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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5
   6from sqlglot import exp
   7from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   8from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get, should_identify
   9from sqlglot.time import format_time
  10from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  11
  12logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  13
  14
  15class Generator:
  16    """
  17    Generator interprets the given syntax tree and produces a SQL string as an output.
  18
  19    Args:
  20        time_mapping (dict): the dictionary of custom time mappings in which the key
  21            represents a python time format and the output the target time format
  22        time_trie (trie): a trie of the time_mapping keys
  23        pretty (bool): if set to True the returned string will be formatted. Default: False.
  24        quote_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  25        quote_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  26        identifier_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  27        identifier_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  28        bit_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  29        bit_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  30        hex_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  31        hex_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  32        byte_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  33        byte_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  34        raw_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit raw literals. Default: None.
  35        raw_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit raw literals. Default: None.
  36        identify (bool | str): 'always': always quote, 'safe': quote identifiers if they don't contain an upcase, True defaults to always.
  37        normalize (bool): if set to True all identifiers will lower cased
  38        string_escape (str): specifies a string escape character. Default: '.
  39        identifier_escape (str): specifies an identifier escape character. Default: ".
  40        pad (int): determines padding in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  41        indent (int): determines the size of indentation in a formatted string. Default: 4.
  42        unnest_column_only (bool): if true unnest table aliases are considered only as column aliases
  43        normalize_functions (str): normalize function names, "upper", "lower", or None
  44            Default: "upper"
  45        alias_post_tablesample (bool): if the table alias comes after tablesample
  46            Default: False
  47        identifiers_can_start_with_digit (bool): if an unquoted identifier can start with digit
  48            Default: False
  49        unsupported_level (ErrorLevel): determines the generator's behavior when it encounters
  50            unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  51        null_ordering (str): Indicates the default null ordering method to use if not explicitly set.
  52            Options are "nulls_are_small", "nulls_are_large", "nulls_are_last".
  53            Default: "nulls_are_small"
  54        max_unsupported (int): Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  55            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  56            Default: 3
  57        leading_comma (bool): if the the comma is leading or trailing in select statements
  58            Default: False
  59        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  60            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  61            line length.
  62            Default: 80
  63        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  64            Default: True
  65    """
  66
  67    TRANSFORMS = {
  68        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  69            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  70        ),
  71        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  72            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  73        ),
  74        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  75        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  77        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  78        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  80        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  81        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  82        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  83        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  84        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  85        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  86        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  87        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  88        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  89        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  90        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  91        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  92        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  94        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  98        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  99        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 100        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
 101        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 104        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 105        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106    }
 107
 108    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 109    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 110
 111    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 112    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 113
 114    # Always do union distinct or union all
 115    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 116
 117    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 118    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 119
 120    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 121    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 122
 123    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 124    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 125
 126    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 127    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 128
 129    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 130    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 131
 132    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 133    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 134
 135    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 136    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 137
 138    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 139    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 140
 141    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 142    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 143
 144    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 145    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 146
 147    # The string used for creating index on a table
 148    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 149
 150    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 151        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 152        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 153        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 154        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 155        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 156        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 157        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 158    }
 159
 160    STAR_MAPPING = {
 161        "except": "EXCEPT",
 162        "replace": "REPLACE",
 163    }
 164
 165    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 166        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 167        "seconds": "second",
 168        "minutes": "minute",
 169        "hours": "hour",
 170        "days": "day",
 171        "weeks": "week",
 172        "months": "month",
 173        "quarters": "quarter",
 174        "years": "year",
 175    }
 176
 177    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 178
 179    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 180
 181    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 182
 183    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 184        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 185        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 186        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 187        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 188        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 189        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 190        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 191        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 192        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 193        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 194        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 195        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 196        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 197        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 198        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 199        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 200        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 201        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 202        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 203        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 204        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 205        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 206        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 207        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 208        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 209        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 210        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 211        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 212        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 213        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 214        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 215        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 216        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 217        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 218        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 219        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 227        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 228        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 229        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 231        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 232        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 234        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 235        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 236    }
 237
 238    JOIN_HINTS = True
 239    TABLE_HINTS = True
 240
 241    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 242    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS = (exp.Select, exp.From, exp.Where, exp.With)
 243    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES = (exp.Column, exp.Literal, exp.Neg, exp.Paren)
 244
 245    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 246
 247    __slots__ = (
 248        "time_mapping",
 249        "time_trie",
 250        "pretty",
 251        "quote_start",
 252        "quote_end",
 253        "identifier_start",
 254        "identifier_end",
 255        "bit_start",
 256        "bit_end",
 257        "hex_start",
 258        "hex_end",
 259        "byte_start",
 260        "byte_end",
 261        "raw_start",
 262        "raw_end",
 263        "identify",
 264        "normalize",
 265        "string_escape",
 266        "identifier_escape",
 267        "pad",
 268        "index_offset",
 269        "unnest_column_only",
 270        "alias_post_tablesample",
 271        "identifiers_can_start_with_digit",
 272        "normalize_functions",
 273        "unsupported_level",
 274        "unsupported_messages",
 275        "null_ordering",
 276        "max_unsupported",
 277        "_indent",
 278        "_escaped_quote_end",
 279        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 280        "_leading_comma",
 281        "_max_text_width",
 282        "_comments",
 283        "_cache",
 284    )
 285
 286    def __init__(
 287        self,
 288        time_mapping=None,
 289        time_trie=None,
 290        pretty=None,
 291        quote_start=None,
 292        quote_end=None,
 293        identifier_start=None,
 294        identifier_end=None,
 295        bit_start=None,
 296        bit_end=None,
 297        hex_start=None,
 298        hex_end=None,
 299        byte_start=None,
 300        byte_end=None,
 301        raw_start=None,
 302        raw_end=None,
 303        identify=False,
 304        normalize=False,
 305        string_escape=None,
 306        identifier_escape=None,
 307        pad=2,
 308        indent=2,
 309        index_offset=0,
 310        unnest_column_only=False,
 311        alias_post_tablesample=False,
 312        identifiers_can_start_with_digit=False,
 313        normalize_functions="upper",
 314        unsupported_level=ErrorLevel.WARN,
 315        null_ordering=None,
 316        max_unsupported=3,
 317        leading_comma=False,
 318        max_text_width=80,
 319        comments=True,
 320    ):
 321        import sqlglot
 322
 323        self.time_mapping = time_mapping or {}
 324        self.time_trie = time_trie
 325        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 326        self.quote_start = quote_start or "'"
 327        self.quote_end = quote_end or "'"
 328        self.identifier_start = identifier_start or '"'
 329        self.identifier_end = identifier_end or '"'
 330        self.bit_start = bit_start
 331        self.bit_end = bit_end
 332        self.hex_start = hex_start
 333        self.hex_end = hex_end
 334        self.byte_start = byte_start
 335        self.byte_end = byte_end
 336        self.raw_start = raw_start
 337        self.raw_end = raw_end
 338        self.identify = identify
 339        self.normalize = normalize
 340        self.string_escape = string_escape or "'"
 341        self.identifier_escape = identifier_escape or '"'
 342        self.pad = pad
 343        self.index_offset = index_offset
 344        self.unnest_column_only = unnest_column_only
 345        self.alias_post_tablesample = alias_post_tablesample
 346        self.identifiers_can_start_with_digit = identifiers_can_start_with_digit
 347        self.normalize_functions = normalize_functions
 348        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 349        self.unsupported_messages = []
 350        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 351        self.null_ordering = null_ordering
 352        self._indent = indent
 353        self._escaped_quote_end = self.string_escape + self.quote_end
 354        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.identifier_escape + self.identifier_end
 355        self._leading_comma = leading_comma
 356        self._max_text_width = max_text_width
 357        self._comments = comments
 358        self._cache = None
 359
 360    def generate(
 361        self,
 362        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 363        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 364    ) -> str:
 365        """
 366        Generates a SQL string by interpreting the given syntax tree.
 367
 368        Args
 369            expression: the syntax tree.
 370            cache: an optional sql string cache. this leverages the hash of an expression which is slow, so only use this if you set _hash on each node.
 371
 372        Returns
 373            the SQL string.
 374        """
 375        if cache is not None:
 376            self._cache = cache
 377        self.unsupported_messages = []
 378        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 379        self._cache = None
 380
 381        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 382            return sql
 383
 384        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 385            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 386                logger.warning(msg)
 387        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 388            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 389
 390        if self.pretty:
 391            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 392        return sql
 393
 394    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 395        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 396            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 397        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 398
 399    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 400        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 401
 402    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 403        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 404
 405    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 406        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 407        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 408        return comment
 409
 410    def maybe_comment(
 411        self,
 412        sql: str,
 413        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 414        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 415    ) -> str:
 416        comments = ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments) if self._comments else None  # type: ignore
 417
 418        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 419            return sql
 420
 421        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 422        comments_sql = sep.join(
 423            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 424        )
 425
 426        if not comments_sql:
 427            return sql
 428
 429        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 430            return (
 431                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 432                if sql[0].isspace()
 433                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 434            )
 435
 436        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 437
 438    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 439        this_sql = self.indent(
 440            self.sql(expression)
 441            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 442            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 443            level=1,
 444            pad=0,
 445        )
 446        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 447
 448    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 449        original = self.identify
 450        self.identify = False
 451        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 452        self.identify = original
 453        return result
 454
 455    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 456        if self.normalize_functions == "upper":
 457            return name.upper()
 458        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 459            return name.lower()
 460        return name
 461
 462    def indent(
 463        self,
 464        sql: str,
 465        level: int = 0,
 466        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 467        skip_first: bool = False,
 468        skip_last: bool = False,
 469    ) -> str:
 470        if not self.pretty:
 471            return sql
 472
 473        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 474        lines = sql.split("\n")
 475
 476        return "\n".join(
 477            line
 478            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 479            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 480            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 481        )
 482
 483    def sql(
 484        self,
 485        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 486        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 487        comment: bool = True,
 488    ) -> str:
 489        if not expression:
 490            return ""
 491
 492        if isinstance(expression, str):
 493            return expression
 494
 495        if key:
 496            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
 497
 498        if self._cache is not None:
 499            expression_id = hash(expression)
 500
 501            if expression_id in self._cache:
 502                return self._cache[expression_id]
 503
 504        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 505
 506        if callable(transform):
 507            sql = transform(self, expression)
 508        elif transform:
 509            sql = transform
 510        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 511            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 512
 513            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 514                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 515            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 516                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 517            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 518                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 519            else:
 520                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 521        else:
 522            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 523
 524        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self._comments and comment else sql
 525
 526        if self._cache is not None:
 527            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 528        return sql
 529
 530    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 531        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 532        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 533        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 534
 535    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 536        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 537        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 538        options = expression.args.get("options")
 539        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 540        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 541        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 542        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 543        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 544
 545    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 546        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 547            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 548        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 549        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 550
 551    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 552        return ".".join(
 553            self.sql(part)
 554            for part in (
 555                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 556                expression.args.get("db"),
 557                expression.args.get("table"),
 558                expression.args.get("this"),
 559            )
 560            if part
 561        )
 562
 563    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 564        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 565        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 566        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 567        return f"{position}{this}"
 568
 569    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 570        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 571        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 572        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 573        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 574        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 575        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 576        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 577        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 578
 579        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 580
 581    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 582        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 583        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 584        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 585
 586    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 587        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 588
 589    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 590        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 591            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 592        else:
 593            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 594
 595        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 596
 597    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 598        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 599    ) -> str:
 600        this = ""
 601        if expression.this is not None:
 602            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 603            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 604
 605        start = expression.args.get("start")
 606        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 607        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 608        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 609        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 610        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 611        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 612        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 613        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 614        cycle_sql = ""
 615
 616        if cycle is not None:
 617            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 618            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 619
 620        sequence_opts = ""
 621        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 622            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 623            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 624
 625        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 626        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 627
 628        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 629
 630    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 631        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 632
 633    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 634        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 635        if desc is not None:
 636            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 637        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 638
 639    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 640        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 641        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 642        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 643
 644    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 645        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 646        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 647        properties_exp = expression.copy()
 648        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 649        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 650            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 651        ):
 652            properties_exp.set(
 653                "properties",
 654                exp.Properties(
 655                    expressions=[
 656                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 657                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 658                    ]
 659                ),
 660            )
 661        if kind == "TABLE" and properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME):
 662            this_name = self.sql(expression.this, "this")
 663            this_properties = self.properties(
 664                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME]),
 665                wrapped=False,
 666            )
 667            this_schema = f"({self.expressions(expression.this)})"
 668            this = f"{this_name}, {this_properties} {this_schema}"
 669            properties_sql = ""
 670        else:
 671            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 672            properties_sql = self.sql(properties_exp, "properties")
 673        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 674        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 675        if expression_sql:
 676            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 677
 678            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 679                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 680                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 681                        exp.Properties(
 682                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 683                        ),
 684                        wrapped=False,
 685                    )
 686                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 687                else:
 688                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 689
 690        postindex_props_sql = ""
 691        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 692            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 693                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 694                wrapped=False,
 695                prefix=" ",
 696            )
 697
 698        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 699        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 700        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 701
 702        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 703        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 704
 705        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 706        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 707            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 708                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 709                sep=" ",
 710                prefix=" ",
 711                wrapped=False,
 712            )
 713
 714        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 715
 716        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 717        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 718            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 719                exp.Properties(
 720                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 721                ),
 722                sep=" ",
 723                prefix=" ",
 724                wrapped=False,
 725            )
 726
 727        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 728        no_schema_binding = (
 729            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 730        )
 731
 732        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 733        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 734
 735        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 736        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 737
 738    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 739        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 740        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 741
 742        if when:
 743            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 744            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 745            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 746
 747        return f"CLONE {this}"
 748
 749    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 750        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 751
 752    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 753        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 754        if with_:
 755            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 756        return sql
 757
 758    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 759        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 760        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 761
 762        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 763
 764    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 765        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 766        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 767
 768    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 769        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 770        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 771        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 772        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 773
 774    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 775        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 776        if self.bit_start:
 777            return f"{self.bit_start}{this}{self.bit_end}"
 778        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 779
 780    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 781        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 782        if self.hex_start:
 783            return f"{self.hex_start}{this}{self.hex_end}"
 784        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 785
 786    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 787        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 788        if self.byte_start:
 789            return f"{self.byte_start}{this}{self.byte_end}"
 790        return this
 791
 792    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 793        if self.raw_start:
 794            return f"{self.raw_start}{expression.name}{self.raw_end}"
 795        return self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name.replace("\\", "\\\\")))
 796
 797    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 799        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 800        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 801        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 802
 803    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 804        type_value = expression.this
 805        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 806        nested = ""
 807        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 808        values = ""
 809        if interior:
 810            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 811                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 812                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 813                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 814                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 815                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 816            else:
 817                nested = f"({interior})"
 818
 819        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 820
 821    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 822        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 823        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 824        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 825        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 826
 827    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 828        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 829        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 830        using_sql = (
 831            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
 832            if expression.args.get("using")
 833            else ""
 834        )
 835        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
 836        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 837        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
 838        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 839
