        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2931        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2932        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2933        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2934        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2935        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2937    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2939        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2940        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2941        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2942        with_ = (
2943            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2944            if expressions
2945            else ""
2946        )
2947        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2949    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2950        query = expression.args.get("query")
2951        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2952        field = expression.args.get("field")
2953        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2954
2955        if query:
2956            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2957        elif unnest:
2958            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2959        elif field:
2960            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2961        else:
2962            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2963
2964        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2966    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2967        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2969    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2970        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2971        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2972            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2973        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2974
2975        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2976            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2977            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2978
2979        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2980        if this:
2981            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2982            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2983
2984        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2986    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2987        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2989    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2990        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2991        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2992        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2993        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2994        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2995        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2997    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2998        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
2999        parent = expression.parent
3000        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3001        return self.func(
3002            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3003        )
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
3005    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3006        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3007        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
3009    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3010        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3011        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3012        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3013        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
3015    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3016        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
3018    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3019        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3020        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3021        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
3023    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3024        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3025
3026        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3027        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3028
3029        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3030            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3031        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3032            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3033
3034        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
3036    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3037        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3039    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3040        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3041        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3042        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3044    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3045        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3046        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3047        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3049    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3050        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3051        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3052        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
3054    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3055        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3057    def and_sql(
3058        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3059    ) -> str:
3060        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3062    def or_sql(
3063        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3064    ) -> str:
3065        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3067    def xor_sql(
3068        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3069    ) -> str:
3070        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3072    def connector_sql(
3073        self,
3074        expression: exp.Connector,
3075        op: str,
3076        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3077    ) -> str:
3078        if stack is not None:
3079            if expression.expressions:
3080                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3081            else:
3082                stack.append(expression.right)
3083                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3084                    for comment in expression.comments:
3085                        if comment:
3086                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3087                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3088            return op
3089
3090        stack = [expression]
3091        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3092        ops = set()
3093
3094        while stack:
3095            node = stack.pop()
3096            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3097                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3098            else:
3099                sql = self.sql(node)
3100                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3101                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3102                else:
3103                    sqls.append(sql)
3104
3105        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3106        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3108    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3109        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3111    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3112        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3114    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3115        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3117    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3118        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3120    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3121        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3123    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3124        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3126    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3127        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3128        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3129        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3130        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3131        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3132        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3133        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
3135    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3136        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3137        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
3139    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3140        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3141            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3142        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
3144    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3145        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
3147    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3148        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3149        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3150        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3151        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3152        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3153        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3155    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3156        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3157        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3158        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3159        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3160        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3161        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3162        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3163        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3164        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3166    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3167        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3168        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3169        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3170        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3171
3172        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3173            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3174
3175        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
3177    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3178        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
3180    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3181        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3182        if chain is not None:
3183            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3184
3185        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
3187    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3188        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3189        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3190        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
3192    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3193        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3194
3195        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3196        if dtype:
3197            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3198            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3199            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3200            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3201            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3202
3203        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3204        if default:
3205            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3206
3207        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3208        if comment:
3209            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3210
3211        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3212        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3213
3214        if not drop and not allow_null:
3215            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3216
3217        if allow_null is not None:
3218            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3219            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3220
3221        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3223    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3224        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3225        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3226            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3227        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3229    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3230        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3231        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3232        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3233        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3234        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def alterrename_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterRename) -> str:
3236    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3237        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3238            # Remove db from tables
3239            expression = expression.transform(
3240                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3241            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3242        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3243        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3245    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3246        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3247        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3248        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3249        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str:
3251    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3252        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3253        return f"SET {exprs}"
def alter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3255    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3256        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3257
3258        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3259            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3260        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3261            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3262        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3263            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3264        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3265            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3266        else:
3267            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3268
3269        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3270        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3271        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3272        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3273        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3274        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3275        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3276        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3277
