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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5from collections import defaultdict
   6
   7from sqlglot import exp
   8from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   9from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  10from sqlglot.time import format_time
  11from sqlglot.tokens import Tokenizer, TokenType
  12
  13logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  14
  15
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  22            Default: False.
  23        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  24            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  25            True or 'always': Always quote.
  26            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  27        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  28            Default: False.
  29        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  30            Default: 2.
  31        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  32            Default: 2.
  33        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  34            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  35            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  36            False: Disables function name normalization.
  37        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  38            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  39        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  40            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  41            Default: 3
  42        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  43            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  44            Default: False
  45        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  46            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  47            line length.
  48            Default: 80
  49        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  50            Default: True
  51    """
  52
  53    TRANSFORMS = {
  54        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  55            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  56        ),
  57        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  58            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  59        ),
  60        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  61        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  64        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  65        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  67        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  72        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  73        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  74        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.IntervalDayToSecondSpan: "DAY TO SECOND",
  76        exp.IntervalYearToMonthSpan: "YEAR TO MONTH",
  77        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  80        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  81        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  82        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  83        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  84        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  85        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  89        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  90        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  91        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  92        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  93        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  94        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  95        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  96        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  98        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  99        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 100        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 101    }
 102
 103    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 104    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 105
 106    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 107    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 108
 109    # Always do union distinct or union all
 110    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 111
 112    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 113    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 114
 115    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 116    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 117
 118    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 119    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 120
 121    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 122    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 123
 124    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 125    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 126
 127    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 128    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 129
 130    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 131    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 132
 133    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 134    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 135
 136    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 137    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 138
 139    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 140    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 141
 142    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 143    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 144
 145    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 146    JOIN_HINTS = True
 147
 148    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 149    TABLE_HINTS = True
 150
 151    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 152    QUERY_HINTS = True
 153
 154    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 155    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 156
 157    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 158    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 159
 160    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 161    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 162
 163    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 164    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 165
 166    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 167    RETURNING_END = True
 168
 169    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 170    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 171
 172    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 173    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 174
 175    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 176    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 177
 178    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 179    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 180
 181    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 182    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 183
 184    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 185    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 186    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 187    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 188
 189    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 190    ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 191
 192    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 193        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 194        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 195        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 196        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 197        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 198        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 199        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 200    }
 201
 202    STAR_MAPPING = {
 203        "except": "EXCEPT",
 204        "replace": "REPLACE",
 205    }
 206
 207    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 208        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 209        "seconds": "second",
 210        "minutes": "minute",
 211        "hours": "hour",
 212        "days": "day",
 213        "weeks": "week",
 214        "months": "month",
 215        "quarters": "quarter",
 216        "years": "year",
 217    }
 218
 219    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 220
 221    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 222
 223    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 224
 225    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 226        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 227        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 228        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 229        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 231        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 235        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 236        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 237        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 238        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 239        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 240        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 241        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 242        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 243        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 244        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 245        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 246        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 247        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 248        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 249        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 250        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 251        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 252        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 253        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 254        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 255        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 256        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 257        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 258        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 259        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 260        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 261        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 262        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 263        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 264        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 265        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 266        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 267        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 268        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 269        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 270        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 271        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 272        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 273        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 274        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 275        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 276        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 277        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 278        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 279        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 280        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 281        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 282        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 283    }
 284
 285    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 286    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 287
 288    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 289    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 290        exp.Create,
 291        exp.Delete,
 292        exp.Drop,
 293        exp.From,
 294        exp.Insert,
 295        exp.Join,
 296        exp.Select,
 297        exp.Update,
 298        exp.Where,
 299        exp.With,
 300    )
 301
 302    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 303    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 304        exp.Column,
 305        exp.Literal,
 306        exp.Neg,
 307        exp.Paren,
 308    )
 309
 310    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 311
 312    # Autofilled
 313    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 314    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 315    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 316    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 317    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 318    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 319    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 320    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 321    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 322    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 323
 324    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 325
 326    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 327    QUOTE_START = "'"
 328    QUOTE_END = "'"
 329    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 330    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 331    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 332
 333    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 334    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 335    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 336    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 337    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 338    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 339    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 340
 341    __slots__ = (
 342        "pretty",
 343        "identify",
 344        "normalize",
 345        "pad",
 346        "_indent",
 347        "normalize_functions",
 348        "unsupported_level",
 349        "max_unsupported",
 350        "leading_comma",
 351        "max_text_width",
 352        "comments",
 353        "unsupported_messages",
 354        "_escaped_quote_end",
 355        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 356        "_cache",
 357    )
 358
 359    def __init__(
 360        self,
 361        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 362        identify: str | bool = False,
 363        normalize: bool = False,
 364        pad: int = 2,
 365        indent: int = 2,
 366        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 367        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 368        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 369        leading_comma: bool = False,
 370        max_text_width: int = 80,
 371        comments: bool = True,
 372    ):
 373        import sqlglot
 374
 375        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 376        self.identify = identify
 377        self.normalize = normalize
 378        self.pad = pad
 379        self._indent = indent
 380        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 381        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 382        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 383        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 384        self.comments = comments
 385
 386        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 387        self.normalize_functions = (
 388            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 389        )
 390
 391        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 392        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 393        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 394            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 395        )
 396        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 397
 398    def generate(
 399        self,
 400        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 401        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 402    ) -> str:
 403        """
 404        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 405
 406        Args:
 407            expression: The syntax tree.
 408            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 409                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 410
 411        Returns:
 412            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 413        """
 414        if cache is not None:
 415            self._cache = cache
 416
 417        self.unsupported_messages = []
 418        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 419        self._cache = None
 420
 421        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 422            return sql
 423
 424        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 425            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 426                logger.warning(msg)
 427        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 428            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 429
 430        if self.pretty:
 431            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 432        return sql
 433
 434    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 435        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 436            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 437        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 438
 439    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 440        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 441
 442    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 443        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 444
 445    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 446        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 447        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 448        return comment
 449
 450    def maybe_comment(
 451        self,
 452        sql: str,
 453        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 454        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 455    ) -> str:
 456        comments = (
 457            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 458            if self.comments
 459            else None
 460        )
 461
 462        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 463            return sql
 464
 465        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 466        comments_sql = sep.join(
 467            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 468        )
 469
 470        if not comments_sql:
 471            return sql
 472
 473        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 474            return (
 475                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 476                if sql[0].isspace()
 477                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 478            )
 479
 480        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 481
 482    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 483        this_sql = self.indent(
 484            self.sql(expression)
 485            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 486            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 487            level=1,
 488            pad=0,
 489        )
 490        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 491
 492    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 493        original = self.identify
 494        self.identify = False
 495        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 496        self.identify = original
 497        return result
 498
 499    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 500        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 501            return name.upper()
 502        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 503            return name.lower()
 504        return name
 505
 506    def indent(
 507        self,
 508        sql: str,
 509        level: int = 0,
 510        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 511        skip_first: bool = False,
 512        skip_last: bool = False,
 513    ) -> str:
 514        if not self.pretty:
 515            return sql
 516
 517        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 518        lines = sql.split("\n")
 519
 520        return "\n".join(
 521            line
 522            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 523            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 524            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 525        )
 526
 527    def sql(
 528        self,
 529        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 530        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 531        comment: bool = True,
 532    ) -> str:
 533        if not expression:
 534            return ""
 535
 536        if isinstance(expression, str):
 537            return expression
 538
 539        if key:
 540            value = expression.args.get(key)
 541            if value:
 542                return self.sql(value)
 543            return ""
 544
 545        if self._cache is not None:
 546            expression_id = hash(expression)
 547
 548            if expression_id in self._cache:
 549                return self._cache[expression_id]
 550
 551        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 552
 553        if callable(transform):
 554            sql = transform(self, expression)
 555        elif transform:
 556            sql = transform
 557        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 558            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 559
 560            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 561                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 562            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 563                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 564            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 565                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 566            else:
 567                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 568        else:
 569            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 570
 571        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 572
 573        if self._cache is not None:
 574            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 575        return sql
 576
 577    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 578        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 579        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 580        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 581
 582    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 583        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 584        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 585        options = expression.args.get("options")
 586        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 587        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 588        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 589        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 590        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 591
 592    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 593        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 594            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 595        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 596        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 597
 598    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 599        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 600
 601        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 602            join_mark = ""
 603            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 604
 605        column = ".".join(
 606            self.sql(part)
 607            for part in (
 608                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 609                expression.args.get("db"),
 610                expression.args.get("table"),
 611                expression.args.get("this"),
 612            )
 613            if part
 614        )
 615
 616        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 617
 618    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 619        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 620        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 621        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 622        return f"{position}{this}"
 623
 624    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 625        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 626        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 627        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 628        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 629        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 630        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 631        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 632        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 633
 634        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 635
 636    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 637        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 638        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 639        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 640
 641    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 642        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 643        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 644            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 645        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 646            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 647        else:
 648            persisted = ""
 649        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 650
 651    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 652        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 653
 654    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 655        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 656            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 657        else:
 658            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 659
 660        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 661
 662    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 663        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 664    ) -> str:
 665        this = ""
 666        if expression.this is not None:
 667            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 668            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 669
 670        start = expression.args.get("start")
 671        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 672        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 673        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 674        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 675        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 676        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 677        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 678        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 679        cycle_sql = ""
 680
 681        if cycle is not None:
 682            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 683            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 684
 685        sequence_opts = ""
 686        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 687            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 688            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 689
 690        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 691        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 692
 693        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 694
 695    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 696        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 697
 698    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 699        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 700        if desc is not None:
 701            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 702        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 703
 704    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 705        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 706        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 707        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 708
 709    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 710        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 711
 712    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 713        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 714        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 715        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 716
 717        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 718
 719        properties_sql = ""
 720        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 721            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 722        ):
 723            properties_sql = self.sql(
 724                exp.Properties(
 725                    expressions=[
 726                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 727                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 728                    ]
 729                )
 730            )
 731
 732        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 733        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 734        if expression_sql:
 735            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 736
 737            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 738                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 739                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 740                        exp.Properties(
 741                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 742                        ),
 743                        wrapped=False,
 744                    )
 745                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 746                else:
 747                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 748
 749        postindex_props_sql = ""
 750        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 751            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 752                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 753                wrapped=False,
 754                prefix=" ",
 755            )
 756
 757        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 758        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 759        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 760
 761        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 762        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 763
 764        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 765        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 766            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 767                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 768                sep=" ",
 769                prefix=" ",
 770                wrapped=False,
 771            )
 772
 773        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 774
 775        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 776        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 777            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 778                exp.Properties(
 779                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 780                ),
 781                sep=" ",
 782                prefix=" ",
 783                wrapped=False,
 784            )
 785
 786        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 787        no_schema_binding = (
 788            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 789        )
 790
 791        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 792        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 793
 794        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 795        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 796
 797    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 799        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 800        this = f"{shallow}CLONE {this}"
 801        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 802
 803        if when:
 804            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 805            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 806            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 807
 808        return this
 809
 810    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 811        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 812
 813    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 814        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 815        if with_:
 816            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 817        return sql
 818
 819    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 820        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 821        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 822
 823        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 824
 825    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 826        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 827        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 828
 829    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 830        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 831        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 832        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 833        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 834
 835    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 836        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 837        if self.BIT_START:
 838            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 839        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 840
 841    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 842        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 843        if self.HEX_START:
 844            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 845        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 846
 847    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 849        if self.BYTE_START:
 850            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 851        return this
 852
 853    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 854        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 855        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 856
 857    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 858        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 859        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 860        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 861        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 862
 863    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 864        type_value = expression.this
 865
 866        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 867            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 868        else:
 869            type_sql = (
 870                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 871                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 872                else type_value
 873            )
 874
 875        nested = ""
 876        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 877        values = ""
 878
 879        if interior:
 880            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 881                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 882                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 883                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 884                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 885                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 886            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 887                nested = f" {interior}"
 888            else:
 889                nested = f"({interior})"
 890
 891        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 892        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 893            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 894            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 895        ):
 896            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 897
 898        return type_sql
 899
 900    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 901        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 902        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 903        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 904        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 905
 906    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 907        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 908        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 909        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 910        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 911        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 912        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 913        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 914        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 915        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 916        if self.RETURNING_END:
 917            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 918        else:
 919            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 920        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 921
 922    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 924        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 925        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 926        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 927        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 928        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 929        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 930        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 931        return (
 932            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 933        )
 934
 935    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 936        return self.prepend_ctes(
 937            expression,
 938            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 939        )
 940
 941    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 942        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 943
 944    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 945        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 946        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 947        count = expression.args.get("count")
 948        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 949        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 950            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 951        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 952        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 953