 840    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 841        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 842        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 843        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 844        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 845        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 846        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 847        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 848        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 849        return (
 850            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 851        )
 852
 853    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 854        return self.prepend_ctes(
 855            expression,
 856            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 857        )
 858
 859    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 860        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 861
 862    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 863        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 864        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 865        count = expression.args.get("count")
 866        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 867        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 868            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 869        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 870        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 871
 872    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 873        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 874        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 875        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 876
 877    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 878        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
 879            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 880        return ""
 881
 882    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 883        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 884        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 885        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 886        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
 887        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 888        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 889        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 890        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 891        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 892        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 893        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}({columns}){partition_by}"
 894
 895    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 896        text = expression.name
 897        lower = text.lower()
 898        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 899        text = text.replace(self.identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 900        if (
 901            expression.quoted
 902            or should_identify(text, self.identify)
 903            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 904            or (not self.identifiers_can_start_with_digit and text[:1].isdigit())
 905        ):
 906            text = f"{self.identifier_start}{text}{self.identifier_end}"
 907        return text
 908
 909    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 910        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 911        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 912        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 913        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 914        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 915
 916    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 917        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 918        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 919
 920    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 921        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression)})"
 922
 923    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 924        root_properties = []
 925        with_properties = []
 926
 927        for p in expression.expressions:
 928            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 929            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 930                with_properties.append(p)
 931            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 932                root_properties.append(p)
 933
 934        return self.root_properties(
 935            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 936        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 937
 938    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 939        if properties.expressions:
 940            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 941        return ""
 942
 943    def properties(
 944        self,
 945        properties: exp.Properties,
 946        prefix: str = "",
 947        sep: str = ", ",
 948        suffix: str = "",
 949        wrapped: bool = True,
 950    ) -> str:
 951        if properties.expressions:
 952            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 953            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 954            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 955        return ""
 956
 957    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 958        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 959
 960    def locate_properties(
 961        self, properties: exp.Properties
 962    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 963        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 964            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 965        }
 966
 967        for p in properties.expressions:
 968            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 969            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 970                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 971            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 972                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 973            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 974                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 975            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 976                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 977            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 978                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 979            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 980                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 981            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 982                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 983            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 984                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 985
 986        return properties_locs
 987
 988    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 989        property_cls = expression.__class__
 990        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 991            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
 992
 993        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
 994        if not property_name:
 995            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
 996
 997        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 998
 999    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1000        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1001        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1002        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1003
1004    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1005        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1006        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1007        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1008
1009    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1010        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1011        local = expression.args.get("local")
1012        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1013        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1014        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1015        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1016        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1017
1018    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1019        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1020        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1021        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1022
1023    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1024        if expression.args.get("default"):
1025            property = "DEFAULT"
1026        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1027            property = "ON"
1028        else:
1029            property = "OFF"
1030        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1031
1032    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1033        if expression.args.get("no"):
1034            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1035        if expression.args.get("default"):
1036            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1037
1038        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1039        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1040
1041    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1042        default = expression.args.get("default")
1043        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1044        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1045        if default or minimum or maximum:
1046            if default:
1047                prop = "DEFAULT"
1048            elif minimum:
1049                prop = "MINIMUM"
1050            else:
1051                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1052            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1053        units = expression.args.get("units")
1054        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1055        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1056
1057    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1058        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1059        always = expression.args.get("always")
1060        default = expression.args.get("default")
1061        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1062        never = expression.args.get("never")
1063
1064        if autotemp is not None:
1065            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1066        elif always:
1067            prop = "ALWAYS"
1068        elif default:
1069            prop = "DEFAULT"
1070        elif manual:
1071            prop = "MANUAL"
1072        elif never:
1073            prop = "NEVER"
1074        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1075
1076    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1077        no = expression.args.get("no")
1078        no = " NO" if no else ""
1079        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1080        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1081
1082        for_ = ""
1083        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1084            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1085        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1086            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1087        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1088            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1089        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1090
1091    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1092        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1093        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1094        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1095        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1096        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1097        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1098
1099    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1100        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1101        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1102        statistics_sql = ""
1103        if statistics is not None:
1104            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1105        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1106
1107    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1108        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1109
1110        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1111            this = "OVERWRITE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1112        else:
1113            this = "OVERWRITE TABLE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1114
1115        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1116        alternative = f" OR {alternative} " if alternative else " "
1117        this = f"{this}{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1118
1119        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1120        partition_sql = (
1121            self.sql(expression, "partition") if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1122        )
1123        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1124        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1125        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1126        sep = self.sep() if partition_sql else ""
1127        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{sep}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1128        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1129
1130    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1131        return self.prepend_ctes(
1132            expression,
1133            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1134        )
1135
1136    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1137        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1138
1139    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1140        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1141
1142    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1143        return expression.name.upper()
1144
1145    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1146        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1147        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1148        if constraint:
1149            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1150        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1151        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1152        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1153        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1154        if expressions:
1155            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1156        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1157
1158    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1159        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1160
1161    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1162        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1163        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1164        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1165        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1166        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1167        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1168        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1169        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1170        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1171        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1172        null = expression.args.get("null")
1173        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1174        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1175
1176    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1177        table = ".".join(
1178            part
1179            for part in [
1180                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1181                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1182                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1183            ]
1184            if part
1185        )
1186
1187        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1188        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1189        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", flat=True)
1190        hints = f" WITH ({hints})" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1191        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1192        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1193        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1194        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1195        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1196        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1197
1198        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1199
1200    def tablesample_sql(
1201        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1202    ) -> str:
1203        if self.alias_post_tablesample and expression.this.alias:
1204            table = expression.this.copy()
1205            table.set("alias", None)
1206            this = self.sql(table)
1207            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1208        else:
1209            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1210            alias = ""
1211        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1212        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1213        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1214        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1215        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1216        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1217        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1218        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1219        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1220        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1221        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1222        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1223        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1224            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1225        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1226        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1227        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1228        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1229
1230    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1231        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1232
1233        if expression.this:
1234            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1235            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1236            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1237            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1238            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1239            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1240
1241        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1242        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1243        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1244        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1245        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1246        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1247
1248    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1249        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1250
1251    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1252        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1253        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1254        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1255        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1256        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1257        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1258        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1259
1260    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1261        args = self.expressions(expression)
1262        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1263        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1264        values = (
1265            f"({values})"
1266            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1267            else values
1268        )
1269        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1270
1271    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1272        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1273
1274    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1275        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1276        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1277        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1278
1279    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1280        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1281
1282    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1283        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1284        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1285        grouping_sets = (
1286            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1287        )
1288
1289        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1290        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1291            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1292        else:
1293            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1294            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1295
1296        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1297        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1298            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1299        else:
1300            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1301            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1302
1303        groupings = csv(
1304            grouping_sets,
1305            cube_sql,
1306            rollup_sql,
1307            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1308            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1309        )
1310
1311        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1312            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1313
1314        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1315
1316    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1317        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1318        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1319
1320    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1321        op_sql = " ".join(
1322            op
1323            for op in (
1324                expression.method,
1325                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1326                expression.side,
1327                expression.kind,
1328                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1329            )
1330            if op
1331        )
1332        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1333        using = expression.args.get("using")
1334
1335        if not on_sql and using:
1336            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1337
1338        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1339
1340        if on_sql:
1341            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1342            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1343            if using:
1344                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1345            else:
1346                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1347        elif not op_sql:
1348            return f", {this_sql}"
1349
1350        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1351        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1352
1353    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1354        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1355        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1356        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1357
1358    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1359        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1360
1361        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1362            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1363
1364        if expression.args.get("view"):
1365            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1366            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1367            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1368            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1369            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1370            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1371
1372        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1373        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1374        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1375
1376    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1377        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1378        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1379
1380    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1381        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1382        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1383
1384    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1385        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1386        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1387        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1388        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1389        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1390        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1391        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1392        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1393
1394    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1395        expressions = (
1396            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1397        )
1398        return f"SET{expressions}"
1399
1400    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1401        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1402
1403    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1404        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1405            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1406            return ""
1407
1408        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1409        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1410        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1411        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1412
1413        if wait is not None:
1414            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1415                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1416            else:
1417                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1418
1419        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1420
1421    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1422        text = expression.this or ""
1423        if expression.is_string:
1424            text = text.replace(self.quote_end, self._escaped_quote_end)
1425            if self.pretty:
1426                text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1427            text = f"{self.quote_start}{text}{self.quote_end}"
1428        return text
1429
1430    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1431        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1432        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1433        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1434        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1435        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1436        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1437        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1438        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1439        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1440        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1441        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1442
1443    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1444        return "NULL"
1445
1446    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1447        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1448
1449    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1450        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1451        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1452        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1453
1454    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1455        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1456
1457    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1458        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1459
1460    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1461        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1462
1463    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1464        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1465        asc = not desc
1466
1467        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1468        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1469        nulls_are_large = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_large"
1470        nulls_are_small = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_small"
1471        nulls_are_last = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_last"
1472
1473        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1474        nulls_sort_change = ""
1475        if nulls_first and (
1476            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1477        ):
1478            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1479        elif (
1480            nulls_last
1481            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1482            and not nulls_are_last
1483        ):
1484            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1485
1486        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1487            self.unsupported(
1488                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1489            )
1490            nulls_sort_change = ""
1491
1492        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1493
1494    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1495        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1496        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1497        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1498        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1499        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1500        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1501        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1502        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1503        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1504        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1505        definition_sqls = [
1506            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1507            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1508        ]
1509        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1510        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1511        body = "".join(
1512            (
1513                partition,
1514                order,
1515                measures,
1516                rows,
1517                after,
1518                pattern,
1519                define,
1520            )
1521        )
1522        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1523        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1524        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1525
1526    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1527        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1528
1529        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1530            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1531        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1532            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1533
1534        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1535
1536        return csv(
1537            *sqls,
1538            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1539            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1540            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1541            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1542            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1543            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1544            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1545            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1546            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1547            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1548            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1549            sep="",
1550        )
1551
1552    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1553        return [
1554            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1555            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1556            if expression.args.get("windows")
1557            else "",
1558        ]
1559
1560    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1561        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1562        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1563        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1564
1565    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1566        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1567        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1568        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1569        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1570        kind = f" AS {kind}" if kind else ""
1571        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1572        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1573        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1574            expression,
1575            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1576            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1577            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1578        )
1579        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1580
1581    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1582        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1583        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1584        sql = f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1585        return f"{this}{sql}"
1586
1587    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1588        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1589        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1590        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1591        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1592        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1593
1594    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1595        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1596        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1597        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1598
1599    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1600        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1601        kind = expression.text("kind")
1602        if kind:
1603            kind = f"{kind}."
