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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5from collections import defaultdict
   6from functools import reduce
   7
   8from sqlglot import exp
   9from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  10from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  11from sqlglot.time import format_time
  12from sqlglot.tokens import Tokenizer, TokenType
  13
  14if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  15    from sqlglot._typing import E
  16
  17logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  18
  19
  20class Generator:
  21    """
  22    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  23
  24    Args:
  25        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  26            Default: False.
  27        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  28            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  29            True or 'always': Always quote.
  30            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  31        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  32            Default: False.
  33        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  34            Default: 2.
  35        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  36            Default: 2.
  37        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  38            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  39            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  40            False: Disables function name normalization.
  41        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  42            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  43        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  44            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  45            Default: 3
  46        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  47            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  48            Default: False
  49        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  50            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  51            line length.
  52            Default: 80
  53        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  54            Default: True
  55    """
  56
  57    TRANSFORMS = {
  58        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  59            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  60        ),
  61        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  62            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  63        ),
  64        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  65        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  68        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  69        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  71        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  74        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  76        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  77        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  78        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  81        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  82        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  83        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  84        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  85        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  86        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  87        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  88        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  89        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  95        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  97        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  98        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  99        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 100        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
 101        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 102        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 103        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 104        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 105        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 106        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 107        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 108        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 109    }
 110
 111    # Whether the base comes first
 112    LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
 113
 114    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 115    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 116
 117    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 118    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 119
 120    # Always do union distinct or union all
 121    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 122
 123    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 124    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 125
 126    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 127    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 128
 129    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 130    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 131
 132    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 133    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 134
 135    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 136    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 137
 138    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 139    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 140
 141    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 142    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 143
 144    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 145    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 146
 147    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 148    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 149
 150    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 151    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 152
 153    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 154    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 155
 156    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 157    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 158
 159    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 160    JOIN_HINTS = True
 161
 162    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 163    TABLE_HINTS = True
 164
 165    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 166    QUERY_HINTS = True
 167
 168    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 169    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 170
 171    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 172    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 173
 174    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 175    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 176
 177    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 178    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 179
 180    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 181    RETURNING_END = True
 182
 183    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 184    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 185
 186    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 187    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 188
 189    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 190    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 191
 192    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 193    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 194
 195    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 196    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 197
 198    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 199    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 200    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 201    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 202
 203    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 204    ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 205
 206    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 207    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 208
 209    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 210    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 211
 212    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 213    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 214
 215    # Whether or not session variables / parameters are supported, e.g. @x in T-SQL
 216    SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
 217
 218    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 219    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 220
 221    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 222    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 223
 224    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 225    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 226
 227    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 228    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 229
 230    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 231    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 232
 233    # Whether or not nested CTEs (e.g. defined inside of subqueries) are allowed
 234    SUPPORTS_NESTED_CTES = True
 235
 236    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 237    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 238
 239    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 240        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 241        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 242        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 243        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 244        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 245        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 246        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 247        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 248        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 249    }
 250
 251    STAR_MAPPING = {
 252        "except": "EXCEPT",
 253        "replace": "REPLACE",
 254    }
 255
 256    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 257        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 258        "seconds": "second",
 259        "minutes": "minute",
 260        "hours": "hour",
 261        "days": "day",
 262        "weeks": "week",
 263        "months": "month",
 264        "quarters": "quarter",
 265        "years": "year",
 266    }
 267
 268    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 269
 270    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 271
 272    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 273
 274    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 275        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 276        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 277        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 278        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 279        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 280        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 281        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 282        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 283        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 284        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 285        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 286        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 287        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 288        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 289        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 290        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 291        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 292        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 293        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 294        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 295        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 296        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 297        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 298        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 299        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 300        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 301        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 302        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 303        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 304        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 305        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 306        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 307        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 308        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 309        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 310        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 311        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 312        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 313        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 314        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 315        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 316        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 317        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 318        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 319        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 320        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 321        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 322        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 323        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 324        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 325        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 326        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 327        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 328        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 329        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 330        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 331        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 332        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 333        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 334        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 335        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 336        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 337        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 338    }