 954    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 955        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 956        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 957        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 958
 959    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 960        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 961            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 962            return ""
 963
 964        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 965
 966    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 967        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 968        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 969        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 970        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 971        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 972        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 973        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
 974        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 975        using = f" USING {using} " if using else ""
 976        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 977        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 978        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 979        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 980        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 981        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 982
 983    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 984        text = expression.name
 985        lower = text.lower()
 986        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 987        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 988        if (
 989            expression.quoted
 990            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 991            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 992            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 993        ):
 994            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 995        return text
 996
 997    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 998        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 999        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1000        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1001        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1002        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1003
1004    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1005        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1006        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1007
1008    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1009        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1010
1011    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1012        root_properties = []
1013        with_properties = []
1014
1015        for p in expression.expressions:
1016            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1017            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1018                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1019            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1020                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1021
1022        return self.root_properties(
1023            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1024        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1025
1026    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1027        if properties.expressions:
1028            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1029        return ""
1030
1031    def properties(
1032        self,
1033        properties: exp.Properties,
1034        prefix: str = "",
1035        sep: str = ", ",
1036        suffix: str = "",
1037        wrapped: bool = True,
1038    ) -> str:
1039        if properties.expressions:
1040            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1041            if expressions:
1042                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1043                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1044        return ""
1045
1046    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1047        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1048
1049    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1050        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1051        for p in properties.expressions:
1052            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1053            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1054                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1055            else:
1056                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1057
1058        return properties_locs
1059
1060    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1061        property_cls = expression.__class__
1062        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1063            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1064
1065        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1066        if not property_name:
1067            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1068
1069        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1070
1071    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1072        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1073        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1074        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1075
1076    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1077        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1078        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1079        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1080
1081    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1082        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1083        local = expression.args.get("local")
1084        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1085        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1086        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1087        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1088        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1089
1090    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1091        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1092        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1093        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1094
1095    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1096        if expression.args.get("default"):
1097            property = "DEFAULT"
1098        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1099            property = "ON"
1100        else:
1101            property = "OFF"
1102        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1103
1104    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1105        if expression.args.get("no"):
1106            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1107        if expression.args.get("default"):
1108            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1109
1110        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1111        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1112
1113    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1114        default = expression.args.get("default")
1115        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1116        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1117        if default or minimum or maximum:
1118            if default:
1119                prop = "DEFAULT"
1120            elif minimum:
1121                prop = "MINIMUM"
1122            else:
1123                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1124            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1125        units = expression.args.get("units")
1126        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1127        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1128
1129    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1130        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1131        always = expression.args.get("always")
1132        default = expression.args.get("default")
1133        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1134        never = expression.args.get("never")
1135
1136        if autotemp is not None:
1137            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1138        elif always:
1139            prop = "ALWAYS"
1140        elif default:
1141            prop = "DEFAULT"
1142        elif manual:
1143            prop = "MANUAL"
1144        elif never:
1145            prop = "NEVER"
1146        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1147
1148    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1149        no = expression.args.get("no")
1150        no = " NO" if no else ""
1151        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1152        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1153
1154        for_ = ""
1155        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1156            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1157        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1158            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1159        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1160            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1161        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1162
1163    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1164        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1165        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1166        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1167        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1168        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1169        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1170
1171    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1172        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1173        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1174        statistics_sql = ""
1175        if statistics is not None:
1176            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1177        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1178
1179    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1180        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1181
1182        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1183            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1184        else:
1185            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1186
1187        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1188        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1189        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1190
1191        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1192
1193        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1194        partition_sql = (
1195            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1196        )
1197        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1198        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1199        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1200        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1201        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1202        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1203
1204        if self.RETURNING_END:
1205            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1206        else:
1207            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1208
1209        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1210        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1211
1212    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1213        return self.prepend_ctes(
1214            expression,
1215            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1216        )
1217
1218    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1219        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1220
1221    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1222        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1223
1224    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1225        return expression.name.upper()
1226
1227    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1228        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1229        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1230        if constraint:
1231            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1232        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1233        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1234        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1235        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1236        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1237        if expressions:
1238            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1239        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1240
1241    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1242        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1243
1244    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1245        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1246        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1247        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1248        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1249        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1250        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1251        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1252        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1253        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1254        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1255        null = expression.args.get("null")
1256        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1257        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1258
1259    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1260        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1261
1262    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1263        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1264        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1265        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1266        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1267
1268    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1269        table = ".".join(
1270            part
1271            for part in [
1272                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1273                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1274                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1275            ]
1276            if part
1277        )
1278
1279        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1280        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1281        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1282        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1283        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1284        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1285        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1286        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1287        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1288        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1289
1290        return f"{table}{version}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1291
1292    def tablesample_sql(
1293        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1294    ) -> str:
1295        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1296            table = expression.this.copy()
1297            table.set("alias", None)
1298            this = self.sql(table)
1299            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1300        else:
1301            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1302            alias = ""
1303        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1304        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1305        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1306        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1307        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1308        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1309        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1310        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1311        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1312        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1313        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1314        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1315        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1316            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1317        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1318        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1319        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1320        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1321
1322    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1323        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1324
1325        if expression.this:
1326            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1327            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1328            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1329            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1330            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1331            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1332
1333        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1334        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1335        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1336        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1337        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1338        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1339        if include_nulls is not None:
1340            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1341        else:
1342            nulls = ""
1343        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1344
1345    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1346        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1347        kind = expression.text("kind")
1348        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1349        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1350
1351    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1352        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1353
1354    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1355        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1356        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1357        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1358        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1359        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1360        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1361        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1362        if self.RETURNING_END:
1363            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1364        else:
1365            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1366        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1367        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1368
1369    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1370        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1371        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1372            args = self.expressions(expression)
1373            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1374            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1375            values = (
1376                f"({values})"
1377                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1378                else values
1379            )
1380            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1381
1382        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1383        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1384        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1385        # very slow.
1386        expression = expression.copy()
1387        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1388
1389        selects = []
1390
1391        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1392            row = tup.expressions
1393
1394            if i == 0 and column_names:
1395                row = [
1396                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1397                ]
1398
1399            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1400
1401        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1402        if len(selects) > 1:
1403            for select in selects[1:]:
1404                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1405                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1406                )
1407
1408        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1409
1410    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1411        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1412
1413    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1414        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1415        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1416        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1417
1418    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1419        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1420
1421    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1422        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1423
1424        if expression.args.get("all"):
1425            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1426
1427        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1428        grouping_sets = (
1429            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1430        )
1431
1432        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1433        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1434            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1435        else:
1436            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1437            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1438
1439        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1440        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1441            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1442        else:
1443            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1444            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1445
1446        groupings = csv(
1447            grouping_sets,
1448            cube_sql,
1449            rollup_sql,
1450            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1451            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1452        )
1453
1454        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1455            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1456
1457        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1458
1459    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1460        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1461        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1462
1463    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1464        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1465        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1466        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1467        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1468        return start + connect
1469
1470    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1471        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1472
1473    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1474        op_sql = " ".join(
1475            op
1476            for op in (
1477                expression.method,
1478                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1479                expression.side,
1480                expression.kind,
1481                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1482            )
1483            if op
1484        )
1485        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1486        using = expression.args.get("using")
1487
1488        if not on_sql and using:
1489            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1490
1491        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1492
1493        if on_sql:
1494            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1495            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1496            if using:
1497                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1498            else:
1499                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1500        elif not op_sql:
1501            return f", {this_sql}"
1502
1503        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1504        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1505
1506    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1507        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1508        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1509        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1510
1511    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1512        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1513
1514        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1515            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1516
1517        if expression.args.get("view"):
1518            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1519            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1520            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1521            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1522            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1523            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1524
1525        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1526        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1527        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1528
1529    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1530        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1531        args = ", ".join(
1532            sql
1533            for sql in (
1534                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1535                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1536            )
1537            if sql
1538        )
1539        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1540
1541    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1542        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1543        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1544
1545    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1546        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1547        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1548        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1549        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1550        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1551        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1552        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1553        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1554
1555    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1556        expressions = (
1557            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1558        )
1559        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1560        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1561
1562    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1563        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1564
1565    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1566        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1567            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1568            return ""
1569
1570        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1571        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1572        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1573        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1574
1575        if wait is not None:
1576            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1577                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1578            else:
1579                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1580
1581        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1582
1583    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1584        text = expression.this or ""
1585        if expression.is_string:
1586            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1587        return text
1588
1589    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1590        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1591        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1592            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1593        elif self.pretty:
1594            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1595        return text
1596
1597    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1598        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1599        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1600        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1601        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1602        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1603        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1604        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1605        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1606        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1607        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1608        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1609
1610    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1611        return "NULL"
1612
1613    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1614        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1615
1616    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1617        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1618        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1619        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1620
1621    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1622        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1623
1624    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1625        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1626
1627    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1628        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1629
1630    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1631        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1632        asc = not desc
1633
1634        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1635        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1636        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1637        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1638        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1639
1640        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1641        nulls_sort_change = ""
1642        if nulls_first and (
1643            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1644        ):
1645            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1646        elif (
1647            nulls_last
1648            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1649            and not nulls_are_last
1650        ):
1651            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1652
1653        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1654            self.unsupported(
1655                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1656            )
1657            nulls_sort_change = ""
1658
1659        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1660
1661    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1662        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1663        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1664        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1665        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1666        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1667        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1668        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1669        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1670        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1671        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1672        definition_sqls = [
1673            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1674            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1675        ]
1676        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1677        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1678        body = "".join(
1679            (
1680                partition,
1681                order,
1682                measures,
1683                rows,
1684                after,
1685                pattern,
1686                define,
1687            )
1688        )
1689        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1690        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1691        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1692
1693    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1694        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1695
1696        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1697        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1698
1699        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1700            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1701        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1702            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1703
1704        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1705
1706        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1707            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1708            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1709            else []
1710        )
1711
1712        return csv(
1713            *sqls,
1714            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1715            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1716            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1717            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1718            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1719            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1720            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1721            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1722            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1723            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1724            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1725            sep="",
1726        )
1727
1728    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1729        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1730    ) -> t.List[str]:
1731        return [
1732            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1733            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1734        ]
1735
1736    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1737        return [
1738            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1739            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1740            if expression.args.get("windows")
1741            else "",
1742            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1743            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1744            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1745        ]
1746
1747    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1748        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1749        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1750        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1751
1752    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1753        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1754        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1755        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1756        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1757        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1758        top = (
1759            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1760            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1761            else ""
1762        )
1763
1764        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1765
1766        if kind:
1767            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1768                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1769            else:
1770                if kind == "STRUCT":
1771                    expressions = self.expressions(
1772                        sqls=[
1773                            self.sql(
1774                                exp.Struct(
1775                                    expressions=[
1776                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1777                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1778                                        )
1779                                        for e in expression.expressions
1780                                    ]
1781                                )
1782                            )
1783                        ]
1784                    )
1785                kind = ""
1786
1787        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1788        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1789            expression,
1790            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1791            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1792            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1793        )
1794        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1795
1796    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1797        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1798        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1799        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1800        return f"{this}{sql}"
1801
1802    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1803        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1804
1805    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1806        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1807        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1808        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1809        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1810        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1811
1812    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1813        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1814        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1815        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1816
1817    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1818        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1819        kind = expression.text("kind")
1820        if kind:
1821            kind = f"{kind}."