1604        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1605
1606    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1607        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1608
1609    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1610        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1611        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1612
1613        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1614        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1615
1616        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1617        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1618
1619    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1620        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1621        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1622
1623    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1624        return self.prepend_ctes(
1625            expression,
1626            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1627        )
1628
1629    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1630        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1631        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1632        return f"UNION{kind}"
1633
1634    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1635        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1636        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1637        if alias and self.unnest_column_only:
1638            columns = alias.columns
1639            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1640        else:
1641            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1642        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1643        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1644        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1645        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1646        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1647
1648    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1649        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1650        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1651
1652    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1653        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1654        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1655        order = expression.args.get("order")
1656        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1657        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1658        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1659        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1660
1661        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1662
1663        first = expression.args.get("first")
1664        if first is None:
1665            first = ""
1666        else:
1667            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1668
1669        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1670            return f"{this} {alias}"
1671
1672        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1673        return f"{this} ({args})"
1674
1675    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1676        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1677        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1678
1679    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1680        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1681        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1682        end = (
1683            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1684            or "CURRENT ROW"
1685        )
1686        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1687
1688    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1689        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1690        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1691        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1692
1693    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1694        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1695        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1696        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1697        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1698
1699    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1700        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.index_offset)
1701        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1702
1703        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1704
1705    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1706        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1707
1708    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1709        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1710        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1711            this = self.wrap(this)
1712        return f"ANY {this}"
1713
1714    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1715        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1716
1717    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1718        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1719        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1720
1721        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1722            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1723            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1724
1725        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1726
1727        if default:
1728            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1729
1730        statements.append("END")
1731
1732        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self._max_text_width:
1733            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1734
1735        return " ".join(statements)
1736
1737    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1739        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1740        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1741
1742    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1743        order = expression.args.get("order")
1744        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1745        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1746
1747    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1749        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1750        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1751
1752    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1753        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1754
1755        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1756            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1757        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1758            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1759        else:
1760            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1761
1762    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
1763        if len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1764            return self.sql(expression.expressions[0])
1765        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
1766
1767    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1768        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1769        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1770
1771    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1772        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1773        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1774        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1775        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1776        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1777        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1778        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1779        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1780
1781    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1782        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1783        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1784        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1785        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1786
1787    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1788        return self.case_sql(
1789            exp.Case(ifs=[expression.copy()], default=expression.args.get("false"))
1790        )
1791
1792    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1793        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1794        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1795        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1796
1797    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1798        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1799
1800    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1801        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1802        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1803        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1804        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1805        if unique_keys is not None:
1806            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1807        else:
1808            unique_keys = ""
1809        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1810        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1811        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1812        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1813        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1814        return f"JSON_OBJECT({expressions}{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})"
1815
1816    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1817        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1818        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1819        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1820        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1821        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1822        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1823
1824    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1826        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1827        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1828        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1829        with_ = (
1830            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1831            if expressions
1832            else ""
1833        )
1834        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1835
1836    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1837        query = expression.args.get("query")
1838        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1839        field = expression.args.get("field")
1840        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1841
1842        if query:
1843            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1844        elif unnest:
1845            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1846        elif field:
1847            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1848        else:
1849            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1850
1851        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1852
1853    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1854        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1855
1856    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1857        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1858        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1859            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1860        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1861
1862        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1863            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1864            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1865
1866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1867        if this:
1868            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1869            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1870
1871        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1872
1873    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1874        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1875
1876    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1877        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1878        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1879        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1880        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1881        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1882        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1883
1884    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1885        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1886
1887    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1888        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1889            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1890        else:
1891            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1892            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1893
1894        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1895
1896    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1897        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1898        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1899        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1900        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1901
1902    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1903        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1904
1905    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1906        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1907        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1908        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
1909
1910    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1911        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1912
1913    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1914        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1915        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1916        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
1917
1918    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1919        return self.binary(expression, "+")
1920
1921    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1922        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
1923
1924    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1925        if not self.pretty:
1926            return self.binary(expression, op)
1927
1928        sqls = tuple(
1929            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1930            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1931        )
1932
1933        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self._max_text_width else " "
1934        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
1935
1936    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1937        return self.binary(expression, "&")
1938
1939    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1940        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
1941
1942    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1943        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1944
1945    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1946        return self.binary(expression, "|")
1947
1948    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1949        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
1950
1951    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1952        return self.binary(expression, "^")
1953
1954    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast) -> str:
1955        return f"CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
1956
1957    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
1958        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
1959        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
1960
1961    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
1962        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
1963
1964    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
1965        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
1966
1967    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
1968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1969        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1970        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1971        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1972        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
1973
1974    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1975        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1976        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
1977        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
1978        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
1979        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
1980        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
1981        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
1982        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
1983        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
1984
1985    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1986        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1987        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1988        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
1989        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
1990
1991        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1992            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1993
1994        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
1995
1996    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
1997        return "BEGIN"
1998
1999    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2000        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2001        if chain is not None:
2002            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2003
2004        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2005
2006    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2007        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2008        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2009        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2010
2011    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2012        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2013
2014        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2015        if dtype:
2016            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2017            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2018            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2019            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2020            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2021
2022        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2023        if default:
2024            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2025
2026        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2027            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2028
2029        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2030
2031    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2032        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2033            # Remove db from tables
2034            expression = expression.transform(
2035                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2036            )
2037        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2038        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2039
2040    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2041        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2042
2043        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2044            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2045        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2046            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2047        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2048            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2049        else:
2050            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2051
2052        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2053        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2054
2055    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2056        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2057        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2058        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2059
2060    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2061        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2062        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2063        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2064
2065        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2066        if enforced is not None:
2067            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2068
2069        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2070
2071    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2072        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2073        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2074
2075        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2076        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2077        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2078
2079    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2080        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2081
2082    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2083        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2084
2085    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2086        return self.sql(
2087            exp.Cast(
2088                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2089                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2090            )
2091        )
2092
2093    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2094        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2095
2096    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2097        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2098
2099    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2100        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2101
2102    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2103        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2104
2105    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2106        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2107
2108    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2109        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2110
2111    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2112        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2113
2114    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2115        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2116
2117    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2118        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2119
2120    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2121        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2122
2123    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2124        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2125
2126    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2127        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2128
2129    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2130        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2131
2132    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2133        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2134
2135    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2136        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2137
2138    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2139        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2140
2141    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2142        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2143
2144    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2145        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2146
2147    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2148        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2149
2150    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2151        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2152
2153    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2154        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2155
2156    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2157        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2158
2159    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2160        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2161
2162    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2163        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2164
2165    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2166        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2167
2168    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2169        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2170
2171    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2172        return f"TRY_CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
2173
2174    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2175        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2176        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2177        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2178        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2179        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2180
2181    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2182        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2183        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2184
2185    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2186        args = []
2187        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2188            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2189                for value in arg_value:
2190                    args.append(value)
2191            else:
2192                args.append(arg_value)
2193
2194        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2195
2196    def func(self, name: str, *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str]) -> str:
2197        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}({self.format_args(*args)})"
2198
2199    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2200        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2201        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self._max_text_width:
2202            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2203        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2204
2205    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2206        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2207
2208    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2209        return format_time(self.sql(expression, "format"), self.time_mapping, self.time_trie)
2210
2211    def expressions(
2212        self,
2213        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2214        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2215        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2216        flat: bool = False,
2217        indent: bool = True,
2218        sep: str = ", ",
2219        prefix: str = "",
2220    ) -> str:
2221        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2222
2223        if not expressions:
2224            return ""
2225
2226        if flat:
2227            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2228
2229        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2230
2231        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2232        pad = " " * self.pad
2233        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2234
2235        result_sqls = []
2236        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2237            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2238            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2239
2240            if self.pretty:
2241                if self._leading_comma:
2242                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2243                else:
2244                    result_sqls.append(
2245                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2246                    )
2247            else:
2248                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2249
2250        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2251        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
2252
2253    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2254        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2255        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2256        if flat:
2257            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2258        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2259
2260    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2261        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2262        if not property_name:
2263            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2264        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2265
2266    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2267        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2268        op = self.seg(op)
2269        return self.query_modifiers(
2270            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2271        )
2272
2273    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2274        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2275
2276    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2277        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2278
2279    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2280        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2281        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2282        expressions = (
2283            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2284        )
2285        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2286
2287    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2288        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2289        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2290        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2291
2292    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2293        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2294
2295    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2296        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2297        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2298        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2299        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2300
2301        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2302        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2303            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2304            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2305                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2306        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2307            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2308                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2309            else:
2310                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2311        else:
2312            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2313        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2314
2315    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2316        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2317        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2318        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2319        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2320
2321    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2322        if expression.args.get("format"):
2323            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2324
2325        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2326
2327    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2328        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2329        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2330        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2331        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2332        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2333
2334    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2335        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2336        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2337        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2338        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2339
2340    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2341        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2342
2343
2344def cached_generator(
2345    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2346) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2347    """Returns a cached generator."""
2348    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2349    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2350    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
class Generator:
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator interprets the given syntax tree and produces a SQL string as an output.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        time_mapping (dict): the dictionary of custom time mappings in which the key
  22            represents a python time format and the output the target time format
  23        time_trie (trie): a trie of the time_mapping keys
  24        pretty (bool): if set to True the returned string will be formatted. Default: False.
  25        quote_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  26        quote_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  27        identifier_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  28        identifier_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  29        bit_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  30        bit_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  31        hex_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  32        hex_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  33        byte_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  34        byte_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  35        raw_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit raw literals. Default: None.
  36        raw_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit raw literals. Default: None.
  37        identify (bool | str): 'always': always quote, 'safe': quote identifiers if they don't contain an upcase, True defaults to always.
  38        normalize (bool): if set to True all identifiers will lower cased
  39        string_escape (str): specifies a string escape character. Default: '.
  40        identifier_escape (str): specifies an identifier escape character. Default: ".
  41        pad (int): determines padding in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  42        indent (int): determines the size of indentation in a formatted string. Default: 4.
  43        unnest_column_only (bool): if true unnest table aliases are considered only as column aliases
  44        normalize_functions (str): normalize function names, "upper", "lower", or None
  45            Default: "upper"
  46        alias_post_tablesample (bool): if the table alias comes after tablesample
  47            Default: False
  48        identifiers_can_start_with_digit (bool): if an unquoted identifier can start with digit
  49            Default: False
  50        unsupported_level (ErrorLevel): determines the generator's behavior when it encounters
  51            unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  52        null_ordering (str): Indicates the default null ordering method to use if not explicitly set.
  53            Options are "nulls_are_small", "nulls_are_large", "nulls_are_last".
  54            Default: "nulls_are_small"
  55        max_unsupported (int): Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  56            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  57            Default: 3
  58        leading_comma (bool): if the the comma is leading or trailing in select statements
  59            Default: False
  60        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  61            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  62            line length.