 339
 340    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 341    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 342
 343    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 344    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 345        exp.Create,
 346        exp.Delete,
 347        exp.Drop,
 348        exp.From,
 349        exp.Insert,
 350        exp.Join,
 351        exp.Select,
 352        exp.Update,
 353        exp.Where,
 354        exp.With,
 355    )
 356
 357    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 358    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 359        exp.Binary,
 360        exp.Union,
 361    )
 362
 363    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 364    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 365        exp.Column,
 366        exp.Literal,
 367        exp.Neg,
 368        exp.Paren,
 369    )
 370
 371    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 372
 373    # Autofilled
 374    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 375    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 376    INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 377    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 378    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 379    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 380    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 381    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 382    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 383    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 384
 385    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 386
 387    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 388    QUOTE_START = "'"
 389    QUOTE_END = "'"
 390    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 391    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 392    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 393
 394    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 395    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 396    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 397    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 398    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 399    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 400    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 401
 402    __slots__ = (
 403        "pretty",
 404        "identify",
 405        "normalize",
 406        "pad",
 407        "_indent",
 408        "normalize_functions",
 409        "unsupported_level",
 410        "max_unsupported",
 411        "leading_comma",
 412        "max_text_width",
 413        "comments",
 414        "unsupported_messages",
 415        "_escaped_quote_end",
 416        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 417    )
 418
 419    def __init__(
 420        self,
 421        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 422        identify: str | bool = False,
 423        normalize: bool = False,
 424        pad: int = 2,
 425        indent: int = 2,
 426        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 427        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 428        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 429        leading_comma: bool = False,
 430        max_text_width: int = 80,
 431        comments: bool = True,
 432    ):
 433        import sqlglot
 434
 435        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 436        self.identify = identify
 437        self.normalize = normalize
 438        self.pad = pad
 439        self._indent = indent
 440        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 441        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 442        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 443        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 444        self.comments = comments
 445
 446        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 447        self.normalize_functions = (
 448            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 449        )
 450
 451        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 452        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 453        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 454            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 455        )
 456
 457    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 458        """
 459        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 460
 461        Args:
 462            expression: The syntax tree.
 463            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 464                it is safer to copy.
 465
 466        Returns:
 467            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 468        """
 469        if copy:
 470            expression = expression.copy()
 471
 472        # Some dialects only support CTEs at the top level expression, so we need to bubble up nested
 473        # CTEs to that level in order to produce a syntactically valid expression. This transformation
 474        # happens here to minimize code duplication, since many expressions support CTEs.
 475        if (
 476            not self.SUPPORTS_NESTED_CTES
 477            and isinstance(expression, exp.Expression)
 478            and not expression.parent
 479            and "with" in expression.arg_types
 480            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 481        ):
 482            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 483
 484            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 485
 486        self.unsupported_messages = []
 487        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 488
 489        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 490            return sql
 491
 492        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 493            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 494                logger.warning(msg)
 495        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 496            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 497
 498        if self.pretty:
 499            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 500        return sql
 501
 502    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 503        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 504            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 505        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 506
 507    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 508        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 509
 510    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 511        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 512
 513    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 514        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 515        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 516        return comment
 517
 518    def maybe_comment(
 519        self,
 520        sql: str,
 521        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 522        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 523    ) -> str:
 524        comments = (
 525            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 526            if self.comments
 527            else None
 528        )
 529
 530        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 531            return sql
 532
 533        comments_sql = " ".join(
 534            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 535        )
 536
 537        if not comments_sql:
 538            return sql
 539
 540        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 541            return (
 542                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 543                if sql[0].isspace()
 544                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 545            )
 546
 547        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 548
 549    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 550        this_sql = self.indent(
 551            self.sql(expression)
 552            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 553            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 554            level=1,
 555            pad=0,
 556        )
 557        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 558
 559    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 560        original = self.identify
 561        self.identify = False
 562        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 563        self.identify = original
 564        return result
 565
 566    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 567        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 568            return name.upper()
 569        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 570            return name.lower()
 571        return name
 572
 573    def indent(
 574        self,
 575        sql: str,
 576        level: int = 0,
 577        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 578        skip_first: bool = False,
 579        skip_last: bool = False,
 580    ) -> str:
 581        if not self.pretty:
 582            return sql
 583
 584        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 585        lines = sql.split("\n")
 586
 587        return "\n".join(
 588            line
 589            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 590            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 591            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 592        )
 593
 594    def sql(
 595        self,
 596        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 597        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 598        comment: bool = True,
 599    ) -> str:
 600        if not expression:
 601            return ""
 602
 603        if isinstance(expression, str):
 604            return expression
 605
 606        if key:
 607            value = expression.args.get(key)
 608            if value:
 609                return self.sql(value)
 610            return ""
 611
 612        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 613
 614        if callable(transform):
 615            sql = transform(self, expression)
 616        elif transform:
 617            sql = transform
 618        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 619            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 620
 621            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 622                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 623            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 624                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 625            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 626                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 627            else:
 628                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 629        else:
 630            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 631
 632        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 633
 634    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 635        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 636        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 637        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 638
 639    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 640        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 641        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 642        options = expression.args.get("options")
 643        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 644        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 645        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 646        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 647        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 648
 649    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 650        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 651            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 652        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 653        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 654
 655    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 656        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 657
 658        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 659            join_mark = ""
 660            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 661
 662        column = ".".join(
 663            self.sql(part)
 664            for part in (
 665                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 666                expression.args.get("db"),
 667                expression.args.get("table"),
 668                expression.args.get("this"),
 669            )
 670            if part
 671        )
 672
 673        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 674
 675    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 676        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 677        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 678        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 679        return f"{position}{this}"