1822        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1823
1824    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1825        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1826
1827    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1828        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1829        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1830
1831        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1832        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1833
1834        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1835        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1836
1837    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1838        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1839        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1840
1841    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1842        return self.prepend_ctes(
1843            expression,
1844            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1845        )
1846
1847    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1848        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1849        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1850        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1851        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
1852
1853    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1854        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1855        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1856        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1857            columns = alias.columns
1858            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1859        else:
1860            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1861        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1862        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1863        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1864        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1865        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1866
1867    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1868        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1869        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1870
1871    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1872        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1873        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1874        order = expression.args.get("order")
1875        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1876        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1877        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1878        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1879
1880        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1881
1882        first = expression.args.get("first")
1883        if first is None:
1884            first = ""
1885        else:
1886            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1887
1888        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1889            return f"{this} {alias}"
1890
1891        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1892        return f"{this} ({args})"
1893
1894    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1895        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1896        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1897
1898    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1899        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1900        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1901        end = (
1902            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1903            or "CURRENT ROW"
1904        )
1905        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1906
1907    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1908        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1909        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1910        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1911
1912    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1913        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1914        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1915        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1916        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1917
1918    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1919        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1920        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1921
1922        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1923
1924    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1925        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1926
1927    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1928        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1929
1930    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1931        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1932        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1933            this = self.wrap(this)
1934        return f"ANY {this}"
1935
1936    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1937        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1938
1939    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1940        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1941        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1942
1943        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1944            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1945            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1946
1947        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1948
1949        if default:
1950            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1951
1952        statements.append("END")
1953
1954        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1955            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1956
1957        return " ".join(statements)
1958
1959    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1960        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1961        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1962        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1963
1964    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1965        order = expression.args.get("order")
1966        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1967        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1968
1969    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1970        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1971        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1972        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1973
1974    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1975        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1976
1977        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1978            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1979        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1980            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1981        else:
1982            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1983
1984    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1985        expressions = expression.expressions
1986        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1987            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1988        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1989
1990    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1991        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1992        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1993
1994    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1995        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1996        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1997        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1998        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1999        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2000        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2001        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2002        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2003
2004    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2005        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2006        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2007        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2008        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2009
2010    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2011        expression = expression.copy()
2012        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2013
2014    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2015        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2016        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2017        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2018
2019    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2020        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2021
2022    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2023        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2024        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2025        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2026        if unique_keys is not None:
2027            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2028        else:
2029            unique_keys = ""
2030        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2031        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2032        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
2033        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2034        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2035        return self.func(
2036            "JSON_OBJECT",
2037            *expression.expressions,
2038            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
2039        )
2040
2041    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2042        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2043        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2044        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2045        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2046        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2047        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2048
2049    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2050        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2051        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2052        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2053        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2054        with_ = (
2055            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2056            if expressions
2057            else ""
2058        )
2059        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2060
2061    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2062        query = expression.args.get("query")
2063        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2064        field = expression.args.get("field")
2065        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2066
2067        if query:
2068            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2069        elif unnest:
2070            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2071        elif field:
2072            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2073        else:
2074            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2075
2076        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2077
2078    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2079        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2080
2081    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2082        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2083        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2084            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2085        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2086
2087        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2088            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2089            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2090
2091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2092        if this:
2093            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2094            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2095
2096        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2097
2098    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2099        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2100
2101    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2102        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2103        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2104        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2105        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2106        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2107        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2108
2109    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2110        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2111
2112    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2113        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2114            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2115        else:
2116            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2117            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2118
2119        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2120
2121    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2122        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2123        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2124        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2125        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2126
2127    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2128        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2129
2130    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2131        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2132        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2133        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2134
2135    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2136        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2137
2138    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2139        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2140        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2141        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2142
2143    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2144        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2145
2146    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2147        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2148
2149    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2150        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2151
2152    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2153        if not self.pretty:
2154            return self.binary(expression, op)
2155
2156        sqls = tuple(
2157            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2158            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2159        )
2160
2161        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2162        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2163
2164    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2165        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2166
2167    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2168        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2169
2170    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2171        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2172
2173    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2174        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2175
2176    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2177        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2178
2179    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2180        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2181
2182    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2183        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2184        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2185        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2186
2187    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2188        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2189        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2190
2191    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2192        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2193
2194    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2195        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2196
2197    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2198        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2199        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2200        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2201        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2202        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2203
2204    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2205        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2206        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2207        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2208        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2209        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2210        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2211        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2212        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2213        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2214
2215    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2216        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2217        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2218        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2219        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2220
2221        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2222            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2223
2224        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2225
2226    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2227        return "BEGIN"
2228
2229    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2230        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2231        if chain is not None:
2232            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2233
2234        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2235
2236    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2237        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2238        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2239        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2240
2241    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2242        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2243
2244        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2245        if dtype:
2246            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2247            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2248            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2249            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2250            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2251
2252        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2253        if default:
2254            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2255
2256        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2257            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2258
2259        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2260
2261    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2262        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2263            # Remove db from tables
2264            expression = expression.transform(
2265                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2266            )
2267        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2268        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2269
2270    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2271        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2272
2273        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2274            if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2275                actions = self.expressions(
2276                    expression,
2277                    key="actions",
2278                    prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2279                )
2280            else:
2281                actions = f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions')}"
2282        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2283            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2284        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2285            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2286        else:
2287            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2288
2289        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2290        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2291
2292    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2293        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2294        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2295        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2296
2297    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2298        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2299        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2300        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2301
2302        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2303        if enforced is not None:
2304            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2305
2306        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2307
2308    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2309        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2310        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2311
2312        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2313        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2314        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2315
2316    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2317        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2318
2319    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2320        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2321
2322    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2323        return self.sql(
2324            exp.Cast(
2325                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2326                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2327            )
2328        )
2329
2330    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2331        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2332
2333    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2334        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2335            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2336        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2337
2338    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2339        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2340
2341    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2342        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2343
2344    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2345        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2346
2347    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2348        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2349
2350    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2351        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2352
2353    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2354        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2355
2356    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2357        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2358
2359    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2360        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2361
2362    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2363        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2364
2365    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2366        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2367
2368    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2369        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2370
2371    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2372        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2373            return self.sql(
2374                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2375            )
2376        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2377
2378    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2379        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2380
2381    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2382        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2383
2384    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2385        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2386
2387    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2388        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2389
2390    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2391        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2392
2393    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2394        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2395
2396    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2397        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2398
2399    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2400        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2401
2402    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2403        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2404
2405    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2406        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2407
2408    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2409        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2410
2411    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2412        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2413
2414    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2415        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2416
2417    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2418        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2419
2420    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2421        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2422        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2423        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2424        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2425        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2426
2427    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2428        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2429        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2430
2431    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2432        args = []
2433
2434        for key in expression.arg_types:
2435            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2436
2437            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2438                for value in arg_value:
2439                    args.append(value)
2440            elif arg_value is not None:
2441                args.append(arg_value)
2442
2443        if self.normalize_functions:
2444            name = expression.sql_name()
2445        else:
2446            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2447
2448        return self.func(name, *args)
2449
2450    def func(
2451        self,
2452        name: str,
2453        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2454        prefix: str = "(",
2455        suffix: str = ")",
2456    ) -> str:
2457        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2458
2459    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2460        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2461        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2462            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2463        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2464
2465    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2466        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2467
2468    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2469        return format_time(
2470            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2471        )
2472
2473    def expressions(
2474        self,
2475        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2476        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2477        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2478        flat: bool = False,
2479        indent: bool = True,
2480        skip_first: bool = False,
2481        sep: str = ", ",
2482        prefix: str = "",
2483    ) -> str:
2484        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2485
2486        if not expressions:
2487            return ""
2488
2489        if flat:
2490            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2491
2492        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2493
2494        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2495        pad = " " * self.pad
2496        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2497
2498        result_sqls = []
2499        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2500            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2501            if not sql:
2502                continue
2503
2504            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2505
2506            if self.pretty:
2507                if self.leading_comma:
2508                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2509                else:
2510                    result_sqls.append(
2511                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2512                    )
2513            else:
2514                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2515
2516        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2517        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2518
2519    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2520        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2521        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2522        if flat:
2523            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2524        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2525
2526    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2527        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2528        if not property_name:
2529            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2530        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2531
2532    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2533        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2534        op = self.seg(op)
2535        return self.query_modifiers(
2536            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2537        )
2538
2539    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2540        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2541
2542    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2543        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2544
2545    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2546        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2547        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2548        expressions = (
2549            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2550        )
2551        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2552
2553    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2554        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2555        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2556        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2557
2558    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2559        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2560
2561    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2562        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2563        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2564        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2565        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2566
2567        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2568        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2569            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2570            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2571                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2572        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2573            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2574                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2575            else:
2576                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2577        else:
2578            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2579        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2580
2581    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2582        table = expression.this
2583        table_alias = ""
2584
2585        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2586        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2587            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2588            table = table.copy()
2589            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2590
2591        this = self.sql(table)
2592        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2593        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2594        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2595
2596        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2597
2598    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2599        if expression.args.get("format"):
2600            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2601
2602        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2603
2604    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2605        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2606        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2607        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2608        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2609        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2610
2611    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2612        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2613        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2614        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2615        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2616
2617    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2618        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2619
2620    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2621        return ""
2622
2623    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2624        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2625        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2626        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2627        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2628        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2629
2630    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2631        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2632        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2633
2634        if having:
2635            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2636
2637        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2638
2639    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2640        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2641        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2642        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2643        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2644        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2645        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2646        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2647        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2648        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2649        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2650        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2651        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2652        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2653
2654    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2655        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2656        if key_block_size:
2657            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2658
2659        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2660        if using:
2661            return f"USING {using}"
2662
2663        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2664        if parser:
2665            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2666
2667        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2668        if comment:
2669            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2670
2671        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2672        if visible is not None:
2673            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2674
2675        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2676        if engine_attr:
2677            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2678
2679        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2680        if secondary_engine_attr:
2681            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2682
2683        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2684        return ""
2685
2686    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2687        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2688        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2689        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2690        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2691        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2692        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2693        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2694        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2695        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2696        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2697        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
2698
2699    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2700        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2701            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2702
2703        case = exp.Case().when(
2704            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2705            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2706            copy=False,
2707        )
2708        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2709        if else_cond:
2710            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2711
2712        return self.sql(case)
2713
2714    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2715        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2716        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2717        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2718        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2719        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2720        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
2721
2722
2723def cached_generator(
2724    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2725) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2726    """Returns a cached generator."""
2727    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2728    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2729    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  17class Generator:
  18    """
  19    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  20
  21    Args:
  22        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  23            Default: False.
  24        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  25            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  26            True or 'always': Always quote.
  27            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  28        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  29            Default: False.
  30        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  33            Default: 2.
  34        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  35            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  36            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  37            False: Disables function name normalization.
  38        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  39            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  40        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  41            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  42            Default: 3
  43        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  44            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  45            Default: False
  46        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  47            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  48            line length.