  63            Default: 80
  64        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  65            Default: True
  66    """
  67
  68    TRANSFORMS = {
  69        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  70            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  71        ),
  72        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  73            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  74        ),
  75        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  76        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  77        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  79        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  80        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  81        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  82        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  83        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  84        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  85        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  86        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  87        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  88        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  89        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  90        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  91        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  92        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  93        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  95        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  99        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 100        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 101        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
 102        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 104        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 105        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107    }
 108
 109    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 110    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 111
 112    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 113    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 114
 115    # Always do union distinct or union all
 116    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 117
 118    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 119    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 120
 121    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 122    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 123
 124    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 125    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 126
 127    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 128    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 129
 130    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 131    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 132
 133    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 134    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 135
 136    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 137    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 138
 139    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 140    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 141
 142    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 143    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 144
 145    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 146    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 147
 148    # The string used for creating index on a table
 149    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 150
 151    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 152        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 153        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 154        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 155        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 156        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 157        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 158        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 159    }
 160
 161    STAR_MAPPING = {
 162        "except": "EXCEPT",
 163        "replace": "REPLACE",
 164    }
 165
 166    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 167        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 168        "seconds": "second",
 169        "minutes": "minute",
 170        "hours": "hour",
 171        "days": "day",
 172        "weeks": "week",
 173        "months": "month",
 174        "quarters": "quarter",
 175        "years": "year",
 176    }
 177
 178    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 179
 180    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 181
 182    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 183
 184    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 185        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 186        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 187        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 188        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 189        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 190        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 191        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 192        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 193        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 194        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 195        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 196        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 197        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 198        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 199        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 200        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 201        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 202        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 203        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 204        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 205        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 206        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 207        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 208        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 209        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 210        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 211        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 212        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 213        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 214        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 215        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 216        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 217        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 218        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 219        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 227        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 228        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 229        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 230        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 232        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 233        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 235        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 236        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 237    }
 238
 239    JOIN_HINTS = True
 240    TABLE_HINTS = True
 241
 242    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 243    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS = (exp.Select, exp.From, exp.Where, exp.With)
 244    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES = (exp.Column, exp.Literal, exp.Neg, exp.Paren)
 245
 246    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 247
 248    __slots__ = (
 249        "time_mapping",
 250        "time_trie",
 251        "pretty",
 252        "quote_start",
 253        "quote_end",
 254        "identifier_start",
 255        "identifier_end",
 256        "bit_start",
 257        "bit_end",
 258        "hex_start",
 259        "hex_end",
 260        "byte_start",
 261        "byte_end",
 262        "raw_start",
 263        "raw_end",
 264        "identify",
 265        "normalize",
 266        "string_escape",
 267        "identifier_escape",
 268        "pad",
 269        "index_offset",
 270        "unnest_column_only",
 271        "alias_post_tablesample",
 272        "identifiers_can_start_with_digit",
 273        "normalize_functions",
 274        "unsupported_level",
 275        "unsupported_messages",
 276        "null_ordering",
 277        "max_unsupported",
 278        "_indent",
 279        "_escaped_quote_end",
 280        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 281        "_leading_comma",
 282        "_max_text_width",
 283        "_comments",
 284        "_cache",
 285    )
 286
 287    def __init__(
 288        self,
 289        time_mapping=None,
 290        time_trie=None,
 291        pretty=None,
 292        quote_start=None,
 293        quote_end=None,
 294        identifier_start=None,
 295        identifier_end=None,
 296        bit_start=None,
 297        bit_end=None,
 298        hex_start=None,
 299        hex_end=None,
 300        byte_start=None,
 301        byte_end=None,
 302        raw_start=None,
 303        raw_end=None,
 304        identify=False,
 305        normalize=False,
 306        string_escape=None,
 307        identifier_escape=None,
 308        pad=2,
 309        indent=2,
 310        index_offset=0,
 311        unnest_column_only=False,
 312        alias_post_tablesample=False,
 313        identifiers_can_start_with_digit=False,
 314        normalize_functions="upper",
 315        unsupported_level=ErrorLevel.WARN,
 316        null_ordering=None,
 317        max_unsupported=3,
 318        leading_comma=False,
 319        max_text_width=80,
 320        comments=True,
 321    ):
 322        import sqlglot
 323
 324        self.time_mapping = time_mapping or {}
 325        self.time_trie = time_trie
 326        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 327        self.quote_start = quote_start or "'"
 328        self.quote_end = quote_end or "'"
 329        self.identifier_start = identifier_start or '"'
 330        self.identifier_end = identifier_end or '"'
 331        self.bit_start = bit_start
 332        self.bit_end = bit_end
 333        self.hex_start = hex_start
 334        self.hex_end = hex_end
 335        self.byte_start = byte_start
 336        self.byte_end = byte_end
 337        self.raw_start = raw_start
 338        self.raw_end = raw_end
 339        self.identify = identify
 340        self.normalize = normalize
 341        self.string_escape = string_escape or "'"
 342        self.identifier_escape = identifier_escape or '"'
 343        self.pad = pad
 344        self.index_offset = index_offset
 345        self.unnest_column_only = unnest_column_only
 346        self.alias_post_tablesample = alias_post_tablesample
 347        self.identifiers_can_start_with_digit = identifiers_can_start_with_digit
 348        self.normalize_functions = normalize_functions
 349        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 350        self.unsupported_messages = []
 351        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 352        self.null_ordering = null_ordering
 353        self._indent = indent
 354        self._escaped_quote_end = self.string_escape + self.quote_end
 355        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.identifier_escape + self.identifier_end
 356        self._leading_comma = leading_comma
 357        self._max_text_width = max_text_width
 358        self._comments = comments
 359        self._cache = None
 360
 361    def generate(
 362        self,
 363        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 364        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 365    ) -> str:
 366        """
 367        Generates a SQL string by interpreting the given syntax tree.
 368
 369        Args
 370            expression: the syntax tree.
 371            cache: an optional sql string cache. this leverages the hash of an expression which is slow, so only use this if you set _hash on each node.
 372
 373        Returns
 374            the SQL string.
 375        """
 376        if cache is not None:
 377            self._cache = cache
 378        self.unsupported_messages = []
 379        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 380        self._cache = None
 381
 382        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 383            return sql
 384
 385        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 386            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 387                logger.warning(msg)
 388        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 389            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 390
 391        if self.pretty:
 392            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 393        return sql
 394
 395    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 396        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 397            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 398        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 399
 400    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 401        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 402
 403    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 404        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 405
 406    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 407        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 408        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 409        return comment
 410
 411    def maybe_comment(
 412        self,
 413        sql: str,
 414        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 415        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 416    ) -> str:
 417        comments = ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments) if self._comments else None  # type: ignore
 418
 419        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 420            return sql
 421
 422        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 423        comments_sql = sep.join(
 424            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 425        )
 426
 427        if not comments_sql:
 428            return sql
 429
 430        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 431            return (
 432                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 433                if sql[0].isspace()
 434                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 435            )
 436
 437        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 438
 439    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 440        this_sql = self.indent(
 441            self.sql(expression)
 442            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 443            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 444            level=1,
 445            pad=0,
 446        )
 447        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 448
 449    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 450        original = self.identify
 451        self.identify = False
 452        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 453        self.identify = original
 454        return result
 455
 456    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 457        if self.normalize_functions == "upper":
 458            return name.upper()
 459        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 460            return name.lower()
 461        return name
 462
 463    def indent(
 464        self,
 465        sql: str,
 466        level: int = 0,
 467        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 468        skip_first: bool = False,
 469        skip_last: bool = False,
 470    ) -> str:
 471        if not self.pretty:
 472            return sql
 473
 474        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 475        lines = sql.split("\n")
 476
 477        return "\n".join(
 478            line
 479            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 480            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 481            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 482        )
 483
 484    def sql(
 485        self,
 486        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 487        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 488        comment: bool = True,
 489    ) -> str:
 490        if not expression:
 491            return ""
 492
 493        if isinstance(expression, str):
 494            return expression
 495
 496        if key:
 497            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
 498
 499        if self._cache is not None:
 500            expression_id = hash(expression)
 501
 502            if expression_id in self._cache:
 503                return self._cache[expression_id]
 504
 505        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 506
 507        if callable(transform):
 508            sql = transform(self, expression)
 509        elif transform:
 510            sql = transform
 511        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 512            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 513
 514            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 515                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 516            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 517                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 518            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 519                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 520            else:
 521                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 522        else:
 523            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 524
 525        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self._comments and comment else sql
 526
 527        if self._cache is not None:
 528            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 529        return sql
 530
 531    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 532        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 533        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 534        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 535
 536    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 537        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 538        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 539        options = expression.args.get("options")
 540        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 541        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 542        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 543        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 544        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 545
 546    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 547        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 548            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 549        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 550        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 551
 552    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 553        return ".".join(
 554            self.sql(part)
 555            for part in (
 556                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 557                expression.args.get("db"),
 558                expression.args.get("table"),
 559                expression.args.get("this"),
 560            )
 561            if part
 562        )
 563
 564    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 565        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 566        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 567        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 568        return f"{position}{this}"
 569
 570    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 571        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 572        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 573        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 574        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 575        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 576        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 577        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 578        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 579
 580        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 581
 582    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 583        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 584        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 585        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 586
 587    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 588        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 589
 590    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 591        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 592            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 593        else:
 594            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 595
 596        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 597
 598    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 599        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 600    ) -> str:
 601        this = ""
 602        if expression.this is not None:
 603            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 604            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 605
 606        start = expression.args.get("start")
 607        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 608        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 609        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 610        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 611        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 612        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 613        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 614        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 615        cycle_sql = ""
 616
 617        if cycle is not None:
 618            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 619            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 620
 621        sequence_opts = ""
 622        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 623            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 624            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 625
 626        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 627        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 628
 629        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 630
 631    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 632        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 633
 634    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 635        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 636        if desc is not None:
 637            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 638        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 639
 640    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 641        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 642        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 643        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 644
 645    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 646        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 647        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 648        properties_exp = expression.copy()
 649        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 650        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 651            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 652        ):
 653            properties_exp.set(
 654                "properties",
 655                exp.Properties(
 656                    expressions=[
 657                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 658                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 659                    ]
 660                ),
 661            )
 662        if kind == "TABLE" and properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME):
 663            this_name = self.sql(expression.this, "this")
 664            this_properties = self.properties(
 665                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME]),
 666                wrapped=False,
 667            )
 668            this_schema = f"({self.expressions(expression.this)})"
 669            this = f"{this_name}, {this_properties} {this_schema}"
 670            properties_sql = ""
 671        else:
 672            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 673            properties_sql = self.sql(properties_exp, "properties")
 674        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 675        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 676        if expression_sql:
 677            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 678
 679            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 680                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 681                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 682                        exp.Properties(
 683                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 684                        ),
 685                        wrapped=False,
 686                    )
 687                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 688                else:
 689                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 690
 691        postindex_props_sql = ""
 692        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 693            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 694                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 695                wrapped=False,
 696                prefix=" ",
 697            )
 698
 699        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 700        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 701        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 702
 703        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 704        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 705
 706        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 707        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 708            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 709                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 710                sep=" ",
 711                prefix=" ",
 712                wrapped=False,
 713            )
 714
 715        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 716
 717        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 718        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 719            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 720                exp.Properties(
 721                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 722                ),
 723                sep=" ",
 724                prefix=" ",
 725                wrapped=False,
 726            )
 727
 728        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 729        no_schema_binding = (
 730            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 731        )
 732
 733        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 734        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 735
 736        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 737        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 738
 739    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 740        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 741        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 742
 743        if when:
 744            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 745            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 746            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 747
 748        return f"CLONE {this}"
 749
 750    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 751        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 752
 753    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 754        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 755        if with_:
 756            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 757        return sql
 758
 759    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 760        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 761        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 762
 763        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 764
 765    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 766        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 767        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 768
 769    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 770        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 771        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 772        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 773        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 774
 775    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 776        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 777        if self.bit_start:
 778            return f"{self.bit_start}{this}{self.bit_end}"
 779        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 780
 781    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 782        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 783        if self.hex_start:
 784            return f"{self.hex_start}{this}{self.hex_end}"
 785        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 786
 787    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 788        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 789        if self.byte_start:
 790            return f"{self.byte_start}{this}{self.byte_end}"
 791        return this
 792
 793    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 794        if self.raw_start:
 795            return f"{self.raw_start}{expression.name}{self.raw_end}"
 796        return self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name.replace("\\", "\\\\")))
 797
 798    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 799        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 800        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 801        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 802        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 803
 804    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 805        type_value = expression.this
 806        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 807        nested = ""
 808        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 809        values = ""
 810        if interior:
 811            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 812                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 813                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 814                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 815                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 816                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 817            else:
 818                nested = f"({interior})"
 819
 820        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 821
 822    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 823        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 824        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 825        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 826        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 827
 828    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 829        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 830        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 831        using_sql = (
 832            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
 833            if expression.args.get("using")
 834            else ""
 835        )
 836        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
 837        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 838        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
 839        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 840
 841    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 842        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 843        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 844        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 845        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 846        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 847        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 848        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 849        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 850        return (
 851            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 852        )
 853
 854    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 855        return self.prepend_ctes(
 856            expression,
 857            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 858        )
 859
 860    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 861        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 862
 863    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 864        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 865        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 866        count = expression.args.get("count")
 867        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 868        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 869            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 870        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 871        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 872
 873    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 874        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 875        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 876        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 877