3278        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3280    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3281        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3282            return self.expressions(
3283                expression,
3284                key="actions",
3285                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3286                skip_first=True,
3287            )
3288        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3290    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3291        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3292        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3293        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3295    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3296        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3298    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3299        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3300
3301        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3302            case = exp.case()
3303            for arg in expression.expressions:
3304                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3305            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3306
3307        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3308
3309        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3310        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3311        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3313    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3314        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3316    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3317        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3319    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3320        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3321        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3322        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3323        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3325    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3326        return self.sql(
3327            exp.Cast(
3328                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3329                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3330            )
3331        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3333    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3334        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3335            return self.func(
3336                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3337            )
3338        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3340    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3341        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3342
3343        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3344            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3345
3346        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3347            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3348                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3349
3350        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3351            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3352                return self.sql(
3353                    exp.cast(
3354                        l / r,
3355                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3356                    )
3357                )
3358
3359        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3361    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3362        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3364    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3365        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3367    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3368        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3370    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3371        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3373    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3374        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3376    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3377        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3379    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3380        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3382    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3383        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3385    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3386        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3388    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3389        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3391    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3392        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3394    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3395        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3396            return self.sql(
3397                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3398            )
3399        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3401    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3402        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3404    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3405        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3407    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3408        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3410    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3411        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3413    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3414        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3416    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3417        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3419    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3420        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3422    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3423        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3425    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3426        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3428    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3429        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3431    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3432        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3434    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3435        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3437    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3438        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3440    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3441        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3442            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3443            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3444
3445        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3447    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3448        this = expression.this
3449        expr = expression.expression
3450
3451        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3452            this, expr = expr, this
3453        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3454            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3455                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3456
3457            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3458
3459        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3461    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3462        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3463        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3464        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3465        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3466        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3468    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3469        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3470        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3471        binary_type = type(expression)
3472
3473        while stack:
3474            node = stack.pop()
3475
3476            if type(node) is binary_type:
3477                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3478                if op_func:
3479                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3480
3481                stack.append(node.right)
3482                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3483                stack.append(node.left)
3484            else:
3485                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3486
3487        return "".join(sqls)
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3489    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3490        args = []
3491
3492        for key in expression.arg_types:
3493            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3494
3495            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3496                for value in arg_value:
3497                    args.append(value)
3498            elif arg_value is not None:
3499                args.append(arg_value)
3500
3501        if self.normalize_functions:
3502            name = expression.sql_name()
3503        else:
3504            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3505
3506        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')', normalize: bool = True) -> str:
3508    def func(
3509        self,
3510        name: str,
3511        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3512        prefix: str = "(",
3513        suffix: str = ")",
3514        normalize: bool = True,
3515    ) -> str:
3516        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3517        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3519    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3520        arg_sqls = tuple(
3521            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3522        )
3523        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3524            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3525        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3527    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3528        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3530    def format_time(
3531        self,
3532        expression: exp.Expression,
3533        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3534        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3535    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3536        return format_time(
3537            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3538            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3539            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3540        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3542    def expressions(
3543        self,
3544        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3545        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3546        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3547        flat: bool = False,
3548        indent: bool = True,
3549        skip_first: bool = False,
3550        skip_last: bool = False,
3551        sep: str = ", ",
3552        prefix: str = "",
3553        dynamic: bool = False,
3554        new_line: bool = False,
3555    ) -> str:
3556        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3557
3558        if not expressions:
3559            return ""
3560
3561        if flat:
3562            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3563
3564        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3565        result_sqls = []
3566
3567        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3568            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3569            if not sql:
3570                continue
3571
3572            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3573
3574            if self.pretty:
3575                if self.leading_comma:
3576                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3577                else:
3578                    result_sqls.append(
3579                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3580                    )
3581            else:
3582                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3583
3584        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3585            if new_line:
3586                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3587                result_sqls.append("")
3588            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3589        else:
3590            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3591
3592        return (
3593            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3594            if indent
3595            else result_sql
3596        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3598    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3599        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3600        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3601        if flat:
3602            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3603        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3605    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3606        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3607        if not property_name:
3608            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3609        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3611    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3612        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3614    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3615        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3617    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3618        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3619        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3620        expressions = (
3621            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3622        )
3623        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3625    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3626        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3627        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3628        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3630    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3631        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3633    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3634        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3635        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3636        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3637        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3638
3639        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3640        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3641            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3642            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3643            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3644            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3645        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3646            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3647                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3648            else:
3649                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3650        else:
3651            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3652        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3654    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3655        table = expression.this