  49            Default: 80
  50        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  51            Default: True
  52    """
  53
  54    TRANSFORMS = {
  55        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  56            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  57        ),
  58        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  59            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  60        ),
  61        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  62        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  65        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  66        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  68        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  73        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  74        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  75        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.IntervalDayToSecondSpan: "DAY TO SECOND",
  77        exp.IntervalYearToMonthSpan: "YEAR TO MONTH",
  78        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  80        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  81        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  82        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  83        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  84        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  85        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  86        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  90        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  91        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  92        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  93        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  94        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  95        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  96        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  97        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  99        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 100        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 101        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102    }
 103
 104    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 105    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 106
 107    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 108    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 109
 110    # Always do union distinct or union all
 111    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 112
 113    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 114    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 115
 116    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 117    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 118
 119    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 120    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 123    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 124
 125    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 126    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 127
 128    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 129    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 130
 131    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 132    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 133
 134    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 135    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 136
 137    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 138    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 139
 140    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 141    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 142
 143    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 144    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 145
 146    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 147    JOIN_HINTS = True
 148
 149    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 150    TABLE_HINTS = True
 151
 152    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 153    QUERY_HINTS = True
 154
 155    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 156    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 157
 158    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 159    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 160
 161    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 162    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 163
 164    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 165    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 166
 167    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 168    RETURNING_END = True
 169
 170    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 171    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 172
 173    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 174    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 175
 176    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 177    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 178
 179    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 180    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 181
 182    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 183    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 184
 185    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 186    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 187    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 188    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 189
 190    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 191    ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 192
 193    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 194        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 195        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 196        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 197        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 198        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 199        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 200        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 201    }
 202
 203    STAR_MAPPING = {
 204        "except": "EXCEPT",
 205        "replace": "REPLACE",
 206    }
 207
 208    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 209        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 210        "seconds": "second",
 211        "minutes": "minute",
 212        "hours": "hour",
 213        "days": "day",
 214        "weeks": "week",
 215        "months": "month",
 216        "quarters": "quarter",
 217        "years": "year",
 218    }
 219
 220    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 221
 222    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 223
 224    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 225
 226    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 227        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 228        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 229        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 230        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 232        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 235        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 236        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 237        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 238        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 239        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 240        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 241        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 242        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 243        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 244        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 245        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 246        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 247        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 248        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 249        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 250        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 251        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 252        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 253        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 254        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 255        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 256        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 257        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 258        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 259        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 260        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 261        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 262        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 263        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 264        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 265        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 266        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 267        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 268        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 269        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 270        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 271        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 272        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 273        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 274        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 275        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 276        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 277        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 278        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 279        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 280        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 281        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 282        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 283        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 284    }
 285
 286    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 287    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 288
 289    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 290    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 291        exp.Create,
 292        exp.Delete,
 293        exp.Drop,
 294        exp.From,
 295        exp.Insert,
 296        exp.Join,
 297        exp.Select,
 298        exp.Update,
 299        exp.Where,
 300        exp.With,
 301    )
 302
 303    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 304    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 305        exp.Column,
 306        exp.Literal,
 307        exp.Neg,
 308        exp.Paren,
 309    )
 310
 311    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 312
 313    # Autofilled
 314    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 315    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 316    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 317    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 318    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 319    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 320    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 321    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 322    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 323    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 324
 325    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 326
 327    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 328    QUOTE_START = "'"
 329    QUOTE_END = "'"
 330    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 331    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 332    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 333
 334    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 335    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 336    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 337    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 338    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 339    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 340    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 341
 342    __slots__ = (
 343        "pretty",
 344        "identify",
 345        "normalize",
 346        "pad",
 347        "_indent",
 348        "normalize_functions",
 349        "unsupported_level",
 350        "max_unsupported",
 351        "leading_comma",
 352        "max_text_width",
 353        "comments",
 354        "unsupported_messages",
 355        "_escaped_quote_end",
 356        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 357        "_cache",
 358    )
 359
 360    def __init__(
 361        self,
 362        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 363        identify: str | bool = False,
 364        normalize: bool = False,
 365        pad: int = 2,
 366        indent: int = 2,
 367        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 368        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 369        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 370        leading_comma: bool = False,
 371        max_text_width: int = 80,
 372        comments: bool = True,
 373    ):
 374        import sqlglot
 375
 376        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 377        self.identify = identify
 378        self.normalize = normalize
 379        self.pad = pad
 380        self._indent = indent
 381        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 382        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 383        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 384        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 385        self.comments = comments
 386
 387        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 388        self.normalize_functions = (
 389            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 390        )
 391
 392        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 393        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 394        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 395            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 396        )
 397        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 398
 399    def generate(
 400        self,
 401        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 402        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 403    ) -> str:
 404        """
 405        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 406
 407        Args:
 408            expression: The syntax tree.
 409            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 410                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 411
 412        Returns:
 413            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 414        """
 415        if cache is not None:
 416            self._cache = cache
 417
 418        self.unsupported_messages = []
 419        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 420        self._cache = None
 421
 422        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 423            return sql
 424
 425        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 426            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 427                logger.warning(msg)
 428        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 429            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 430
 431        if self.pretty:
 432            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 433        return sql
 434
 435    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 436        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 437            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 438        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 439
 440    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 441        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 442
 443    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 444        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 445
 446    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 447        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 448        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 449        return comment
 450
 451    def maybe_comment(
 452        self,
 453        sql: str,
 454        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 455        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 456    ) -> str:
 457        comments = (
 458            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 459            if self.comments
 460            else None
 461        )
 462
 463        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 464            return sql
 465
 466        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 467        comments_sql = sep.join(
 468            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 469        )
 470
 471        if not comments_sql:
 472            return sql
 473
 474        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 475            return (
 476                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 477                if sql[0].isspace()
 478                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 479            )
 480
 481        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 482
 483    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 484        this_sql = self.indent(
 485            self.sql(expression)
 486            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 487            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 488            level=1,
 489            pad=0,
 490        )
 491        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 492
 493    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 494        original = self.identify
 495        self.identify = False
 496        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 497        self.identify = original
 498        return result
 499
 500    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 501        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 502            return name.upper()
 503        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 504            return name.lower()
 505        return name
 506
 507    def indent(
 508        self,
 509        sql: str,
 510        level: int = 0,
 511        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 512        skip_first: bool = False,
 513        skip_last: bool = False,
 514    ) -> str:
 515        if not self.pretty:
 516            return sql
 517
 518        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 519        lines = sql.split("\n")
 520
 521        return "\n".join(
 522            line
 523            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 524            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 525            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 526        )
 527
 528    def sql(
 529        self,
 530        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 531        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 532        comment: bool = True,
 533    ) -> str:
 534        if not expression:
 535            return ""
 536
 537        if isinstance(expression, str):
 538            return expression
 539
 540        if key:
 541            value = expression.args.get(key)
 542            if value:
 543                return self.sql(value)
 544            return ""
 545
 546        if self._cache is not None:
 547            expression_id = hash(expression)
 548
 549            if expression_id in self._cache:
 550                return self._cache[expression_id]
 551
 552        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 553
 554        if callable(transform):
 555            sql = transform(self, expression)
 556        elif transform:
 557            sql = transform
 558        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 559            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 560
 561            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 562                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 563            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 564                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 565            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 566                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 567            else:
 568                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 569        else:
 570            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 571
 572        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 573
 574        if self._cache is not None:
 575            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 576        return sql
 577
 578    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 579        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 580        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 581        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 582
 583    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 584        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 585        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 586        options = expression.args.get("options")
 587        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 588        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 589        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 590        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 591        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 592
 593    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 594        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 595            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 596        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 597        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 598
 599    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 600        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 601
 602        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 603            join_mark = ""
 604            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 605
 606        column = ".".join(
 607            self.sql(part)
 608            for part in (
 609                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 610                expression.args.get("db"),
 611                expression.args.get("table"),
 612                expression.args.get("this"),
 613            )
 614            if part
 615        )
 616
 617        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 618
 619    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 620        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 621        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 622        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 623        return f"{position}{this}"
 624
 625    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 626        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 627        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 628        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 629        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 630        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 631        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 632        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 633        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 634
 635        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 636
 637    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 638        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 639        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 640        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 641
 642    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 643        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 644        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 645            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 646        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 647            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 648        else:
 649            persisted = ""
 650        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 651
 652    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 653        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 654
 655    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 656        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 657            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 658        else:
 659            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 660
 661        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 662
 663    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 664        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 665    ) -> str:
 666        this = ""
 667        if expression.this is not None:
 668            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 669            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 670
 671        start = expression.args.get("start")
 672        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 673        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 674        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 675        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 676        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 677        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 678        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 679        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 680        cycle_sql = ""
 681
 682        if cycle is not None:
 683            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 684            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 685
 686        sequence_opts = ""
 687        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 688            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 689            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 690
 691        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 692        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 693
 694        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 695
 696    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 697        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 698
 699    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 700        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 701        if desc is not None:
 702            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 703        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 704
 705    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 706        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 707        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 708        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 709
 710    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 711        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 712
 713    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 714        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 715        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 716        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 717
 718        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 719
 720        properties_sql = ""
 721        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 722            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 723        ):
 724            properties_sql = self.sql(
 725                exp.Properties(
 726                    expressions=[
 727                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 728                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 729                    ]
 730                )
 731            )
 732
 733        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 734        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 735        if expression_sql:
 736            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 737
 738            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 739                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 740                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 741                        exp.Properties(
 742                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 743                        ),
 744                        wrapped=False,
 745                    )
 746                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 747                else:
 748                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 749
 750        postindex_props_sql = ""
 751        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 752            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 753                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 754                wrapped=False,
 755                prefix=" ",
 756            )
 757
 758        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 759        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 760        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 761
 762        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 763        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 764
 765        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 766        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 767            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 768                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 769                sep=" ",
 770                prefix=" ",
 771                wrapped=False,
 772            )
 773
 774        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 775
 776        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 777        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 778            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 779                exp.Properties(
 780                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 781                ),
 782                sep=" ",
 783                prefix=" ",
 784                wrapped=False,
 785            )
 786
 787        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 788        no_schema_binding = (
 789            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 790        )
 791
 792        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 793        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 794
 795        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 796        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 797
 798    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 799        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 800        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 801        this = f"{shallow}CLONE {this}"
 802        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 803
 804        if when:
 805            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 806            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 807            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 808
 809        return this
 810
 811    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 812        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 813
 814    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 815        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 816        if with_:
 817            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 818        return sql
 819
 820    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 821        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 822        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 823
 824        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 825
 826    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 827        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 828        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 829
 830    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 831        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 832        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 833        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 834        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 835
 836    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 838        if self.BIT_START:
 839            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 840        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 841
 842    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 844        if self.HEX_START:
 845            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 846        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 847
 848    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 850        if self.BYTE_START:
 851            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 852        return this
 853
 854    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 855        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 856        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 857
 858    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 860        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 861        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 862        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 863
 864    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 865        type_value = expression.this
 866
 867        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 868            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 869        else:
 870            type_sql = (
 871                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 872                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 873                else type_value
 874            )
 875
 876        nested = ""
 877        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 878        values = ""
 879
 880        if interior:
 881            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 882                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 883                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 884                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 885                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 886                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 887            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 888                nested = f" {interior}"
 889            else:
 890                nested = f"({interior})"
 891
 892        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 893        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 894            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 895            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 896        ):
 897            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 898
 899        return type_sql
 900
 901    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 902        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 903        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 904        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 905        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 906
 907    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 908        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 909        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 910        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 911        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 912        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 913        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 914        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 915        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 916        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 917        if self.RETURNING_END:
 918            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 919        else:
 920            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 921        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 922
 923    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 925        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 926        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 927        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 928        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 929        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 930        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 931        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 932        return (
 933            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 934        )
 935
 936    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 937        return self.prepend_ctes(
 938            expression,
 939            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 940        )
 941
 942    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 943        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 944
 945    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 946        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 947        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 948        count = expression.args.get("count")
 949        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 950        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 951            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 952        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 953        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 954
 955    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 956        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 957        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 958        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 959
 960    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 961        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 962            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 963            return ""
 964
 965        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 966
 967    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 968        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 969        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 970        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 971        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 972        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 973        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 974        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