 878    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 879        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
 880            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 881        return ""
 882
 883    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 884        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 885        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 886        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 887        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
 888        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 889        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 890        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 891        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 892        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 893        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 894        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}({columns}){partition_by}"
 895
 896    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 897        text = expression.name
 898        lower = text.lower()
 899        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 900        text = text.replace(self.identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 901        if (
 902            expression.quoted
 903            or should_identify(text, self.identify)
 904            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 905            or (not self.identifiers_can_start_with_digit and text[:1].isdigit())
 906        ):
 907            text = f"{self.identifier_start}{text}{self.identifier_end}"
 908        return text
 909
 910    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 911        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 912        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 913        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 914        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 915        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 916
 917    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 918        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 919        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 920
 921    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 922        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression)})"
 923
 924    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 925        root_properties = []
 926        with_properties = []
 927
 928        for p in expression.expressions:
 929            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 930            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 931                with_properties.append(p)
 932            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 933                root_properties.append(p)
 934
 935        return self.root_properties(
 936            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 937        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 938
 939    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 940        if properties.expressions:
 941            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 942        return ""
 943
 944    def properties(
 945        self,
 946        properties: exp.Properties,
 947        prefix: str = "",
 948        sep: str = ", ",
 949        suffix: str = "",
 950        wrapped: bool = True,
 951    ) -> str:
 952        if properties.expressions:
 953            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 954            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 955            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 956        return ""
 957
 958    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 959        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 960
 961    def locate_properties(
 962        self, properties: exp.Properties
 963    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 964        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 965            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 966        }
 967
 968        for p in properties.expressions:
 969            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 970            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 971                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 972            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 973                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 974            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 975                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 976            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 977                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 978            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 979                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 980            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 981                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 982            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 983                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 984            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 985                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 986
 987        return properties_locs
 988
 989    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 990        property_cls = expression.__class__
 991        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 992            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
 993
 994        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
 995        if not property_name:
 996            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
 997
 998        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 999
1000    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1001        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1002        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1003        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1004
1005    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1006        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1007        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1008        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1009
1010    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1011        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1012        local = expression.args.get("local")
1013        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1014        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1015        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1016        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1017        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1018
1019    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1020        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1021        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1022        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1023
1024    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1025        if expression.args.get("default"):
1026            property = "DEFAULT"
1027        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1028            property = "ON"
1029        else:
1030            property = "OFF"
1031        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1032
1033    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1034        if expression.args.get("no"):
1035            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1036        if expression.args.get("default"):
1037            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1038
1039        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1040        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1041
1042    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1043        default = expression.args.get("default")
1044        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1045        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1046        if default or minimum or maximum:
1047            if default:
1048                prop = "DEFAULT"
1049            elif minimum:
1050                prop = "MINIMUM"
1051            else:
1052                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1053            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1054        units = expression.args.get("units")
1055        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1056        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1057
1058    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1059        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1060        always = expression.args.get("always")
1061        default = expression.args.get("default")
1062        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1063        never = expression.args.get("never")
1064
1065        if autotemp is not None:
1066            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1067        elif always:
1068            prop = "ALWAYS"
1069        elif default:
1070            prop = "DEFAULT"
1071        elif manual:
1072            prop = "MANUAL"
1073        elif never:
1074            prop = "NEVER"
1075        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1076
1077    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1078        no = expression.args.get("no")
1079        no = " NO" if no else ""
1080        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1081        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1082
1083        for_ = ""
1084        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1085            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1086        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1087            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1088        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1089            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1090        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1091
1092    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1093        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1094        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1095        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1096        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1097        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1098        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1099
1100    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1101        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1102        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1103        statistics_sql = ""
1104        if statistics is not None:
1105            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1106        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1107
1108    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1109        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1110
1111        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1112            this = "OVERWRITE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1113        else:
1114            this = "OVERWRITE TABLE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1115
1116        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1117        alternative = f" OR {alternative} " if alternative else " "
1118        this = f"{this}{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1119
1120        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1121        partition_sql = (
1122            self.sql(expression, "partition") if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1123        )
1124        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1125        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1126        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1127        sep = self.sep() if partition_sql else ""
1128        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{sep}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1129        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1130
1131    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1132        return self.prepend_ctes(
1133            expression,
1134            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1135        )
1136
1137    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1138        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1139
1140    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1141        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1142
1143    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1144        return expression.name.upper()
1145
1146    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1147        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1148        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1149        if constraint:
1150            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1151        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1152        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1153        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1154        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1155        if expressions:
1156            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1157        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1158
1159    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1160        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1161
1162    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1163        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1164        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1165        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1166        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1167        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1168        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1169        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1170        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1171        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1172        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1173        null = expression.args.get("null")
1174        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1175        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1176
1177    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1178        table = ".".join(
1179            part
1180            for part in [
1181                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1182                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1183                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1184            ]
1185            if part
1186        )
1187
1188        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1189        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1190        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", flat=True)
1191        hints = f" WITH ({hints})" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1192        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1193        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1194        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1195        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1196        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1197        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1198
1199        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1200
1201    def tablesample_sql(
1202        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1203    ) -> str:
1204        if self.alias_post_tablesample and expression.this.alias:
1205            table = expression.this.copy()
1206            table.set("alias", None)
1207            this = self.sql(table)
1208            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1209        else:
1210            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1211            alias = ""
1212        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1213        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1214        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1215        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1216        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1217        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1218        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1219        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1220        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1221        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1222        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1223        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1224        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1225            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1226        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1227        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1228        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1229        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1230
1231    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1232        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1233
1234        if expression.this:
1235            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1236            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1237            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1238            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1239            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1240            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1241
1242        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1243        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1244        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1245        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1246        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1247        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1248
1249    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1250        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1251
1252    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1253        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1254        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1255        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1256        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1257        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1258        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1259        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1260
1261    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1262        args = self.expressions(expression)
1263        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1264        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1265        values = (
1266            f"({values})"
1267            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1268            else values
1269        )
1270        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1271
1272    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1273        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1274
1275    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1276        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1277        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1278        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1279
1280    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1281        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1282
1283    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1284        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1285        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1286        grouping_sets = (
1287            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1288        )
1289
1290        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1291        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1292            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1293        else:
1294            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1295            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1296
1297        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1298        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1299            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1300        else:
1301            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1302            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1303
1304        groupings = csv(
1305            grouping_sets,
1306            cube_sql,
1307            rollup_sql,
1308            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1309            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1310        )
1311
1312        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1313            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1314
1315        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1316
1317    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1318        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1319        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1320
1321    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1322        op_sql = " ".join(
1323            op
1324            for op in (
1325                expression.method,
1326                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1327                expression.side,
1328                expression.kind,
1329                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1330            )
1331            if op
1332        )
1333        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1334        using = expression.args.get("using")
1335
1336        if not on_sql and using:
1337            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1338
1339        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1340
1341        if on_sql:
1342            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1343            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1344            if using:
1345                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1346            else:
1347                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1348        elif not op_sql:
1349            return f", {this_sql}"
1350
1351        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1352        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1353
1354    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1355        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1356        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1357        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1358
1359    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1360        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1361
1362        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1363            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1364
1365        if expression.args.get("view"):
1366            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1367            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1368            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1369            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1370            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1371            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1372
1373        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1374        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1375        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1376
1377    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1378        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1379        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1380
1381    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1383        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1384
1385    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1386        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1387        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1388        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1389        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1390        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1391        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1392        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1393        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1394
1395    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1396        expressions = (
1397            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1398        )
1399        return f"SET{expressions}"
1400
1401    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1402        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1403
1404    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1405        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1406            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1407            return ""
1408
1409        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1410        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1411        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1412        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1413
1414        if wait is not None:
1415            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1416                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1417            else:
1418                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1419
1420        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1421
1422    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1423        text = expression.this or ""
1424        if expression.is_string:
1425            text = text.replace(self.quote_end, self._escaped_quote_end)
1426            if self.pretty:
1427                text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1428            text = f"{self.quote_start}{text}{self.quote_end}"
1429        return text
1430
1431    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1432        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1433        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1434        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1435        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1436        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1437        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1438        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1439        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1440        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1441        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1442        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1443
1444    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1445        return "NULL"
1446
1447    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1448        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1449
1450    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1451        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1452        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1453        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1454
1455    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1456        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1457
1458    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1459        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1460
1461    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1462        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1463
1464    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1465        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1466        asc = not desc
1467
1468        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1469        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1470        nulls_are_large = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_large"
1471        nulls_are_small = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_small"
1472        nulls_are_last = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_last"
1473
1474        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1475        nulls_sort_change = ""
1476        if nulls_first and (
1477            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1478        ):
1479            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1480        elif (
1481            nulls_last
1482            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1483            and not nulls_are_last
1484        ):
1485            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1486
1487        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1488            self.unsupported(
1489                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1490            )
1491            nulls_sort_change = ""
1492
1493        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1494
1495    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1496        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1497        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1498        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1499        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1500        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1501        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1502        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1503        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1504        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1505        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1506        definition_sqls = [
1507            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1508            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1509        ]
1510        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1511        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1512        body = "".join(
1513            (
1514                partition,
1515                order,
1516                measures,
1517                rows,
1518                after,
1519                pattern,
1520                define,
1521            )
1522        )
1523        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1524        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1525        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1526
1527    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1528        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1529
1530        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1531            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1532        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1533            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1534
1535        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1536
1537        return csv(
1538            *sqls,
1539            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1540            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1541            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1542            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1543            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1544            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1545            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1546            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1547            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1548            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1549            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1550            sep="",
1551        )
1552
1553    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1554        return [
1555            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1556            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1557            if expression.args.get("windows")
1558            else "",
1559        ]
1560
1561    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1562        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1563        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1564        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1565
1566    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1567        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1568        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1569        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1570        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1571        kind = f" AS {kind}" if kind else ""
1572        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1573        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1574        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1575            expression,
1576            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1577            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1578            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1579        )
1580        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1581
1582    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1583        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1584        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1585        sql = f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1586        return f"{this}{sql}"
1587
1588    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1589        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1590        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1591        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1592        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1593        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1594
1595    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1596        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1597        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1598        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1599
1600    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1601        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1602        kind = expression.text("kind")
1603        if kind:
1604            kind = f"{kind}."