3656        table_alias = ""
3657
3658        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3659        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3660            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3661            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3662
3663        this = self.sql(table)
3664        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3665        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3666        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3667        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3668        if returning:
3669            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
3670
3671        sep = self.sep()
3672
3673        return self.prepend_ctes(
3674            expression,
3675            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
3676        )
@unsupported_args('format')
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3678    @unsupported_args("format")
3679    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3680        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3682    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3683        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3684            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3685            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3686
3687        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3688        if not fmt:
3689            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3690            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3691
3692        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3694    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3695        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3696        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3697        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3698        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3699        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3701    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3702        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3703        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3704        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3705        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3707    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3708        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3710    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3711        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3714    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3715        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3716        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3717        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3718        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3719        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3720        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3721        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3723    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3724        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3726    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3727        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3728        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3729        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3730        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3731        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3733    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3734        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3735        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3736
3737        if having:
3738            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3739
3740        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3742    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3743        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3744        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3745        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3746        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3747        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3748        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3749        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3750        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3751        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3752        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3753        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3754        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3755        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3757    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3758        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3759        if key_block_size:
3760            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3761
3762        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3763        if using:
3764            return f"USING {using}"
3765
3766        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3767        if parser:
3768            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3769
3770        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3771        if comment:
3772            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3773
3774        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3775        if visible is not None:
3776            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3777
3778        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3779        if engine_attr:
3780            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3781
3782        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3783        if secondary_engine_attr:
3784            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3785
3786        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3787        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3789    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3790        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3791        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3793    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3794        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3795        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3797        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3798        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3799        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3800        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3801        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3802        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3803        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3804        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3806    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3807        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3808            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3809
3810        case = exp.Case().when(
3811            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3812            expression.args["true"],
3813            copy=False,
3814        )
3815        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3816        if else_cond:
3817            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3818
3819        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3821    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3823        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3824        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3825        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3826        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3827        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3829    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3830        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3832    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3833        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3835    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3836        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3837        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3838        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3839        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3840        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3841        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3843    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3844        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3845        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3846        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3848    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3850        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3851        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3853    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3854        arg = expression.this
3855        if not arg.type:
3856            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3857
3858            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3859
3860        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3861            return self.sql(arg)
3862
3863        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3864        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3866    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3867        this = expression.this
3868        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3869            return self.sql(this)
3870
3871        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3873    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3874        this = expression.this
3875        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3876            return self.sql(this)
3877
3878        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3880    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3881        this = expression.this
3882        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3883
3884        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3885            return self.sql(
3886                exp.cast(
3887                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3888                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3889                )
3890            )
3891
3892        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3893            return self.sql(this)
3894
3895        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3897    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3898        return self.sql(
3899            exp.func(
3900                "DATEDIFF",
3901                expression.this,
3902                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3903                "day",
3904            )
3905        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3907    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3908        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3909            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3910
3911        unit = expression.text("unit")
3912        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3913            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3914
3915        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3917    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3918        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3919
3920        return self.func(
3921            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3922        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3924    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3925        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3926            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3927            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3928            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3929            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3930
3931        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3932
3933        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3934        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3935            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3936
3937        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3939    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3940        expression.set(
3941            "expressions",
3942            [
3943                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3944                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3945                else e
3946                for e in expression.expressions
3947            ],
3948        )
3949
3950        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3952    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3953        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3954        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3955
3956        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3958    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3959        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3960        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3961
3962        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3963
3964        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3965        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3966
3967        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3968        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3969
3970        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3971        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3972
3973        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3974        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3975
3976        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3980    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3981        to = expression.this
3982        value = expression.expression
3983        style = expression.args.get("style")
3984        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3985        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3986
3987        if not to or not value:
3988            return ""
3989
3990        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3991        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3992            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3993
3994        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3995        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3996
3997        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3998        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3999            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4000
4001            style_value = style.name
4002            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4003            if not converted_style:
4004                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4005
4006            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4007
4008            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4009                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4010            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
4011                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4012            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4013                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4014            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4015                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4016
4017        if not transformed:
4018            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4019
4020        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