 975        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 976        using = f" USING {using} " if using else ""
 977        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 978        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 979        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 980        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 981        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 982        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 983
 984    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 985        text = expression.name
 986        lower = text.lower()
 987        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 988        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 989        if (
 990            expression.quoted
 991            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 992            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 993            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 994        ):
 995            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 996        return text
 997
 998    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 999        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1000        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1001        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1002        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1003        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1004
1005    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1006        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1007        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1008
1009    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1010        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1011
1012    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1013        root_properties = []
1014        with_properties = []
1015
1016        for p in expression.expressions:
1017            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1018            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1019                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1020            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1021                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1022
1023        return self.root_properties(
1024            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1025        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1026
1027    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1028        if properties.expressions:
1029            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1030        return ""
1031
1032    def properties(
1033        self,
1034        properties: exp.Properties,
1035        prefix: str = "",
1036        sep: str = ", ",
1037        suffix: str = "",
1038        wrapped: bool = True,
1039    ) -> str:
1040        if properties.expressions:
1041            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1042            if expressions:
1043                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1044                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1045        return ""
1046
1047    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1048        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1049
1050    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1051        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1052        for p in properties.expressions:
1053            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1054            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1055                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1056            else:
1057                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1058
1059        return properties_locs
1060
1061    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1062        property_cls = expression.__class__
1063        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1064            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1065
1066        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1067        if not property_name:
1068            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1069
1070        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1071
1072    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1073        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1074        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1075        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1076
1077    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1078        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1079        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1080        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1081
1082    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1083        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1084        local = expression.args.get("local")
1085        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1086        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1087        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1088        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1089        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1090
1091    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1092        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1093        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1094        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1095
1096    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1097        if expression.args.get("default"):
1098            property = "DEFAULT"
1099        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1100            property = "ON"
1101        else:
1102            property = "OFF"
1103        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1104
1105    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1106        if expression.args.get("no"):
1107            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1108        if expression.args.get("default"):
1109            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1110
1111        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1112        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1113
1114    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1115        default = expression.args.get("default")
1116        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1117        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1118        if default or minimum or maximum:
1119            if default:
1120                prop = "DEFAULT"
1121            elif minimum:
1122                prop = "MINIMUM"
1123            else:
1124                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1125            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1126        units = expression.args.get("units")
1127        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1128        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1129
1130    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1131        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1132        always = expression.args.get("always")
1133        default = expression.args.get("default")
1134        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1135        never = expression.args.get("never")
1136
1137        if autotemp is not None:
1138            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1139        elif always:
1140            prop = "ALWAYS"
1141        elif default:
1142            prop = "DEFAULT"
1143        elif manual:
1144            prop = "MANUAL"
1145        elif never:
1146            prop = "NEVER"
1147        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1148
1149    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1150        no = expression.args.get("no")
1151        no = " NO" if no else ""
1152        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1153        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1154
1155        for_ = ""
1156        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1157            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1158        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1159            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1160        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1161            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1162        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1163
1164    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1165        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1166        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1167        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1168        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1169        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1170        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1171
1172    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1173        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1174        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1175        statistics_sql = ""
1176        if statistics is not None:
1177            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1178        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1179
1180    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1181        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1182
1183        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1184            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1185        else:
1186            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1187
1188        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1189        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1190        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1191
1192        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1193
1194        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1195        partition_sql = (
1196            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1197        )
1198        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1199        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1200        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1201        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1202        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1203        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1204
1205        if self.RETURNING_END:
1206            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1207        else:
1208            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1209
1210        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1211        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1212
1213    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1214        return self.prepend_ctes(
1215            expression,
1216            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1217        )
1218
1219    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1220        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1221
1222    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1223        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1224
1225    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1226        return expression.name.upper()
1227
1228    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1229        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1230        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1231        if constraint:
1232            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1233        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1234        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1235        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1236        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1237        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1238        if expressions:
1239            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1240        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1241
1242    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1243        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1244
1245    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1246        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1247        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1248        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1249        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1250        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1251        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1252        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1253        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1254        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1255        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1256        null = expression.args.get("null")
1257        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1258        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1259
1260    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1261        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1262
1263    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1264        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1265        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1266        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1267        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1268
1269    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1270        table = ".".join(
1271            part
1272            for part in [
1273                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1274                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1275                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1276            ]
1277            if part
1278        )
1279
1280        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1281        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1282        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1283        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1284        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1285        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1286        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1287        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1288        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1289        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1290
1291        return f"{table}{version}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1292
1293    def tablesample_sql(
1294        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1295    ) -> str:
1296        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1297            table = expression.this.copy()
1298            table.set("alias", None)
1299            this = self.sql(table)
1300            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1301        else:
1302            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1303            alias = ""
1304        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1305        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1306        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1307        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1308        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1309        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1310        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1311        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1312        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1313        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1314        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1315        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1316        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1317            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1318        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1319        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1320        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1321        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1322
1323    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1324        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1325
1326        if expression.this:
1327            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1328            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1329            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1330            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1331            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1332            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1333
1334        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1335        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1336        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1337        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1338        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1339        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1340        if include_nulls is not None:
1341            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1342        else:
1343            nulls = ""
1344        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1345
1346    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1347        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1348        kind = expression.text("kind")
1349        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1350        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1351
1352    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1353        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1354
1355    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1356        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1357        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1358        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1359        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1360        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1361        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1362        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1363        if self.RETURNING_END:
1364            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1365        else:
1366            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1367        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1368        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1369
1370    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1371        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1372        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1373            args = self.expressions(expression)
1374            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1375            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1376            values = (
1377                f"({values})"
1378                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1379                else values
1380            )
1381            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1382
1383        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1384        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1385        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1386        # very slow.
1387        expression = expression.copy()
1388        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1389
1390        selects = []
1391
1392        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1393            row = tup.expressions
1394
1395            if i == 0 and column_names:
1396                row = [
1397                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1398                ]
1399
1400            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1401
1402        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1403        if len(selects) > 1:
1404            for select in selects[1:]:
1405                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1406                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1407                )
1408
1409        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1410
1411    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1412        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1413
1414    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1415        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1416        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1417        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1418
1419    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1420        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1421
1422    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1423        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1424
1425        if expression.args.get("all"):
1426            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1427
1428        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1429        grouping_sets = (
1430            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1431        )
1432
1433        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1434        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1435            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1436        else:
1437            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1438            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1439
1440        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1441        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1442            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1443        else:
1444            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1445            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1446
1447        groupings = csv(
1448            grouping_sets,
1449            cube_sql,
1450            rollup_sql,
1451            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1452            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1453        )
1454
1455        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1456            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1457
1458        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1459
1460    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1461        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1462        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1463
1464    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1465        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1466        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1467        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1468        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1469        return start + connect
1470
1471    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1472        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1473
1474    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1475        op_sql = " ".join(
1476            op
1477            for op in (
1478                expression.method,
1479                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1480                expression.side,
1481                expression.kind,
1482                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1483            )
1484            if op
1485        )
1486        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1487        using = expression.args.get("using")
1488
1489        if not on_sql and using:
1490            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1491
1492        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1493
1494        if on_sql:
1495            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1496            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1497            if using:
1498                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1499            else:
1500                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1501        elif not op_sql:
1502            return f", {this_sql}"
1503
1504        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1505        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1506
1507    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1508        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1509        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1510        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1511
1512    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1513        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1514
1515        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1516            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1517
1518        if expression.args.get("view"):
1519            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1520            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1521            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1522            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1523            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1524            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1525
1526        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1527        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1528        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1529
1530    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1531        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1532        args = ", ".join(
1533            sql
1534            for sql in (
1535                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1536                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1537            )
1538            if sql
1539        )
1540        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1541
1542    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1543        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1544        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1545
1546    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1547        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1548        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1549        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1550        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1551        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1552        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1553        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1554        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1555
1556    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1557        expressions = (
1558            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1559        )
1560        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1561        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1562
1563    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1564        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1565
1566    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1567        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1568            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1569            return ""
1570
1571        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1572        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1573        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1574        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1575
1576        if wait is not None:
1577            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1578                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1579            else:
1580                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1581
1582        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1583
1584    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1585        text = expression.this or ""
1586        if expression.is_string:
1587            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1588        return text
1589
1590    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1591        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1592        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1593            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1594        elif self.pretty:
1595            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1596        return text
1597
1598    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1599        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1600        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1601        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1602        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1603        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1604        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1605        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1606        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1607        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1608        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1609        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1610
1611    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1612        return "NULL"
1613
1614    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1615        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1616
1617    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1618        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1619        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1620        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1621
1622    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1623        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1624
1625    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1626        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1627
1628    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1629        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1630
1631    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1632        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1633        asc = not desc
1634
1635        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1636        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1637        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1638        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1639        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1640
1641        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1642        nulls_sort_change = ""
1643        if nulls_first and (
1644            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1645        ):
1646            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1647        elif (
1648            nulls_last
1649            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1650            and not nulls_are_last
1651        ):
1652            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1653
1654        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1655            self.unsupported(
1656                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1657            )
1658            nulls_sort_change = ""
1659
1660        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1661
1662    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1663        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1664        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1665        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1666        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1667        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1668        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1669        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1670        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1671        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1672        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1673        definition_sqls = [
1674            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1675            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1676        ]
1677        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1678        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1679        body = "".join(
1680            (
1681                partition,
1682                order,
1683                measures,
1684                rows,
1685                after,
1686                pattern,
1687                define,
1688            )
1689        )
1690        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1691        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1692        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1693
1694    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1695        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1696
1697        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1698        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1699
1700        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1701            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1702        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1703            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1704
1705        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1706
1707        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1708            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1709            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1710            else []
1711        )
1712
1713        return csv(
1714            *sqls,
1715            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1716            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1717            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1718            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1719            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1720            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1721            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1722            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1723            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1724            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1725            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1726            sep="",
1727        )
1728
1729    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1730        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1731    ) -> t.List[str]:
1732        return [
1733            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1734            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1735        ]
1736
1737    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1738        return [
1739            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1740            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1741            if expression.args.get("windows")
1742            else "",
1743            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1744            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1745            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1746        ]
1747
1748    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1749        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1750        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1751        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1752
1753    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1754        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1755        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1756        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1757        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1758        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1759        top = (
1760            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1761            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1762            else ""
1763        )
1764
1765        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1766
1767        if kind:
1768            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1769                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1770            else:
1771                if kind == "STRUCT":
1772                    expressions = self.expressions(
1773                        sqls=[
1774                            self.sql(
1775                                exp.Struct(
1776                                    expressions=[
1777                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1778                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1779                                        )
1780                                        for e in expression.expressions
1781                                    ]
1782                                )
1783                            )
1784                        ]
1785                    )
1786                kind = ""
1787
1788        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1789        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1790            expression,
1791            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1792            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1793            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1794        )
1795        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1796
1797    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1799        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1800        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1801        return f"{this}{sql}"
1802
1803    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1804        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1805
1806    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1807        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1808        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1809        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1810        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1811        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1812
1813    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1814        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1815        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1816        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1817
1818    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1820        kind = expression.text("kind")
1821        if kind:
1822            kind = f"{kind}."