1605        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1606
1607    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1608        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1609
1610    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1611        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1612        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1613
1614        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1615        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1616
1617        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1618        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1619
1620    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1621        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1622        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1623
1624    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1625        return self.prepend_ctes(
1626            expression,
1627            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1628        )
1629
1630    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1631        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1632        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1633        return f"UNION{kind}"
1634
1635    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1636        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1637        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1638        if alias and self.unnest_column_only:
1639            columns = alias.columns
1640            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1641        else:
1642            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1643        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1644        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1645        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1646        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1647        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1648
1649    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1650        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1651        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1652
1653    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1654        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1655        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1656        order = expression.args.get("order")
1657        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1658        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1659        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1660        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1661
1662        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1663
1664        first = expression.args.get("first")
1665        if first is None:
1666            first = ""
1667        else:
1668            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1669
1670        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1671            return f"{this} {alias}"
1672
1673        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1674        return f"{this} ({args})"
1675
1676    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1677        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1678        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1679
1680    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1681        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1682        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1683        end = (
1684            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1685            or "CURRENT ROW"
1686        )
1687        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1688
1689    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1690        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1691        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1692        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1693
1694    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1695        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1696        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1697        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1698        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1699
1700    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1701        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.index_offset)
1702        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1703
1704        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1705
1706    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1707        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1708
1709    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1710        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1711        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1712            this = self.wrap(this)
1713        return f"ANY {this}"
1714
1715    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1716        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1717
1718    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1719        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1720        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1721
1722        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1723            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1724            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1725
1726        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1727
1728        if default:
1729            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1730
1731        statements.append("END")
1732
1733        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self._max_text_width:
1734            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1735
1736        return " ".join(statements)
1737
1738    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1739        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1740        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1741        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1742
1743    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1744        order = expression.args.get("order")
1745        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1746        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1747
1748    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1750        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1751        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1752
1753    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1754        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1755
1756        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1757            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1758        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1759            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1760        else:
1761            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1762
1763    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
1764        if len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1765            return self.sql(expression.expressions[0])
1766        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
1767
1768    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1769        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1770        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1771
1772    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1773        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1774        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1775        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1776        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1777        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1778        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1779        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1780        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1781
1782    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1783        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1784        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1785        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1786        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1787
1788    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1789        return self.case_sql(
1790            exp.Case(ifs=[expression.copy()], default=expression.args.get("false"))
1791        )
1792
1793    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1794        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1795        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1796        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1797
1798    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1799        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1800
1801    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1802        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1803        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1804        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1805        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1806        if unique_keys is not None:
1807            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1808        else:
1809            unique_keys = ""
1810        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1811        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1812        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1813        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1814        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1815        return f"JSON_OBJECT({expressions}{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})"
1816
1817    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1818        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1819        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1820        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1821        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1822        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1823        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1824
1825    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1827        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1828        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1829        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1830        with_ = (
1831            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1832            if expressions
1833            else ""
1834        )
1835        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1836
1837    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1838        query = expression.args.get("query")
1839        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1840        field = expression.args.get("field")
1841        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1842
1843        if query:
1844            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1845        elif unnest:
1846            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1847        elif field:
1848            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1849        else:
1850            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1851
1852        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1853
1854    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1855        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1856
1857    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1858        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1859        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1860            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1861        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1862
1863        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1864            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1865            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1866
1867        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1868        if this:
1869            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1870            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1871
1872        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1873
1874    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1875        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1876
1877    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1878        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1879        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1880        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1881        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1882        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1883        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1884
1885    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1886        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1887
1888    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1889        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1890            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1891        else:
1892            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1893            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1894
1895        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1896
1897    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1898        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1899        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1900        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1901        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1902
1903    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1904        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1905
1906    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1907        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1908        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1909        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
1910
1911    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1912        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1913
1914    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1916        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1917        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
1918
1919    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1920        return self.binary(expression, "+")
1921
1922    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1923        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
1924
1925    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1926        if not self.pretty:
1927            return self.binary(expression, op)
1928
1929        sqls = tuple(
1930            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1931            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1932        )
1933
1934        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self._max_text_width else " "
1935        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
1936
1937    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1938        return self.binary(expression, "&")
1939
1940    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1941        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
1942
1943    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1944        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1945
1946    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1947        return self.binary(expression, "|")
1948
1949    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1950        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
1951
1952    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1953        return self.binary(expression, "^")
1954
1955    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast) -> str:
1956        return f"CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
1957
1958    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
1959        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
1960        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
1961
1962    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
1963        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
1964
1965    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
1966        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
1967
1968    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
1969        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1970        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1971        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1972        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1973        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
1974
1975    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1976        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1977        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
1978        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
1979        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
1980        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
1981        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
1982        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
1983        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
1984        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
1985
1986    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1987        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1988        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1989        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
1990        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
1991
1992        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1993            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1994
1995        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
1996
1997    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
1998        return "BEGIN"
1999
2000    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2001        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2002        if chain is not None:
2003            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2004
2005        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2006
2007    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2008        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2009        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2010        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2011
2012    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2013        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2014
2015        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2016        if dtype:
2017            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2018            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2019            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2020            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2021            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2022
2023        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2024        if default:
2025            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2026
2027        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2028            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2029
2030        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2031
2032    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2033        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2034            # Remove db from tables
2035            expression = expression.transform(
2036                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2037            )
2038        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2039        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2040
2041    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2042        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2043
2044        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2045            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2046        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2047            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2048        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2049            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2050        else:
2051            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2052
2053        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2054        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2055
2056    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2057        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2058        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2059        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2060
2061    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2062        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2063        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2064        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2065
2066        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2067        if enforced is not None:
2068            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2069
2070        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2071
2072    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2073        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2074        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2075
2076        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2077        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2078        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2079
2080    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2081        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2082
2083    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2084        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2085
2086    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2087        return self.sql(
2088            exp.Cast(
2089                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2090                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2091            )
2092        )
2093
2094    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2095        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2096
2097    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2098        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2099
2100    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2101        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2102
2103    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2104        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2105
2106    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2107        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2108
2109    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2110        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2111
2112    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2113        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2114
2115    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2116        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2117
2118    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2119        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2120
2121    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2122        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2123
2124    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2125        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2126
2127    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2128        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2129
2130    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2131        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2132
2133    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2134        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2135
2136    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2137        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2138
2139    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2140        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2141
2142    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2143        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2144
2145    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2146        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2147
2148    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2149        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2150
2151    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2152        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2153
2154    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2155        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2156
2157    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2158        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2159
2160    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2161        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2162
2163    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2164        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2165
2166    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2167        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2168
2169    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2170        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2171
2172    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2173        return f"TRY_CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
2174
2175    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2176        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2177        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2179        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2180        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2181
2182    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2183        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2184        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2185
2186    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2187        args = []
2188        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2189            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2190                for value in arg_value:
2191                    args.append(value)
2192            else:
2193                args.append(arg_value)
2194
2195        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2196
2197    def func(self, name: str, *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str]) -> str:
2198        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}({self.format_args(*args)})"
2199
2200    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2201        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2202        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self._max_text_width:
2203            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2204        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2205
2206    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2207        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2208
2209    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2210        return format_time(self.sql(expression, "format"), self.time_mapping, self.time_trie)
2211
2212    def expressions(
2213        self,
2214        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2215        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2216        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2217        flat: bool = False,
2218        indent: bool = True,
2219        sep: str = ", ",
2220        prefix: str = "",
2221    ) -> str:
2222        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2223
2224        if not expressions:
2225            return ""
2226
2227        if flat:
2228            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2229
2230        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2231
2232        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2233        pad = " " * self.pad
2234        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2235
2236        result_sqls = []
2237        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2238            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2239            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2240
2241            if self.pretty:
2242                if self._leading_comma:
2243                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2244                else:
2245                    result_sqls.append(
2246                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2247                    )
2248            else:
2249                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2250
2251        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2252        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
2253
2254    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2255        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2256        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2257        if flat:
2258            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2259        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2260
2261    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2262        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2263        if not property_name:
2264            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2265        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2266
2267    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2268        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2269        op = self.seg(op)
2270        return self.query_modifiers(
2271            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2272        )
2273
2274    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2275        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2276
2277    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2278        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2279
2280    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2281        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2282        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2283        expressions = (
2284            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2285        )
2286        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2287
2288    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2289        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2290        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2291        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2292
2293    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2294        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2295
2296    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2297        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2298        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2299        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2300        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2301
2302        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2303        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2304            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2305            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2306                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2307        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2308            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2309                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2310            else:
2311                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2312        else:
2313            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2314        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2315
2316    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2317        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2318        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2319        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2320        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2321
2322    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2323        if expression.args.get("format"):
2324            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2325
2326        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2327
2328    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2329        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2330        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2331        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2332        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2333        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2334
2335    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2336        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2337        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2338        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2339        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2340
2341    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2342        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"

Generator interprets the given syntax tree and produces a SQL string as an output.

Arguments:
  • time_mapping (dict): the dictionary of custom time mappings in which the key represents a python time format and the output the target time format
  • time_trie (trie): a trie of the time_mapping keys
  • pretty (bool): if set to True the returned string will be formatted. Default: False.
  • quote_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  • quote_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  • identifier_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  • identifier_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  • bit_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  • bit_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  • hex_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  • hex_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  • byte_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  • byte_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  • raw_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit raw literals. Default: None.
  • raw_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit raw literals. Default: None.
  • identify (bool | str): 'always': always quote, 'safe': quote identifiers if they don't contain an upcase, True defaults to always.
  • normalize (bool): if set to True all identifiers will lower cased
  • string_escape (str): specifies a string escape character. Default: '.
  • identifier_escape (str): specifies an identifier escape character. Default: ".
  • pad (int): determines padding in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent (int): determines the size of indentation in a formatted string. Default: 4.
  • unnest_column_only (bool): if true unnest table aliases are considered only as column aliases
  • normalize_functions (str): normalize function names, "upper", "lower", or None Default: "upper"
  • alias_post_tablesample (bool): if the table alias comes after tablesample Default: False
  • identifiers_can_start_with_digit (bool): if an unquoted identifier can start with digit Default: False
  • unsupported_level (ErrorLevel): determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • null_ordering (str): Indicates the default null ordering method to use if not explicitly set. Options are "nulls_are_small", "nulls_are_large", "nulls_are_last". Default: "nulls_are_small"
  • max_unsupported (int): Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma (bool): if the the comma is leading or trailing in select statements Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( time_mapping=None, time_trie=None, pretty=None, quote_start=None, quote_end=None, identifier_start=None, identifier_end=None, bit_start=None, bit_end=None, hex_start=None, hex_end=None, byte_start=None, byte_end=None, raw_start=None, raw_end=None, identify=False, normalize=False, string_escape=None, identifier_escape=None, pad=2, indent=2, index_offset=0, unnest_column_only=False, alias_post_tablesample=False, identifiers_can_start_with_digit=False, normalize_functions='upper', unsupported_level=<ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, null_ordering=None, max_unsupported=3, leading_comma=False, max_text_width=80, comments=True)
287    def __init__(
288        self,
289        time_mapping=None,
290        time_trie=None,
291        pretty=None,
292        quote_start=None,
293        quote_end=None,
294        identifier_start=None,
295        identifier_end=None,
296        bit_start=None,
297        bit_end=None,
298        hex_start=None,
299        hex_end=None,
300        byte_start=None,
301        byte_end=None,
302        raw_start=None,
303        raw_end=None,
304        identify=False,
305        normalize=False,
306        string_escape=None,
307        identifier_escape=None,
308        pad=2,
309        indent=2,
310        index_offset=0,
311        unnest_column_only=False,
312        alias_post_tablesample=False,
313        identifiers_can_start_with_digit=False,
314        normalize_functions="upper",
315        unsupported_level=ErrorLevel.WARN,
316        null_ordering=None,
317        max_unsupported=3,
318        leading_comma=False,
319        max_text_width=80,
320        comments=True,
321    ):
322        import sqlglot
323
324        self.time_mapping = time_mapping or {}
325        self.time_trie = time_trie
326        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
327        self.quote_start = quote_start or "'"
328        self.quote_end = quote_end or "'"
329        self.identifier_start = identifier_start or '"'
330        self.identifier_end = identifier_end or '"'
331        self.bit_start = bit_start
332        self.bit_end = bit_end
333        self.hex_start = hex_start
334        self.hex_end = hex_end
335        self.byte_start = byte_start
336        self.byte_end = byte_end
337        self.raw_start = raw_start
338        self.raw_end = raw_end
339        self.identify = identify
340        self.normalize = normalize
341        self.string_escape = string_escape or "'"
342        self.identifier_escape = identifier_escape or '"'
343        self.pad = pad
344        self.index_offset = index_offset
345        self.unnest_column_only = unnest_column_only
346        self.alias_post_tablesample = alias_post_tablesample
347        self.identifiers_can_start_with_digit = identifiers_can_start_with_digit
348        self.normalize_functions = normalize_functions
349        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
350        self.unsupported_messages = []
351        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
352        self.null_ordering = null_ordering
353        self._indent = indent
354        self._escaped_quote_end = self.string_escape + self.quote_end
355        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.identifier_escape + self.identifier_end
356        self._leading_comma = leading_comma
357        self._max_text_width = max_text_width
358        self._comments = comments
359        self._cache = None
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
361    def generate(
362        self,
363        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
364        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
365    ) -> str:
366        """
367        Generates a SQL string by interpreting the given syntax tree.
368
369        Args
370            expression: the syntax tree.