4076    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4077        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4078
4079        if expression.expressions:
4080            upper = option.upper()
4081
4082            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4083            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4084
4085            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4086            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4087            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4088            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4089
4090        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4091
4092        if not value:
4093            return option
4094
4095        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4096
4097        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
4099    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4100        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4101        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4102            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4103            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4104            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4105        else:
4106            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4107            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4108            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4109
4110        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4111        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4112
4113        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4114        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4115
4116        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4117        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4118
4119        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4120        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4121
4122        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
4124    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4125        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4126        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4127
4128        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4129        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4130        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4131        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4132
4133        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4134        params = self.expressions(
4135            expression,
4136            key="params",
4137            sep=sep,
4138            new_line=True,
4139            skip_last=True,
4140            skip_first=True,
4141            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4142        )
4143
4144        if params:
4145            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4146                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4147            elif not self.pretty:
4148                params = f" {params}"
4149
4150        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
4152    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4153        return ""
def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4155    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4156        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4157        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4158        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4159        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4160        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4161
4162        if filter_col or retention_period:
4163            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4164
4165        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str:
4167    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4168        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4169    ) -> str:
4170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4171        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4172        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4173        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str:
4175    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4176        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4177        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4178        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4180    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4181        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4183    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4184        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4185        expr = expression.expression
4186
4187        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4188            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4189            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4190        else:
4191            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4192
4193        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
def parsejson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ParseJSON) -> str:
4195    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4196        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4197            return self.sql(expression.this)
4198
4199        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
def rand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rand) -> str:
4201    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4202        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4203        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4204
4205        if lower and upper:
4206            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4207        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
def changes_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Changes) -> str:
4209    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4210        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4211        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4212        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4213        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4214        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4215        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4216
4217        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
def pad_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pad) -> str:
4219    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4220        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4221
4222        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4223        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4224            fill_pattern = "' '"
4225
4226        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
def summarize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Summarize) -> str:
4228    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4229        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4230        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4232    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4233        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4234
4235        parent = expression.parent
4236        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4237            parent = parent.parent
4238
4239        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4240            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4241
4242        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4243            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4244
4245        return self.sql(generate_series)
def arrayconcat_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayConcat, name: str = 'ARRAY_CONCAT') -> str:
4247    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4248        exprs = expression.expressions
4249        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4250            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4251        else:
4252            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4253
4254        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4256    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4257        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4258            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4259
4260        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4261        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4262        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4263
4264        if source_tz and timestamp:
4265            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4266                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4267            )
4268
4269        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4270
4271        return self.sql(expr)
def json_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSON) -> str:
4273    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4274        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4275        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4276
4277        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4278
4279        if _with is None:
4280            with_sql = ""
4281        elif not _with:
4282            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4283        else:
4284            with_sql = " WITH"
4285
4286        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4287
4288        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONValue) -> str:
4290    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4291        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4292            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4293
4294        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4295        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4296        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4297
4298        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4299        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4300
4301        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4303    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4304        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4305        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4306        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4307        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4308        return f"{condition}{insert}"
def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4310    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4311        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4312        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4313        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4314        return res
def oncondition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCondition) -> str:
4316    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4317        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4318        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4319        empty = (
4320            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4321            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4322            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4323        )
4324
4325        error = expression.args.get("error")
4326        error = (
4327            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4328            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4329            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4330        )
4331
4332        if error and empty:
4333            error = (
4334                f"{empty} {error}"
4335                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4336                else f"{error} {empty}"
4337            )
4338            empty = ""
4339
4340        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4341
4342        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONExists) -> str:
4344    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4345        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4346        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4347
4348        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4349        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4350
4351        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4352        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4353
4354        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4355
4356        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4358    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4359        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4360
4361        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4362            parent = expression.parent
4363            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4364                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4365                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4366            else:
4367                # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4368                this = expression.this
4369                this_sql = (
4370                    self.expressions(this)
4371                    if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4372                    else self.sql(expression, "this")
4373                )
4374                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4375
4376        return array_agg
def apply_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Apply) -> str:
4378    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4379        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4380        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4381
4382        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
def grant_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Grant) -> str:
4384    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4385        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4386
4387        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4388        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4389
4390        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4391        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4392
4393        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4394
4395        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4396
4397        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GrantPrivilege):
4399    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4400        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4401        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4402        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4403
4404        return f"{this}{columns}"
def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GrantPrincipal):
4406    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4407        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4408
4409        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4410        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4411
4412        return f"{kind}{this}"
def columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Columns):
4414    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4415        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4416        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4417            func = f"*{func}"
4418
4419        return func
def overlay_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlay):
4421    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4422        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4423        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4424        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4425        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4426        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4427
4428        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"