1823        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1824
1825    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1826        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1827
1828    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1829        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1830        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1831
1832        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1833        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1834
1835        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1836        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1837
1838    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1839        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1840        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1841
1842    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1843        return self.prepend_ctes(
1844            expression,
1845            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1846        )
1847
1848    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1849        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1850        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1851        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1852        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
1853
1854    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1855        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1856        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1857        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1858            columns = alias.columns
1859            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1860        else:
1861            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1862        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1863        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1864        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1865        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1866        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1867
1868    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1869        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1870        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1871
1872    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1873        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1874        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1875        order = expression.args.get("order")
1876        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1877        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1878        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1879        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1880
1881        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1882
1883        first = expression.args.get("first")
1884        if first is None:
1885            first = ""
1886        else:
1887            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1888
1889        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1890            return f"{this} {alias}"
1891
1892        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1893        return f"{this} ({args})"
1894
1895    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1896        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1897        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1898
1899    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1900        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1901        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1902        end = (
1903            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1904            or "CURRENT ROW"
1905        )
1906        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1907
1908    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1909        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1910        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1911        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1912
1913    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1914        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1915        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1916        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1917        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1918
1919    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1920        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1921        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1922
1923        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1924
1925    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1926        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1927
1928    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1929        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1930
1931    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1932        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1933        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1934            this = self.wrap(this)
1935        return f"ANY {this}"
1936
1937    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1938        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1939
1940    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1941        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1942        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1943
1944        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1945            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1946            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1947
1948        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1949
1950        if default:
1951            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1952
1953        statements.append("END")
1954
1955        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1956            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1957
1958        return " ".join(statements)
1959
1960    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1961        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1962        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1963        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1964
1965    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1966        order = expression.args.get("order")
1967        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1968        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1969
1970    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1971        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1972        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1973        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1974
1975    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1976        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1977
1978        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1979            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1980        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1981            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1982        else:
1983            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1984
1985    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1986        expressions = expression.expressions
1987        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1988            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1989        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1990
1991    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1992        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1993        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1994
1995    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1996        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1997        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1998        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1999        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2000        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2001        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2002        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2003        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2004
2005    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2006        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2007        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2008        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2009        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2010
2011    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2012        expression = expression.copy()
2013        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2014
2015    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2016        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2017        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2018        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2019
2020    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2021        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2022
2023    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2024        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2025        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2026        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2027        if unique_keys is not None:
2028            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2029        else:
2030            unique_keys = ""
2031        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2032        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2033        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
2034        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2035        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2036        return self.func(
2037            "JSON_OBJECT",
2038            *expression.expressions,
2039            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
2040        )
2041
2042    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2043        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2044        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2045        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2046        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2047        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2048        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2049
2050    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2051        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2052        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2053        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2054        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2055        with_ = (
2056            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2057            if expressions
2058            else ""
2059        )
2060        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2061
2062    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2063        query = expression.args.get("query")
2064        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2065        field = expression.args.get("field")
2066        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2067
2068        if query:
2069            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2070        elif unnest:
2071            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2072        elif field:
2073            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2074        else:
2075            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2076
2077        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2078
2079    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2080        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2081
2082    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2083        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2084        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2085            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2086        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2087
2088        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2089            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2090            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2091
2092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2093        if this:
2094            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2095            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2096
2097        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2098
2099    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2100        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2101
2102    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2104        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2105        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2106        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2107        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2108        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2109
2110    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2111        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2112
2113    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2114        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2115            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2116        else:
2117            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2118            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2119
2120        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2121
2122    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2123        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2124        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2125        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2126        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2127
2128    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2129        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2130
2131    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2132        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2133        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2134        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2135
2136    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2137        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2138
2139    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2140        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2141        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2142        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2143
2144    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2145        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2146
2147    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2148        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2149
2150    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2151        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2152
2153    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2154        if not self.pretty:
2155            return self.binary(expression, op)
2156
2157        sqls = tuple(
2158            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2159            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2160        )
2161
2162        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2163        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2164
2165    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2166        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2167
2168    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2169        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2170
2171    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2172        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2173
2174    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2175        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2176
2177    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2178        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2179
2180    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2181        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2182
2183    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2184        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2185        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2186        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2187
2188    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2189        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2190        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2191
2192    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2193        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2194
2195    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2196        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2197
2198    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2199        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2200        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2201        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2202        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2203        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2204
2205    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2206        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2207        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2208        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2209        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2210        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2211        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2212        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2213        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2214        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2215
2216    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2217        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2218        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2219        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2220        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2221
2222        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2223            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2224
2225        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2226
2227    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2228        return "BEGIN"
2229
2230    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2231        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2232        if chain is not None:
2233            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2234
2235        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2236
2237    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2238        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2239        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2240        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2241
2242    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2243        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2244
2245        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2246        if dtype:
2247            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2248            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2249            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2250            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2251            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2252
2253        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2254        if default:
2255            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2256
2257        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2258            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2259
2260        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2261
2262    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2263        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2264            # Remove db from tables
2265            expression = expression.transform(
2266                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2267            )
2268        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2269        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2270
2271    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2272        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2273
2274        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2275            if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2276                actions = self.expressions(
2277                    expression,
2278                    key="actions",
2279                    prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2280                )
2281            else:
2282                actions = f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions')}"
2283        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2284            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2285        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2286            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2287        else:
2288            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2289
2290        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2291        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2292
2293    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2294        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2295        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2296        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2297
2298    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2299        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2300        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2301        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2302
2303        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2304        if enforced is not None:
2305            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2306
2307        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2308
2309    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2310        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2311        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2312
2313        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2314        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2315        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2316
2317    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2318        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2319
2320    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2321        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2322
2323    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2324        return self.sql(
2325            exp.Cast(
2326                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2327                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2328            )
2329        )
2330
2331    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2332        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2333
2334    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2335        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2336            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2337        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2338
2339    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2340        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2341
2342    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2343        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2344
2345    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2346        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2347
2348    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2349        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2350
2351    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2352        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2353
2354    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2355        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2356
2357    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2358        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2359
2360    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2361        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2362
2363    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2364        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2365
2366    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2367        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2368
2369    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2370        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2371
2372    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2373        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2374            return self.sql(
2375                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2376            )
2377        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2378
2379    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2380        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2381
2382    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2383        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2384
2385    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2386        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2387
2388    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2389        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2390
2391    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2392        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2393
2394    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2395        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2396
2397    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2398        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2399
2400    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2401        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2402
2403    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2404        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2405
2406    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2407        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2408
2409    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2410        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2411
2412    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2413        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2414
2415    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2416        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2417
2418    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2419        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2420
2421    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2422        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2423        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2424        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2425        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2426        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2427
2428    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2429        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2430        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2431
2432    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2433        args = []
2434
2435        for key in expression.arg_types:
2436            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2437
2438            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2439                for value in arg_value:
2440                    args.append(value)
2441            elif arg_value is not None:
2442                args.append(arg_value)
2443
2444        if self.normalize_functions:
2445            name = expression.sql_name()
2446        else:
2447            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2448
2449        return self.func(name, *args)
2450
2451    def func(
2452        self,
2453        name: str,
2454        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2455        prefix: str = "(",
2456        suffix: str = ")",
2457    ) -> str:
2458        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2459
2460    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2461        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2462        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2463            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2464        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2465
2466    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2467        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2468
2469    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2470        return format_time(
2471            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2472        )
2473
2474    def expressions(
2475        self,
2476        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2477        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2478        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2479        flat: bool = False,
2480        indent: bool = True,
2481        skip_first: bool = False,
2482        sep: str = ", ",
2483        prefix: str = "",
2484    ) -> str:
2485        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2486
2487        if not expressions:
2488            return ""
2489
2490        if flat:
2491            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2492
2493        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2494
2495        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2496        pad = " " * self.pad
2497        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2498
2499        result_sqls = []
2500        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2501            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2502            if not sql:
2503                continue
2504
2505            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2506
2507            if self.pretty:
2508                if self.leading_comma:
2509                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2510                else:
2511                    result_sqls.append(
2512                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2513                    )
2514            else:
2515                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2516
2517        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2518        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2519
2520    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2521        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2522        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2523        if flat:
2524            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2525        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2526
2527    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2528        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2529        if not property_name:
2530            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2531        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2532
2533    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2534        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2535        op = self.seg(op)
2536        return self.query_modifiers(
2537            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2538        )
2539
2540    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2541        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2542
2543    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2544        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2545
2546    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2547        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2548        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2549        expressions = (
2550            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2551        )
2552        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2553
2554    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2555        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2556        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2557        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2558
2559    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2560        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2561
2562    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2563        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2564        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2565        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2566        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2567
2568        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2569        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2570            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2571            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2572                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2573        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2574            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2575                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2576            else:
2577                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2578        else:
2579            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2580        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2581
2582    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2583        table = expression.this
2584        table_alias = ""
2585
2586        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2587        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2588            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2589            table = table.copy()
2590            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2591
2592        this = self.sql(table)
2593        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2594        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2595        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2596
2597        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2598
2599    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2600        if expression.args.get("format"):
2601            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2602
2603        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2604
2605    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2606        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2607        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2608        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2609        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2610        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2611
2612    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2613        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2614        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2615        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2616        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2617
2618    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2619        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2620
2621    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2622        return ""
2623
2624    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2625        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2626        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2627        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2628        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2629        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2630
2631    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2632        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2633        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2634
2635        if having:
2636            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2637
2638        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2639
2640    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2641        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2642        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2643        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2644        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2645        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2646        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2647        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2648        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2649        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2650        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2651        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2652        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2653        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2654
2655    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2656        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2657        if key_block_size:
2658            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2659
2660        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2661        if using:
2662            return f"USING {using}"
2663
2664        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2665        if parser:
2666            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2667
2668        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2669        if comment:
2670            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2671
2672        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2673        if visible is not None:
2674            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2675
2676        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2677        if engine_attr:
2678            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2679
2680        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2681        if secondary_engine_attr:
2682            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2683
2684        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2685        return ""
2686
2687    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2688        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2689        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2690        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2691        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2692        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2693        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2694        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2695        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2696        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2697        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2698        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
2699
2700    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2701        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2702            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2703
2704        case = exp.Case().when(
2705            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2706            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2707            copy=False,
2708        )
2709        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2710        if else_cond:
2711            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2712
2713        return self.sql(case)
2714
2715    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2716        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2717        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2718        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2719        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2720        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2721        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
360    def __init__(
361        self,
362        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
363        identify: str | bool = False,
364        normalize: bool = False,
365        pad: int = 2,
366        indent: int = 2,
367        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
368        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
369        max_unsupported: int = 3,
370        leading_comma: bool = False,
371        max_text_width: int = 80,
372        comments: bool = True,
373    ):
374        import sqlglot
375
376        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
377        self.identify = identify
378        self.normalize = normalize
379        self.pad = pad
380        self._indent = indent
381        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
382        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
383        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
384        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
385        self.comments = comments
386
387        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
388        self.normalize_functions = (
389            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
390        )
391
392        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
393        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
394        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
395            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
396        )
397        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalDayToSecondSpan'>: 'DAY TO SECOND', <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalYearToMonthSpan'>: 'YEAR TO MONTH', <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
256    @classmethod
257    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
258        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
259
260        Args:
261            text: The text to check.
262            identify:
263                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
264                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
265
266        Returns:
267            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
268        """
269        if identify is True or identify == "always":
270            return True
271
272        if identify == "safe":
273            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
274
275        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
TOKENIZER_CLASS = <class 'sqlglot.tokens.Tokenizer'>
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
399    def generate(
400        self,
401        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
402        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
403    ) -> str:
404        """
405        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
406
407        Args:
408            expression: The syntax tree.