371            cache: an optional sql string cache. this leverages the hash of an expression which is slow, so only use this if you set _hash on each node.
372
373        Returns
374            the SQL string.
375        """
376        if cache is not None:
377            self._cache = cache
378        self.unsupported_messages = []
379        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
380        self._cache = None
381
382        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
383            return sql
384
385        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
386            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
387                logger.warning(msg)
388        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
389            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
390
391        if self.pretty:
392            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
393        return sql

Generates a SQL string by interpreting the given syntax tree.

Args expression: the syntax tree. cache: an optional sql string cache. this leverages the hash of an expression which is slow, so only use this if you set _hash on each node.

Returns the SQL string.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
395    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
396        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
397            raise UnsupportedError(message)
398        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
400    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
401        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
403    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
404        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
406    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
407        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
408        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
409        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
411    def maybe_comment(
412        self,
413        sql: str,
414        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
415        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
416    ) -> str:
417        comments = ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments) if self._comments else None  # type: ignore
418
419        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
420            return sql
421
422        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
423        comments_sql = sep.join(
424            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
425        )
426
427        if not comments_sql:
428            return sql
429
430        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
431            return (
432                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
433                if sql[0].isspace()
434                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
435            )
436
437        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
439    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
440        this_sql = self.indent(
441            self.sql(expression)
442            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
443            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
444            level=1,
445            pad=0,
446        )
447        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
449    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
450        original = self.identify
451        self.identify = False
452        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
453        self.identify = original
454        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
456    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
457        if self.normalize_functions == "upper":
458            return name.upper()
459        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
460            return name.lower()
461        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
463    def indent(
464        self,
465        sql: str,
466        level: int = 0,
467        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
468        skip_first: bool = False,
469        skip_last: bool = False,
470    ) -> str:
471        if not self.pretty:
472            return sql
473
474        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
475        lines = sql.split("\n")
476
477        return "\n".join(
478            line
479            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
480            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
481            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
482        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
484    def sql(
485        self,
486        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
487        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
488        comment: bool = True,
489    ) -> str:
490        if not expression:
491            return ""
492
493        if isinstance(expression, str):
494            return expression
495
496        if key:
497            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
498
499        if self._cache is not None:
500            expression_id = hash(expression)
501
502            if expression_id in self._cache:
503                return self._cache[expression_id]
504
505        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
506
507        if callable(transform):
508            sql = transform(self, expression)
509        elif transform:
510            sql = transform
511        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
512            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
513
514            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
515                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
516            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
517                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
518            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
519                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
520            else:
521                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
522        else:
523            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
524
525        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self._comments and comment else sql
526
527        if self._cache is not None:
528            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
529        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
531    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
532        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
533        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
534        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
536    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
537        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
538        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
539        options = expression.args.get("options")
540        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
541        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
542        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
543        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
544        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
546    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
547        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
548            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
549        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
550        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
552    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
553        return ".".join(
554            self.sql(part)
555            for part in (
556                expression.args.get("catalog"),
557                expression.args.get("db"),
558                expression.args.get("table"),
559                expression.args.get("this"),
560            )
561            if part
562        )
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
564    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
565        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
566        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
567        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
568        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
570    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
571        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
572        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
573        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
574        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
575        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
576        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
577        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
578        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
579
580        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
582    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
583        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
584        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
585        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
587    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
588        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
590    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
591        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
592            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
593        else:
594            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
595
596        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
598    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
599        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
600    ) -> str:
601        this = ""
602        if expression.this is not None:
603            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
604            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
605
606        start = expression.args.get("start")
607        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
608        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
609        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
610        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
611        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
612        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
613        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
614        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
615        cycle_sql = ""
616
617        if cycle is not None:
618            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
619            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
620
621        sequence_opts = ""
622        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
623            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
624            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
625
626        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
627        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
628
629        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
631    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
632        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
634    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
635        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
636        if desc is not None:
637            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
638        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
640    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
641        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
642        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
643        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
645    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
646        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
647        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
648        properties_exp = expression.copy()
649        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
650        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
651            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
652        ):
653            properties_exp.set(
654                "properties",
655                exp.Properties(
656                    expressions=[
657                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
658                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
659                    ]
660                ),
661            )
662        if kind == "TABLE" and properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME):
663            this_name = self.sql(expression.this, "this")
664            this_properties = self.properties(
665                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME]),
666                wrapped=False,
667            )
668            this_schema = f"({self.expressions(expression.this)})"
669            this = f"{this_name}, {this_properties} {this_schema}"
670            properties_sql = ""
671        else:
672            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
673            properties_sql = self.sql(properties_exp, "properties")
674        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
675        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
676        if expression_sql:
677            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
678
679            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
680                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
681                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
682                        exp.Properties(
683                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
684                        ),
685                        wrapped=False,
686                    )
687                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
688                else:
689                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
690
691        postindex_props_sql = ""
692        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
693            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
694                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
695                wrapped=False,
696                prefix=" ",
697            )
698
699        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
700        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
701        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
702
703        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
704        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
705
706        postcreate_props_sql = ""
707        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
708            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
709                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
710                sep=" ",
711                prefix=" ",
712                wrapped=False,
713            )
714
715        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
716
717        postexpression_props_sql = ""
718        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
719            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
720                exp.Properties(
721                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
722                ),
723                sep=" ",
724                prefix=" ",
725                wrapped=False,
726            )
727
728        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
729        no_schema_binding = (
730            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
731        )
732
733        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
734        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
735
736        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
737        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
739    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
740        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
741        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
742
743        if when:
744            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
745            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
746            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
747
748        return f"CLONE {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
750    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
751        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
753    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
754        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
755        if with_:
756            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
757        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
759    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
760        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
761        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
762
763        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
765    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
766        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
767        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
769    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
770        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
771        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
772        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
773        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
775    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
776        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
777        if self.bit_start:
778            return f"{self.bit_start}{this}{self.bit_end}"
779        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
781    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
782        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
783        if self.hex_start:
784            return f"{self.hex_start}{this}{self.hex_end}"
785        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
787    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
788        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
789        if self.byte_start:
790            return f"{self.byte_start}{this}{self.byte_end}"
791        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
793    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
794        if self.raw_start:
795            return f"{self.raw_start}{expression.name}{self.raw_end}"
796        return self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name.replace("\\", "\\\\")))
def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeSize) -> str:
798    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
799        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
800        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
801        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
802        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
804    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
805        type_value = expression.this
806        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
807        nested = ""
808        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
809        values = ""
810        if interior:
811            if expression.args.get("nested"):
812                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
813                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
814                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
815                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
816                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
817            else:
818                nested = f"({interior})"
819
820        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
822    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
823        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
824        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
825        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
826        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
828    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
829        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
830        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
831        using_sql = (
832            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
833            if expression.args.get("using")
834            else ""
835        )
836        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
837        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
838        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
839        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
841    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
842        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
843        kind = expression.args["kind"]
844        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
845        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
846        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
847        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
848        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
849        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
850        return (
851            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
852        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
854    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
855        return self.prepend_ctes(
856            expression,
857            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
858        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
860    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
861        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
863    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
864        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
865        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
866        count = expression.args.get("count")
867        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
868        if expression.args.get("percent"):
869            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
870        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
871        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
873    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
874        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
875        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
876        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
878    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
879        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
880            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
881        return ""
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
883    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
884        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
885        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
886        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
887        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
888        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
889        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
890        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
891        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
892        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
893        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
894        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}({columns}){partition_by}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
896    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
897        text = expression.name
898        lower = text.lower()
899        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
900        text = text.replace(self.identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
901        if (
902            expression.quoted
903            or should_identify(text, self.identify)
904            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
905            or (not self.identifiers_can_start_with_digit and text[:1].isdigit())
906        ):
907            text = f"{self.identifier_start}{text}{self.identifier_end}"
908        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
910    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
911        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
912        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
913        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
914        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
915        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
917    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
918        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
919        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
921    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
922        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
924    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
925        root_properties = []
926        with_properties = []
927
928        for p in expression.expressions:
929            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
930            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
931                with_properties.append(p)
932            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
933                root_properties.append(p)
934
935        return self.root_properties(
936            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
937        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
939    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
940        if properties.expressions:
941            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
942        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
944    def properties(
945        self,
946        properties: exp.Properties,
947        prefix: str = "",
948        sep: str = ", ",
949        suffix: str = "",
950        wrapped: bool = True,
951    ) -> str:
952        if properties.expressions:
953            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
954            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
955            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
956        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
958    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
959        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> Dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]:
961    def locate_properties(
962        self, properties: exp.Properties
963    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
964        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
965            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
966        }
967
968        for p in properties.expressions:
969            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
970            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
971                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
972            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
973                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
974            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
975                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
976            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
977                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
978            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
979                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
980            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
981                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
982            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
983                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
984            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
985                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
986
987        return properties_locs
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
989    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
990        property_cls = expression.__class__
991        if property_cls == exp.Property:
992            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
993
994        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
995        if not property_name:
996            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
997
998        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1000    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1001        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1002        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1003        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1005    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1006        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1007        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1008        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1010    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1011        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1012        local = expression.args.get("local")
1013        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1014        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1015        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1016        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1017        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1019    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1020        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1021        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1022        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1024    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1025        if expression.args.get("default"):
1026            property = "DEFAULT"
1027        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1028            property = "ON"
1029        else:
1030            property = "OFF"
1031        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1033    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1034        if expression.args.get("no"):
1035            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1036        if expression.args.get("default"):
1037            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1038
1039        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1040        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1042    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1043        default = expression.args.get("default")
1044        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1045        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1046        if default or minimum or maximum:
1047            if default:
1048                prop = "DEFAULT"
1049            elif minimum:
1050                prop = "MINIMUM"
1051            else:
1052                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1053            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1054        units = expression.args.get("units")
1055        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1056        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1058    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1059        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1060        always = expression.args.get("always")
1061        default = expression.args.get("default")
1062        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1063        never = expression.args.get("never")
1064
1065        if autotemp is not None:
1066            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1067        elif always:
1068            prop = "ALWAYS"
1069        elif default:
1070            prop = "DEFAULT"
1071        elif manual:
1072            prop = "MANUAL"
1073        elif never:
1074            prop = "NEVER"
1075        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1077    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1078        no = expression.args.get("no")
1079        no = " NO" if no else ""
1080        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1081        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1082
1083        for_ = ""
1084        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1085            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1086        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1087            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1088        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1089            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1090        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1092    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1093        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1094        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1095        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1096        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1097        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1098        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1100    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1101        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1102        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1103        statistics_sql = ""
1104        if statistics is not None:
1105            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1106        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1108    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1109        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1110
1111        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1112            this = "OVERWRITE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1113        else:
1114            this = "OVERWRITE TABLE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1115
1116        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1117        alternative = f" OR {alternative} " if alternative else " "
1118        this = f"{this}{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1119
1120        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1121        partition_sql = (
1122            self.sql(expression, "partition") if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1123        )
1124        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1125        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1126        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1127        sep = self.sep() if partition_sql else ""
1128        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{sep}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1129        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1131    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1132        return self.prepend_ctes(
1133            expression,
1134            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1135        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1137    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1138        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1140    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1141        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1143    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1144        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1146    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1147        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1148        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1149        if constraint:
1150            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1151        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1152        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1153        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1154        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1155        if expressions:
1156            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1157        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1159    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1160        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1162    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1163        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1164        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1165        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1166        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1167        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1168        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1169        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1170        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1171        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1172        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1173        null = expression.args.get("null")
1174        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1175        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1177    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1178        table = ".".join(
1179            part
1180            for part in [
1181                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1182                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1183                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1184            ]
1185            if part
1186        )
1187
1188        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1189        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1190        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", flat=True)
1191        hints = f" WITH ({hints})" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1192        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1193        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1194        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1195        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1196        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1197        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1198
1199        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1201    def tablesample_sql(
1202        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1203    ) -> str:
1204        if self.alias_post_tablesample and expression.this.alias:
1205            table = expression.this.copy()
1206            table.set("alias", None)
1207            this = self.sql(table)
1208            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1209        else:
1210            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1211            alias = ""
1212        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1213        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1214        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1215        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1216        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1217        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1218        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1219        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1220        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1221        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1222        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1223        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1224        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1225            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1226        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1227        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1228        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1229        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1231    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1232        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1233
1234        if expression.this:
1235            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1236            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1237            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1238            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1239            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1240            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1241
1242        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1243        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1244        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1245        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1246        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1247        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1249    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1250        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1252    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1253        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1254        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1255        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1256        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1257        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1258        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1259        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1261    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1262        args = self.expressions(expression)
1263        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1264        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1265        values = (
1266            f"({values})"
1267            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1268            else values
1269        )
1270        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1272    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1273        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1275    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1276        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1277        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1278        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1280    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1281        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1283    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1284        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1285        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1286        grouping_sets = (
1287            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1288        )
1289
1290        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1291        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1292            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1293        else:
1294            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1295            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1296
1297        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1298        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1299            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1300        else:
1301            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1302            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1303
1304        groupings = csv(
1305            grouping_sets,
1306            cube_sql,
1307            rollup_sql,
1308            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1309            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1310        )
1311
1312        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1313            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1314
1315        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1317    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1318        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1319        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1321    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1322        op_sql = " ".join(
1323            op
1324            for op in (
1325                expression.method,
1326                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1327                expression.side,
1328                expression.kind,
1329                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1330            )
1331            if op
1332        )
1333        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1334        using = expression.args.get("using")
1335
1336        if not on_sql and using:
1337            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1338
1339        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1340
1341        if on_sql:
1342            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1343            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1344            if using:
1345                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1346            else:
1347                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1348        elif not op_sql:
1349            return f", {this_sql}"
1350
1351        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1352        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1354    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1355        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1356        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1357        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1359    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1360        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1361
1362        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1363            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1364
1365        if expression.args.get("view"):
1366            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1367            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1368            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1369            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1370            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1371            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1372
1373        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1374        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1375        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit) -> str:
1377    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1378        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1379        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1381    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1383        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1385    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1386        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1387        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1388        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1389        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1390        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1391        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1392        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1393        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1395    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1396        expressions = (
1397            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1398        )
1399        return f"SET{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1401    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1402        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1404    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1405        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1406            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1407            return ""
1408
1409        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1410        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1411        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1412        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1413
1414        if wait is not None:
1415            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1416                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1417            else:
1418                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1419
1420        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1422    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1423        text = expression.this or ""
1424        if expression.is_string:
1425            text = text.replace(self.quote_end, self._escaped_quote_end)
1426            if self.pretty:
1427                text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1428            text = f"{self.quote_start}{text}{self.quote_end}"
1429        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1431    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1432        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1433        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1434        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1435        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1436        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1437        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1438        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1439        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1440        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1441        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1442        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1444    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1445        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1447    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1448        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1450    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1451        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1452        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1453        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1455    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1456        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1458    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1459        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1461    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1462        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1464    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1465        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1466        asc = not desc
1467
1468        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1469        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1470        nulls_are_large = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_large"
1471        nulls_are_small = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_small"
1472        nulls_are_last = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_last"
1473
1474        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1475        nulls_sort_change = ""
1476        if nulls_first and (
1477            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1478        ):
1479            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1480        elif (
1481            nulls_last
1482            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1483            and not nulls_are_last
1484        ):
1485            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1486
1487        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1488            self.unsupported(
1489                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1490            )
1491            nulls_sort_change = ""
1492
1493        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1495    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1496        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1497        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1498        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1499        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1500        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1501        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1502        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1503        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1504        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1505        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1506        definition_sqls = [
1507            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1508            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1509        ]
1510        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1511        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1512        body = "".join(
1513            (
1514                partition,
1515                order,
1516                measures,
1517                rows,
1518                after,
1519                pattern,
1520                define,
1521            )
1522        )
1523        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1524        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1525        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1527    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1528        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1529
1530        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1531            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1532        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1533            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1534
1535        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1536
1537        return csv(
1538            *sqls,
1539            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1540            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1541            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1542            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1543            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1544            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1545            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1546            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1547            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1548            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1549            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1550            sep="",
1551        )
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1553    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1554        return [
1555            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1556            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1557            if expression.args.get("windows")
1558            else "",
1559        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1561    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1562        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1563        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1564        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1566    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1567        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1568        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1569        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1570        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1571        kind = f" AS {kind}" if kind else ""
1572        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1573        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1574        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1575            expression,
1576            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1577            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1578            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1579        )
1580        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1582    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1583        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1584        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1585        sql = f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1586        return f"{this}{sql}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1588    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1589        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1590        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1591        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1592        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1593        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1595    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1596        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1597        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1598        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1600    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1601        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1602        kind = expression.text("kind")
1603        if kind:
1604            kind = f"{kind}."
1605        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1607    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1608        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1610    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1611        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1612        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1613
1614        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1615        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1616
1617        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1618        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1620    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1621        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1622        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1624    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1625        return self.prepend_ctes(
1626            expression,
1627            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1628        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1630    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1631        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1632        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1633        return f"UNION{kind}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1635    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1636        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1637        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1638        if alias and self.unnest_column_only:
1639            columns = alias.columns
1640            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1641        else:
1642            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1643        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1644        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1645        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1646        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1647        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1649    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1650        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1651        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1653    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1654        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1655        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1656        order = expression.args.get("order")
1657        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1658        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1659        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1660        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1661
1662        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1663
1664        first = expression.args.get("first")
1665        if first is None:
1666            first = ""
1667        else:
1668            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1669
1670        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1671            return f"{this} {alias}"
1672
1673        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1674        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1676    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1677        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1678        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1680    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1681        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1682        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1683        end = (
1684            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1685            or "CURRENT ROW"
1686        )
1687        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
1689    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1690        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1691        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1692        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
1694    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1695        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1696        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1697        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1698        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
1700    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1701        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.index_offset)
1702        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1703
1704        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
1706    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1707        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
1709    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1710        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1711        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1712            this = self.wrap(this)
1713        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
1715    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1716        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
1718    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1719        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1720        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1721
1722        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1723            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1724            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1725
1726        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1727
1728        if default:
1729            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1730
1731        statements.append("END")
1732
1733        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self._max_text_width:
1734            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1735
1736        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
1738    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1739        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1740        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1741        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
1743    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1744        order = expression.args.get("order")
1745        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1746        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
1748    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1750        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1751        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
1753    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1754        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1755
1756        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1757            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1758        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1759            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1760        else:
1761            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
1763    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
1764        if len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1765            return self.sql(expression.expressions[0])
1766        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
1768    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1769        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1770        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1772    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1773        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1774        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1775        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1776        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1777        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1778        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1779        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1780        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1782    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1783        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1784        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1785        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1786        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
1788    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1789        return self.case_sql(
1790            exp.Case(ifs=[expression.copy()], default=expression.args.get("false"))
1791        )
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1793    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1794        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1795        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1796        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1798    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1799        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
1801    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1802        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1803        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1804        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1805        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1806        if unique_keys is not None:
1807            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1808        else:
1809            unique_keys = ""
1810        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1811        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1812        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1813        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1814        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1815        return f"JSON_OBJECT({expressions}{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})"
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1817    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1818        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1819        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1820        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1821        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1822        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1823        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
1825    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1827        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1828        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1829        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1830        with_ = (
1831            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1832            if expressions
1833            else ""
1834        )
1835        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
1837    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1838        query = expression.args.get("query")
1839        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1840        field = expression.args.get("field")
1841        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1842
1843        if query:
1844            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1845        elif unnest:
1846            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1847        elif field:
1848            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1849        else:
1850            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1851
1852        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1854    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1855        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
1857    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1858        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1859        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1860            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1861        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1862
1863        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1864            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1865            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1866
1867        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1868        if this:
1869            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1870            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1871
1872        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
1874    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1875        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
1877    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1878        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1879        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1880        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1881        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1882        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1883        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
1885    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1886        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
1888    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1889        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1890            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1891        else:
1892            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1893            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1894
1895        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
1897    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1898        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1899        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1900        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1901        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
1903    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1904        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
1906    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1907        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1908        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1909        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
1911    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1912        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1914    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1916        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1917        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
1919    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1920        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
1922    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1923        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1925    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1926        if not self.pretty:
1927            return self.binary(expression, op)
1928
1929        sqls = tuple(
1930            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1931            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1932        )
1933
1934        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self._max_text_width else " "
1935        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1937    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1938        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1940    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1941        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1943    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1944        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1946    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1947        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1949    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1950        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1952    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1953        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast) -> str:
1955    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast) -> str:
1956        return f"CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
1958    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
1959        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
1960        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
1962    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
1963        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
1965    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
1966        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
1968    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
1969        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1970        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1971        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1972        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1973        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1975    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1976        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1977        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
1978        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
1979        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
1980        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
1981        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
1982        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
1983        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
1984        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1986    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1987        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1988        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1989        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
1990        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
1991
1992        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1993            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1994
1995        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
1997    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
1998        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2000    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2001        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2002        if chain is not None:
2003            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2004
2005        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2007    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2008        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2009        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2010        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2012    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2013        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2014
2015        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2016        if dtype:
2017            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2018            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2019            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2020            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2021            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2022
2023        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2024        if default:
2025            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2026
2027        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2028            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2029
2030        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2032    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2033        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2034            # Remove db from tables
2035            expression = expression.transform(
2036                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2037            )
2038        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2039        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2041    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2042        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2043
2044        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2045            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2046        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2047            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2048        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2049            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2050        else:
2051            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2052
2053        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2054        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2056    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2057        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2058        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2059        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2061    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2062        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2063        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2064        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2065
2066        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2067        if enforced is not None:
2068            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2069
2070        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2072    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2073        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2074        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2075
2076        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2077        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2078        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2080    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2081        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2083    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2084        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2086    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2087        return self.sql(
2088            exp.Cast(
2089                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2090                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2091            )
2092        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2094    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2095        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2097    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2098        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2100    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2101        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2103    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2104        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2106    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2107        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2109    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2110        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2112    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2113        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2115    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2116        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2118    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2119        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2121    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2122        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2124    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2125        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2127    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2128        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2130    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2131        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2133    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2134        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2136    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2137        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2139    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2140        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2142    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2143        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2145    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2146        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2148    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2149        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2151    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2152        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2154    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2155        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2157    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2158        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2160    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2161        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2163    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2164        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2166    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2167        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2169    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2170        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2172    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2173        return f"TRY_CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2175    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2176        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2177        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2179        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2180        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2182    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2183        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2184        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2186    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2187        args = []
2188        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2189            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2190                for value in arg_value:
2191                    args.append(value)
2192            else:
2193                args.append(arg_value)
2194
2195        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2197    def func(self, name: str, *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str]) -> str:
2198        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}({self.format_args(*args)})"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2200    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2201        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2202        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self._max_text_width:
2203            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2204        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2206    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2207        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2209    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2210        return format_time(self.sql(expression, "format"), self.time_mapping, self.time_trie)
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[List[str]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2212    def expressions(
2213        self,
2214        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2215        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2216        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2217        flat: bool = False,
2218        indent: bool = True,
2219        sep: str = ", ",
2220        prefix: str = "",
2221    ) -> str:
2222        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2223
2224        if not expressions:
2225            return ""
2226
2227        if flat:
2228            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2229
2230        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2231
2232        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2233        pad = " " * self.pad
2234        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2235
2236        result_sqls = []
2237        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2238            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2239            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2240
2241            if self.pretty:
2242                if self._leading_comma:
2243                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2244                else:
2245                    result_sqls.append(
2246                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2247                    )
2248            else:
2249                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2250
2251        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2252        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2254    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2255        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2256        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2257        if flat:
2258            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2259        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2261    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2262        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2263        if not property_name:
2264            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2265        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2267    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2268        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2269        op = self.seg(op)
2270        return self.query_modifiers(
2271            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2272        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2274    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2275        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2277    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2278        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2280    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2281        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2282        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2283        expressions = (
2284            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2285        )
2286        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2288    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2289        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2290        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2291        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2293    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2294        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2296    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2297        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2298        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2299        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2300        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2301
2302        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2303        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2304            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2305            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2306                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2307        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2308            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2309                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2310            else:
2311                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2312        else:
2313            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2314        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2316    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2317        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2318        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2319        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2320        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2322    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2323        if expression.args.get("format"):
2324            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2325
2326        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2328    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2329        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2330        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2331        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2332        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2333        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2335    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2336        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2337        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2338        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2339        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2341    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2342        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2345def cached_generator(
2346    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2347) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2348    """Returns a cached generator."""
2349    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2350    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2351    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.