409            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
410                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
411
412        Returns:
413            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
414        """
415        if cache is not None:
416            self._cache = cache
417
418        self.unsupported_messages = []
419        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
420        self._cache = None
421
422        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
423            return sql
424
425        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
426            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
427                logger.warning(msg)
428        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
429            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
430
431        if self.pretty:
432            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
433        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
435    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
436        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
437            raise UnsupportedError(message)
438        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
440    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
441        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
443    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
444        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
446    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
447        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
448        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
449        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
451    def maybe_comment(
452        self,
453        sql: str,
454        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
455        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
456    ) -> str:
457        comments = (
458            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
459            if self.comments
460            else None
461        )
462
463        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
464            return sql
465
466        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
467        comments_sql = sep.join(
468            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
469        )
470
471        if not comments_sql:
472            return sql
473
474        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
475            return (
476                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
477                if sql[0].isspace()
478                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
479            )
480
481        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
483    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
484        this_sql = self.indent(
485            self.sql(expression)
486            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
487            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
488            level=1,
489            pad=0,
490        )
491        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
493    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
494        original = self.identify
495        self.identify = False
496        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
497        self.identify = original
498        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
500    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
501        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
502            return name.upper()
503        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
504            return name.lower()
505        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
507    def indent(
508        self,
509        sql: str,
510        level: int = 0,
511        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
512        skip_first: bool = False,
513        skip_last: bool = False,
514    ) -> str:
515        if not self.pretty:
516            return sql
517
518        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
519        lines = sql.split("\n")
520
521        return "\n".join(
522            line
523            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
524            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
525            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
526        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
528    def sql(
529        self,
530        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
531        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
532        comment: bool = True,
533    ) -> str:
534        if not expression:
535            return ""
536
537        if isinstance(expression, str):
538            return expression
539
540        if key:
541            value = expression.args.get(key)
542            if value:
543                return self.sql(value)
544            return ""
545
546        if self._cache is not None:
547            expression_id = hash(expression)
548
549            if expression_id in self._cache:
550                return self._cache[expression_id]
551
552        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
553
554        if callable(transform):
555            sql = transform(self, expression)
556        elif transform:
557            sql = transform
558        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
559            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
560
561            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
562                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
563            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
564                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
565            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
566                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
567            else:
568                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
569        else:
570            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
571
572        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
573
574        if self._cache is not None:
575            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
576        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
578    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
579        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
580        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
581        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
583    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
584        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
585        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
586        options = expression.args.get("options")
587        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
588        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
589        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
590        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
591        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
593    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
594        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
595            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
596        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
597        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
599    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
600        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
601
602        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
603            join_mark = ""
604            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
605
606        column = ".".join(
607            self.sql(part)
608            for part in (
609                expression.args.get("catalog"),
610                expression.args.get("db"),
611                expression.args.get("table"),
612                expression.args.get("this"),
613            )
614            if part
615        )
616
617        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
619    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
620        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
621        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
622        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
623        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
625    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
626        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
627        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
628        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
629        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
630        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
631        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
632        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
633        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
634
635        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
637    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
638        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
639        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
640        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
642    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
643        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
644        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
645            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
646        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
647            persisted = " PERSISTED"
648        else:
649            persisted = ""
650        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
652    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
653        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
655    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
656        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
657            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
658        else:
659            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
660
661        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
663    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
664        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
665    ) -> str:
666        this = ""
667        if expression.this is not None:
668            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
669            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
670
671        start = expression.args.get("start")
672        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
673        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
674        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
675        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
676        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
677        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
678        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
679        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
680        cycle_sql = ""
681
682        if cycle is not None:
683            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
684            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
685
686        sequence_opts = ""
687        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
688            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
689            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
690
691        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
692        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
693
694        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
696    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
697        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
699    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
700        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
701        if desc is not None:
702            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
703        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
705    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
706        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
707        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
708        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
710    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
711        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
713    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
714        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
715        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
716        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
717
718        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
719
720        properties_sql = ""
721        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
722            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
723        ):
724            properties_sql = self.sql(
725                exp.Properties(
726                    expressions=[
727                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
728                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
729                    ]
730                )
731            )
732
733        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
734        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
735        if expression_sql:
736            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
737
738            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
739                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
740                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
741                        exp.Properties(
742                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
743                        ),
744                        wrapped=False,
745                    )
746                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
747                else:
748                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
749
750        postindex_props_sql = ""
751        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
752            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
753                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
754                wrapped=False,
755                prefix=" ",
756            )
757
758        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
759        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
760        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
761
762        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
763        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
764
765        postcreate_props_sql = ""
766        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
767            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
768                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
769                sep=" ",
770                prefix=" ",
771                wrapped=False,
772            )
773
774        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
775
776        postexpression_props_sql = ""
777        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
778            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
779                exp.Properties(
780                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
781                ),
782                sep=" ",
783                prefix=" ",
784                wrapped=False,
785            )
786
787        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
788        no_schema_binding = (
789            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
790        )
791
792        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
793        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
794
795        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
796        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
798    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
799        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
800        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
801        this = f"{shallow}CLONE {this}"
802        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
803
804        if when:
805            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
806            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
807            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
808
809        return this
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
811    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
812        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
814    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
815        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
816        if with_:
817            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
818        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
820    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
821        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
822        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
823
824        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
826    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
827        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
828        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
830    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
831        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
832        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
833        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
834        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
836    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
838        if self.BIT_START:
839            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
840        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
842    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
844        if self.HEX_START:
845            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
846        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
848    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
850        if self.BYTE_START:
851            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
852        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
854    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
855        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
856        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
858    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
860        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
861        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
862        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
864    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
865        type_value = expression.this
866
867        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
868            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
869        else:
870            type_sql = (
871                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
872                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
873                else type_value
874            )
875
876        nested = ""
877        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
878        values = ""
879
880        if interior:
881            if expression.args.get("nested"):
882                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
883                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
884                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
885                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
886                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
887            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
888                nested = f" {interior}"
889            else:
890                nested = f"({interior})"
891
892        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
893        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
894            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
895            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
896        ):
897            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
898
899        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
901    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
902        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
903        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
904        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
905        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
907    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
908        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
909        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
910        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
911        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
912        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
913        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
914        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
915        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
916        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
917        if self.RETURNING_END:
918            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
919        else:
920            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
921        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
923    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
925        kind = expression.args["kind"]
926        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
927        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
928        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
929        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
930        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
931        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
932        return (
933            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
934        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
936    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
937        return self.prepend_ctes(
938            expression,
939            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
940        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
942    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
943        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
945    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
946        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
947        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
948        count = expression.args.get("count")
949        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
950        if expression.args.get("percent"):
951            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
952        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
953        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
955    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
956        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
957        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
958        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
960    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
961        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
962            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
963            return ""
964
965        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
967    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
968        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
969        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
970        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
971        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
972        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
973        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
974        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
975        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
976        using = f" USING {using} " if using else ""
977        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
978        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
979        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
980        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
981        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
982        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
984    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
985        text = expression.name
986        lower = text.lower()
987        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
988        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
989        if (
990            expression.quoted
991            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
992            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
993            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
994        ):
995            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
996        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 998    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 999        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1000        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1001        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1002        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1003        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1005    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1006        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1007        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1009    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1010        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1012    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1013        root_properties = []
1014        with_properties = []
1015
1016        for p in expression.expressions:
1017            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1018            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1019                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1020            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1021                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1022
1023        return self.root_properties(
1024            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1025        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1027    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1028        if properties.expressions:
1029            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1030        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1032    def properties(
1033        self,
1034        properties: exp.Properties,
1035        prefix: str = "",
1036        sep: str = ", ",
1037        suffix: str = "",
1038        wrapped: bool = True,
1039    ) -> str:
1040        if properties.expressions:
1041            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1042            if expressions:
1043                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1044                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1045        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1047    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1048        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1050    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1051        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1052        for p in properties.expressions:
1053            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1054            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1055                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1056            else:
1057                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1058
1059        return properties_locs
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1061    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1062        property_cls = expression.__class__
1063        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1064            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1065
1066        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1067        if not property_name:
1068            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1069
1070        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1072    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1073        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1074        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1075        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1077    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1078        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1079        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1080        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1082    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1083        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1084        local = expression.args.get("local")
1085        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1086        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1087        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1088        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1089        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1091    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1092        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1093        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1094        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1096    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1097        if expression.args.get("default"):
1098            property = "DEFAULT"
1099        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1100            property = "ON"
1101        else:
1102            property = "OFF"
1103        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1105    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1106        if expression.args.get("no"):
1107            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1108        if expression.args.get("default"):
1109            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1110
1111        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1112        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1114    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1115        default = expression.args.get("default")
1116        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1117        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1118        if default or minimum or maximum:
1119            if default:
1120                prop = "DEFAULT"
1121            elif minimum:
1122                prop = "MINIMUM"
1123            else:
1124                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1125            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1126        units = expression.args.get("units")
1127        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1128        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1130    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1131        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1132        always = expression.args.get("always")
1133        default = expression.args.get("default")
1134        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1135        never = expression.args.get("never")
1136
1137        if autotemp is not None:
1138            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1139        elif always:
1140            prop = "ALWAYS"
1141        elif default:
1142            prop = "DEFAULT"
1143        elif manual:
1144            prop = "MANUAL"
1145        elif never:
1146            prop = "NEVER"
1147        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1149    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1150        no = expression.args.get("no")
1151        no = " NO" if no else ""
1152        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1153        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1154
1155        for_ = ""
1156        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1157            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1158        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1159            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1160        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1161            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1162        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1164    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1165        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1166        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1167        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1168        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1169        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1170        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1172    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1173        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1174        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1175        statistics_sql = ""
1176        if statistics is not None:
1177            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1178        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1180    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1181        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1182
1183        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1184            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1185        else:
1186            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1187
1188        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1189        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1190        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1191
1192        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1193
1194        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1195        partition_sql = (
1196            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1197        )
1198        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1199        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1200        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1201        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1202        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1203        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1204
1205        if self.RETURNING_END:
1206            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1207        else:
1208            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1209
1210        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1211        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1213    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1214        return self.prepend_ctes(
1215            expression,
1216            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1217        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1219    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1220        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1222    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1223        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1225    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1226        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1228    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1229        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1230        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1231        if constraint:
1232            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1233        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1234        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1235        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1236        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1237        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1238        if expressions:
1239            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1240        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1242    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1243        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1245    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1246        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1247        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1248        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1249        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1250        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1251        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1252        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1253        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1254        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1255        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1256        null = expression.args.get("null")
1257        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1258        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1260    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1261        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1263    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1264        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1265        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1266        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1267        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1269    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1270        table = ".".join(
1271            part
1272            for part in [
1273                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1274                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1275                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1276            ]
1277            if part
1278        )
1279
1280        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1281        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1282        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1283        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1284        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1285        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1286        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1287        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1288        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1289        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1290
1291        return f"{table}{version}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1293    def tablesample_sql(
1294        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1295    ) -> str:
1296        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1297            table = expression.this.copy()
1298            table.set("alias", None)
1299            this = self.sql(table)
1300            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1301        else:
1302            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1303            alias = ""
1304        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1305        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1306        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1307        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1308        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1309        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1310        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1311        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1312        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1313        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1314        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1315        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1316        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1317            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1318        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1319        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1320        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1321        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1323    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1324        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1325
1326        if expression.this:
1327            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1328            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1329            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1330            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1331            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1332            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1333
1334        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1335        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1336        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1337        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1338        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1339        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1340        if include_nulls is not None:
1341            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1342        else:
1343            nulls = ""
1344        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1346    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1347        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1348        kind = expression.text("kind")
1349        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1350        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1352    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1353        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1355    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1356        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1357        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1358        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1359        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1360        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1361        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1362        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1363        if self.RETURNING_END:
1364            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1365        else:
1366            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1367        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1368        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1370    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1371        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1372        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1373            args = self.expressions(expression)
1374            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1375            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1376            values = (
1377                f"({values})"
1378                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1379                else values
1380            )
1381            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1382
1383        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1384        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1385        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1386        # very slow.
1387        expression = expression.copy()
1388        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1389
1390        selects = []
1391
1392        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1393            row = tup.expressions
1394
1395            if i == 0 and column_names:
1396                row = [
1397                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1398                ]
1399
1400            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1401
1402        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1403        if len(selects) > 1:
1404            for select in selects[1:]:
1405                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1406                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1407                )
1408
1409        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1411    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1412        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1414    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1415        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1416        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1417        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1419    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1420        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1422    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1423        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1424
1425        if expression.args.get("all"):
1426            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1427
1428        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1429        grouping_sets = (
1430            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1431        )
1432
1433        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1434        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1435            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1436        else:
1437            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1438            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1439
1440        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1441        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1442            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1443        else:
1444            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1445            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1446
1447        groupings = csv(
1448            grouping_sets,
1449            cube_sql,
1450            rollup_sql,
1451            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1452            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1453        )
1454
1455        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1456            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1457
1458        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1460    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1461        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1462        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1464    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1465        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1466        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1467        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1468        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1469        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1471    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1472        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1474    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1475        op_sql = " ".join(
1476            op
1477            for op in (
1478                expression.method,
1479                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1480                expression.side,
1481                expression.kind,
1482                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1483            )
1484            if op
1485        )
1486        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1487        using = expression.args.get("using")
1488
1489        if not on_sql and using:
1490            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1491
1492        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1493
1494        if on_sql:
1495            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1496            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1497            if using:
1498                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1499            else:
1500                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1501        elif not op_sql:
1502            return f", {this_sql}"
1503
1504        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1505        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1507    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1508        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1509        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1510        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1512    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1513        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1514
1515        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1516            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1517
1518        if expression.args.get("view"):
1519            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1520            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1521            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1522            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1523            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1524            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1525
1526        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1527        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1528        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1530    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1531        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1532        args = ", ".join(
1533            sql
1534            for sql in (
1535                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1536                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1537            )
1538            if sql
1539        )
1540        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1542    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1543        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1544        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1546    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1547        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1548        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1549        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1550        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1551        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1552        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1553        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1554        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1556    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1557        expressions = (
1558            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1559        )
1560        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1561        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1563    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1564        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1566    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1567        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1568            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1569            return ""
1570
1571        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1572        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1573        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1574        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1575
1576        if wait is not None:
1577            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1578                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1579            else:
1580                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1581
1582        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1584    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1585        text = expression.this or ""
1586        if expression.is_string:
1587            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1588        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1590    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1591        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1592        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1593            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1594        elif self.pretty:
1595            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1596        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1598    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1599        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1600        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1601        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1602        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1603        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1604        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1605        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1606        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1607        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1608        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1609        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1611    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1612        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1614    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1615        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1617    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1618        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1619        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1620        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1622    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1623        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1625    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1626        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1628    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1629        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1631    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1632        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1633        asc = not desc
1634
1635        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1636        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1637        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1638        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1639        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1640
1641        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1642        nulls_sort_change = ""
1643        if nulls_first and (
1644            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1645        ):
1646            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1647        elif (
1648            nulls_last
1649            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1650            and not nulls_are_last
1651        ):
1652            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1653
1654        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1655            self.unsupported(
1656                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1657            )
1658            nulls_sort_change = ""
1659
1660        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1662    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1663        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1664        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1665        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1666        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1667        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1668        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1669        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1670        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1671        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1672        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1673        definition_sqls = [
1674            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1675            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1676        ]
1677        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1678        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1679        body = "".join(
1680            (
1681                partition,
1682                order,
1683                measures,
1684                rows,
1685                after,
1686                pattern,
1687                define,
1688            )
1689        )
1690        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1691        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1692        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1694    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1695        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1696
1697        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1698        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1699
1700        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1701            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1702        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1703            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1704
1705        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1706
1707        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1708            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1709            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1710            else []
1711        )
1712
1713        return csv(
1714            *sqls,
1715            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1716            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1717            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1718            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1719            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1720            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1721            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1722            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1723            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1724            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1725            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1726            sep="",
1727        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1729    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1730        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1731    ) -> t.List[str]:
1732        return [
1733            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1734            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1735        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1737    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1738        return [
1739            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1740            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1741            if expression.args.get("windows")
1742            else "",
1743            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1744            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1745            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1746        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1748    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1749        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1750        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1751        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1753    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1754        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1755        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1756        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1757        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1758        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1759        top = (
1760            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1761            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1762            else ""
1763        )
1764
1765        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1766
1767        if kind:
1768            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1769                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1770            else:
1771                if kind == "STRUCT":
1772                    expressions = self.expressions(
1773                        sqls=[
1774                            self.sql(
1775                                exp.Struct(
1776                                    expressions=[
1777                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1778                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1779                                        )
1780                                        for e in expression.expressions
1781                                    ]
1782                                )
1783                            )
1784                        ]
1785                    )
1786                kind = ""
1787
1788        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1789        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1790            expression,
1791            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1792            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1793            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1794        )
1795        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1797    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1799        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1800        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1801        return f"{this}{sql}"
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1803    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1804        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1806    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1807        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1808        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1809        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1810        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1811        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1813    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1814        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1815        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1816        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1818    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1820        kind = expression.text("kind")
1821        if kind:
1822            kind = f"{kind}."
1823        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1825    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1826        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1828    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1829        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1830        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1831
1832        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1833        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1834
1835        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1836        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1838    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1839        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1840        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1842    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1843        return self.prepend_ctes(
1844            expression,
1845            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1846        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1848    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1849        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1850        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1851        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1852        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1854    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1855        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1856        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1857        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1858            columns = alias.columns
1859            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1860        else:
1861            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1862        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1863        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1864        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1865        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1866        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1868    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1869        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1870        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1872    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1873        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1874        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1875        order = expression.args.get("order")
1876        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1877        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1878        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1879        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1880
1881        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1882
1883        first = expression.args.get("first")
1884        if first is None:
1885            first = ""
1886        else:
1887            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1888
1889        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1890            return f"{this} {alias}"
1891
1892        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1893        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1895    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1896        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1897        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1899    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1900        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1901        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1902        end = (
1903            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1904            or "CURRENT ROW"
1905        )
1906        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
1908    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1909        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1910        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1911        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
1913    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1914        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1915        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1916        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1917        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
1919    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1920        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1921        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1922
1923        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
1925    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1926        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
1928    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1929        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
1931    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1932        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1933        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1934            this = self.wrap(this)
1935        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
1937    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1938        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
1940    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1941        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1942        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1943
1944        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1945            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1946            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1947
1948        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1949
1950        if default:
1951            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1952
1953        statements.append("END")
1954
1955        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1956            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1957
1958        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
1960    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1961        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1962        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1963        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
1965    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1966        order = expression.args.get("order")
1967        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1968        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
1970    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1971        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1972        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1973        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
1975    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1976        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1977
1978        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1979            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1980        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1981            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1982        else:
1983            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
1985    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1986        expressions = expression.expressions
1987        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1988            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1989        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
1991    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1992        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1993        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1995    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1996        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1997        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1998        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1999        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2000        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2001        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2002        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2003        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2005    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2006        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2007        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2008        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2009        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2011    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2012        expression = expression.copy()
2013        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2015    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2016        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2017        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2018        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2020    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2021        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
2023    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2024        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2025        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2026        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2027        if unique_keys is not None:
2028            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2029        else:
2030            unique_keys = ""
2031        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2032        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2033        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
2034        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2035        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2036        return self.func(
2037            "JSON_OBJECT",
2038            *expression.expressions,
2039            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
2040        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2042    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2043        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2044        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2045        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2046        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2047        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2048        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2050    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2051        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2052        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2053        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2054        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2055        with_ = (
2056            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2057            if expressions
2058            else ""
2059        )
2060        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2062    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2063        query = expression.args.get("query")
2064        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2065        field = expression.args.get("field")
2066        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2067
2068        if query:
2069            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2070        elif unnest:
2071            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2072        elif field:
2073            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2074        else:
2075            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2076
2077        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2079    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2080        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2082    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2083        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2084        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2085            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2086        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2087
2088        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2089            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2090            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2091
2092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2093        if this:
2094            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2095            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2096
2097        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2099    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2100        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2102    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2104        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2105        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2106        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2107        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2108        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2110    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2111        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2113    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2114        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2115            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2116        else:
2117            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2118            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2119
2120        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2122    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2123        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2124        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2125        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2126        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2128    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2129        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2131    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2132        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2133        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2134        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2136    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2137        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2139    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2140        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2141        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2142        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2144    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2145        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2147    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2148        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2150    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2151        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2153    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2154        if not self.pretty:
2155            return self.binary(expression, op)
2156
2157        sqls = tuple(
2158            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2159            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2160        )
2161
2162        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2163        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2165    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2166        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2168    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2169        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2171    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2172        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2174    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2175        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2177    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2178        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2180    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2181        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2183    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2184        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2185        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2186        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2188    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2189        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2190        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2192    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2193        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2195    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2196        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2198    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2199        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2200        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2201        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2202        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2203        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2205    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2206        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2207        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2208        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2209        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2210        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2211        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2212        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2213        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2214        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2216    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2217        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2218        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2219        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2220        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2221
2222        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2223            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2224
2225        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2227    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2228        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2230    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2231        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2232        if chain is not None:
2233            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2234
2235        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2237    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2238        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2239        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2240        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2242    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2243        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2244
2245        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2246        if dtype:
2247            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2248            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2249            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2250            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2251            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2252
2253        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2254        if default:
2255            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2256
2257        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2258            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2259
2260        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2262    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2263        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2264            # Remove db from tables
2265            expression = expression.transform(
2266                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2267            )
2268        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2269        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2271    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2272        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2273
2274        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2275            if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2276                actions = self.expressions(
2277                    expression,
2278                    key="actions",
2279                    prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2280                )
2281            else:
2282                actions = f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions')}"
2283        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2284            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2285        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2286            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2287        else:
2288            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2289
2290        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2291        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2293    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2294        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2295        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2296        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2298    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2299        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2300        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2301        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2302
2303        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2304        if enforced is not None:
2305            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2306
2307        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2309    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2310        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2311        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2312
2313        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2314        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2315        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2317    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2318        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2320    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2321        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2323    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2324        return self.sql(
2325            exp.Cast(
2326                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2327                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2328            )
2329        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2331    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2332        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2334    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2335        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2336            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2337        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2339    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2340        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2342    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2343        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2345    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2346        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2348    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2349        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2351    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2352        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2354    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2355        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2357    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2358        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2360    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2361        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2363    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2364        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2366    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2367        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2369    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2370        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2372    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2373        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2374            return self.sql(
2375                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2376            )
2377        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2379    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2380        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2382    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2383        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2385    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2386        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2388    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2389        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2391    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2392        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2394    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2395        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2397    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2398        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2400    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2401        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2403    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2404        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2406    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2407        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2409    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2410        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2412    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2413        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2415    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2416        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2418    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2419        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2421    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2422        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2423        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2424        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2425        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2426        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2428    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2429        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2430        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2432    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2433        args = []
2434
2435        for key in expression.arg_types:
2436            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2437
2438            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2439                for value in arg_value:
2440                    args.append(value)
2441            elif arg_value is not None:
2442                args.append(arg_value)
2443
2444        if self.normalize_functions:
2445            name = expression.sql_name()
2446        else:
2447            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2448
2449        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2451    def func(
2452        self,
2453        name: str,
2454        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2455        prefix: str = "(",
2456        suffix: str = ")",
2457    ) -> str:
2458        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2460    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2461        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2462        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2463            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2464        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2466    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2467        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2469    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2470        return format_time(
2471            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2472        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[List[str]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2474    def expressions(
2475        self,
2476        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2477        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2478        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2479        flat: bool = False,
2480        indent: bool = True,
2481        skip_first: bool = False,
2482        sep: str = ", ",
2483        prefix: str = "",
2484    ) -> str:
2485        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2486
2487        if not expressions:
2488            return ""
2489
2490        if flat:
2491            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2492
2493        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2494
2495        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2496        pad = " " * self.pad
2497        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2498
2499        result_sqls = []
2500        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2501            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2502            if not sql:
2503                continue
2504
2505            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2506
2507            if self.pretty:
2508                if self.leading_comma:
2509                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2510                else:
2511                    result_sqls.append(
2512                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2513                    )
2514            else:
2515                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2516
2517        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2518        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2520    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2521        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2522        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2523        if flat:
2524            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2525        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2527    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2528        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2529        if not property_name:
2530            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2531        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2533    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2534        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2535        op = self.seg(op)
2536        return self.query_modifiers(
2537            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2538        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2540    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2541        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2543    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2544        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2546    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2547        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2548        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2549        expressions = (
2550            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2551        )
2552        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2554    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2555        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2556        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2557        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2559    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2560        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2562    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2563        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2564        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2565        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2566        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2567
2568        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2569        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2570            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2571            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2572                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2573        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2574            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2575                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2576            else:
2577                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2578        else:
2579            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2580        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2582    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2583        table = expression.this
2584        table_alias = ""
2585
2586        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2587        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2588            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2589            table = table.copy()
2590            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2591
2592        this = self.sql(table)
2593        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2594        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2595        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2596
2597        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2599    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2600        if expression.args.get("format"):
2601            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2602
2603        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2605    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2606        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2607        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2608        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2609        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2610        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2612    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2613        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2614        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2615        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2616        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2618    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2619        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2621    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2622        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2624    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2625        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2626        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2627        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2628        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2629        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2631    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2632        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2633        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2634
2635        if having:
2636            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2637
2638        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
2640    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2641        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2642        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2643        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2644        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2645        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2646        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2647        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2648        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2649        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2650        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2651        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2652        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2653        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2655    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2656        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2657        if key_block_size:
2658            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2659
2660        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2661        if using:
2662            return f"USING {using}"
2663
2664        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2665        if parser:
2666            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2667
2668        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2669        if comment:
2670            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2671
2672        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2673        if visible is not None:
2674            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2675
2676        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2677        if engine_attr:
2678            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2679
2680        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2681        if secondary_engine_attr:
2682            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2683
2684        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2685        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2687    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2688        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2689        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2690        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2691        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2692        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2693        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2694        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2695        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2696        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2697        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2698        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
2700    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2701        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2702            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2703
2704        case = exp.Case().when(
2705            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2706            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2707            copy=False,
2708        )
2709        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2710        if else_cond:
2711            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2712
2713        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
2715    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2716        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2717        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2718        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2719        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2720        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2721        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2724def cached_generator(
2725    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2726) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2727    """Returns a cached generator."""
2728    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2729    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2730    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.