 680
 681    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 682        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 683        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 684        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 685        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 686        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 687        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 688        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 689        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 690
 691        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 692            kind = ""
 693
 694        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 695
 696    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 697        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 698        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 699        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 700
 701    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 702        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 703        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 704            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 705        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 706            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 707        else:
 708            persisted = ""
 709        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 710
 711    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 712        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 713
 714    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 715        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 716            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 717        else:
 718            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 719
 720        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 721
 722    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 723        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 724    ) -> str:
 725        this = ""
 726        if expression.this is not None:
 727            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 728            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 729
 730        start = expression.args.get("start")
 731        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 732        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 733        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 734        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 735        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 736        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 737        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 738        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 739        cycle_sql = ""
 740
 741        if cycle is not None:
 742            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 743            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 744
 745        sequence_opts = ""
 746        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 747            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 748            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 749
 750        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 751        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 752
 753        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 754
 755    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 756        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 757
 758    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 759        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 760        if desc is not None:
 761            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 762        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 763
 764    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 765        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 766        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 767        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 768        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 769        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 770
 771    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 772        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 773
 774    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 775        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 776        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 777        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 778
 779        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 780
 781        properties_sql = ""
 782        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 783            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 784        ):
 785            properties_sql = self.sql(
 786                exp.Properties(
 787                    expressions=[
 788                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 789                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 790                    ]
 791                )
 792            )
 793
 794        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 795        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 796
 797        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 798        if expression_sql:
 799            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 800
 801            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 802                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 803                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 804                        exp.Properties(
 805                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 806                        ),
 807                        wrapped=False,
 808                    )
 809                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 810                else:
 811                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 812
 813        postindex_props_sql = ""
 814        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 815            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 816                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 817                wrapped=False,
 818                prefix=" ",
 819            )
 820
 821        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 822        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 823        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 824
 825        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 826        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 827
 828        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 829        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 830            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 831                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 832                sep=" ",
 833                prefix=" ",
 834                wrapped=False,
 835            )
 836
 837        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 838
 839        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 840        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 841            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 842                exp.Properties(
 843                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 844                ),
 845                sep=" ",
 846                prefix=" ",
 847                wrapped=False,
 848            )
 849
 850        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 851        no_schema_binding = (
 852            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 853        )
 854
 855        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 856        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 857
 858        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 859        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 860
 861    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 862        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 863        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 864        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 865        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 866        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 867
 868        if when:
 869            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 870            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 871            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 872
 873        return this
 874
 875    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 876        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 877
 878    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 879        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 880        if with_:
 881            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 882        return sql
 883
 884    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 885        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 886        recursive = (
 887            "RECURSIVE "
 888            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 889            else ""
 890        )
 891
 892        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 893
 894    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 895        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 896        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 897
 898    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 899        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 900        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 901        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 902
 903        if not alias and not self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 904            alias = "_t"
 905
 906        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 907
 908    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 909        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 910        if self.BIT_START:
 911            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 912        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 913
 914    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 916        if self.HEX_START:
 917            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 918        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 919
 920    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 922        if self.BYTE_START:
 923            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 924        return this
 925
 926    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 927        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 928        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 929
 930    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 931        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 932        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 933        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 934        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 935
 936    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 937        type_value = expression.this
 938
 939        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 940            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 941        else:
 942            type_sql = (
 943                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 944                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 945                else type_value
 946            )
 947
 948        nested = ""
 949        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 950        values = ""
 951
 952        if interior:
 953            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 954                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 955                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 956                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 957                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 958                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 959            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 960                nested = f" {interior}"
 961            else:
 962                nested = f"({interior})"
 963
 964        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 965        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 966            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 967            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 968        ):
 969            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 970
 971        return type_sql
 972
 973    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 974        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 975        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 976        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 977        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 978
 979    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 980        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 981        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 982        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 983        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 984        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 985        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 986        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 987        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 988        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 989        if self.RETURNING_END:
 990            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 991        else:
 992            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 993        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 994
 995    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 996        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 997        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 998        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 999        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1000        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1001        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1002        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1003        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1004        return (
1005            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1006        )
1007
1008    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1009        return self.prepend_ctes(
1010            expression,
1011            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1012        )
1013
1014    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1015        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1016
1017    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1018        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1019        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
1020        count = expression.args.get("count")
1021        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1022        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1023            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1024        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1025        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1026
1027    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1028        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1029            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1030            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1031            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1032
1033        agg = expression.this
1034        agg_arg = agg.this
1035        cond = expression.expression.this
1036        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1037        return self.sql(agg)
1038
1039    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1040        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1041            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1042            return ""
1043
1044        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1045
1046    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1047        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1048        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1049        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1050        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1051        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1052        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1053        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1054        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1055        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1056        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1057        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1058        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1059        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1060        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1061        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1062        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1063
1064    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1065        text = expression.name
1066        lower = text.lower()
1067        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1068        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1069        if (
1070            expression.quoted
1071            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1072            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1073            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1074        ):
1075            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1076        return text
1077
1078    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1079        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1080        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1081        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1082        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1083        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1084
1085    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1086        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1087        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1088
1089    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1090        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1091
1092    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1093        root_properties = []
1094        with_properties = []
1095
1096        for p in expression.expressions:
1097            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1098            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1099                with_properties.append(p)
1100            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1101                root_properties.append(p)
1102
1103        return self.root_properties(
1104            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1105        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1106
1107    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1108        if properties.expressions:
1109            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1110        return ""
1111
1112    def properties(
1113        self,
1114        properties: exp.Properties,
1115        prefix: str = "",
1116        sep: str = ", ",
1117        suffix: str = "",
1118        wrapped: bool = True,
1119    ) -> str:
1120        if properties.expressions:
1121            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1122            if expressions:
1123                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1124                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1125        return ""
1126
1127    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1128        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1129
1130    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1131        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1132        for p in properties.expressions:
1133            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1134            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1135                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1136            else:
1137                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1138
1139        return properties_locs
1140
1141    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1142        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1143            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1144        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1145
1146    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1147        property_cls = expression.__class__
1148        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1149            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1150
1151        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1152        if not property_name:
1153            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1154
1155        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1156
1157    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1158        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1159        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1160        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1161
1162    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1163        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1164        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1165        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1166
1167    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1168        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1169        local = expression.args.get("local")
1170        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1171        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1172        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1173        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1174        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1175
1176    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1177        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1178        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1179        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1180
1181    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1182        if expression.args.get("default"):
1183            property = "DEFAULT"
1184        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1185            property = "ON"
1186        else:
1187            property = "OFF"
1188        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1189
1190    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1191        if expression.args.get("no"):
1192            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1193        if expression.args.get("default"):
1194            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1195
1196        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1197        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1198
1199    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1200        default = expression.args.get("default")
1201        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1202        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1203        if default or minimum or maximum:
1204            if default:
1205                prop = "DEFAULT"
1206            elif minimum:
1207                prop = "MINIMUM"
1208            else:
1209                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1210            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1211        units = expression.args.get("units")
1212        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1213        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1214
1215    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1216        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1217        always = expression.args.get("always")
1218        default = expression.args.get("default")
1219        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1220        never = expression.args.get("never")
1221
1222        if autotemp is not None:
1223            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1224        elif always:
1225            prop = "ALWAYS"
1226        elif default:
1227            prop = "DEFAULT"
1228        elif manual:
1229            prop = "MANUAL"
1230        elif never:
1231            prop = "NEVER"
1232        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1233
1234    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1235        no = expression.args.get("no")
1236        no = " NO" if no else ""
1237        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1238        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1239
1240        for_ = ""
1241        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1242            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1243        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1244            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1245        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1246            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1247        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1248
1249    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1250        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1251            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1252        if expression.this:
1253            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1254            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1255            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1256
1257        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1258        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1259        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1260
1261    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1262        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1263
1264        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1265        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1266            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1267        else:
1268            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1269
1270        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1271
1272    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1273        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1274        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1275        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1276        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1277        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1278        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1279        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1280
1281    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1282        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1283        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1284        statistics_sql = ""
1285        if statistics is not None:
1286            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1287        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1288
1289    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1290        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1291
1292        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1293            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1294        else:
1295            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1296
1297        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1298        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1299        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1300
1301        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1302
1303        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1304        partition_sql = (
1305            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1306        )
1307        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1308        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1309        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1310        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1311        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1312        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1313
1314        if self.RETURNING_END:
1315            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1316        else:
1317            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1318
1319        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1320        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1321
1322    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1323        return self.prepend_ctes(
1324            expression,
1325            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1326        )
1327
1328    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1329        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1330
1331    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1332        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1333
1334    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1335        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1336        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1337        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1338        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1339        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1340
1341    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1342        return expression.name.upper()
1343
1344    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1345        return expression.name.upper()
1346
1347    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1348        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1349        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1350        if constraint:
1351            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1352        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1353        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1354        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1355        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1356        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1357        if expressions:
1358            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1359        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1360
1361    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1362        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1363
1364    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1365        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1366        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1367        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1368        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1369        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1370        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1371        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1372        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1373        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1374        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1375        null = expression.args.get("null")
1376        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1377        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1378
1379    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1380        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1381
1382    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1383        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1384        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1385        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1386        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1387
1388    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1389        table = ".".join(
1390            part
1391            for part in [
1392                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1393                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1394                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1395            ]
1396            if part
1397        )
1398
1399        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1400        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1401        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1402        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1403        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1404        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1405        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1406        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1407        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1408        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1409
1410        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1411        if file_format:
1412            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1413            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1414            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1415
1416        index = self.sql(expression, "index")
1417        index = f" AT {index}" if index else ""
1418
1419        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1420        if ordinality:
1421            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1422            alias = ""
1423
1424        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{index}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1425
1426    def tablesample_sql(
1427        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1428    ) -> str:
1429        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1430            table = expression.this.copy()
1431            table.set("alias", None)
1432            this = self.sql(table)
1433            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1434        else:
1435            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1436            alias = ""
1437
1438        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1439        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1440        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1441        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1442        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1443        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1444        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1445        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1446        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1447        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1448        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1449
1450        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1451        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1452            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1453
1454        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1455        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1456        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1457
1458        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1459        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1460            expr = f"({expr})"
1461
1462        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1463
1464    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1465        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1466
1467        if expression.this:
1468            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1469            if not expressions:
1470                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1471
1472            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1473            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1474            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1475            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1476            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1477
1478        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1479        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1480        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1481        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1482        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1483        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1484        if include_nulls is not None:
1485            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1486        else:
1487            nulls = ""
1488        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1489
1490    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1491        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1492        kind = expression.text("kind")
1493        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1494        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1495
1496    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1497        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1498
1499    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1500        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1501        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1502        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1503        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1504        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1505        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1506        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1507        if self.RETURNING_END:
1508            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1509        else:
1510            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1511        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1512        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1513
1514    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1515        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1516        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1517            args = self.expressions(expression)
1518            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1519            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1520            values = (
1521                f"({values})"
1522                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1523                else values
1524            )
1525            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1526
1527        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1528        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1529        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1530
1531        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1532
1533        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1534            row = tup.expressions
1535
1536            if i == 0 and column_names:
1537                row = [
1538                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1539                ]
1540
1541            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1542
1543        if self.pretty:
1544            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1545            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1546            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1547            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1548            return self.subquery_sql(
1549                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1550            )
1551
1552        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1553        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1554        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1555
1556    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1557        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1558
1559    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1560        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1561        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1562        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1563
1564    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1565        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1566
1567    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1568        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1569
1570        if expression.args.get("all"):
1571            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1572
1573        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1574        grouping_sets = (
1575            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1576        )
1577
1578        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1579        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1580            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1581        else:
1582            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1583            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1584
1585        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1586        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1587            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1588        else:
1589            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1590            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1591
1592        groupings = csv(
1593            grouping_sets,
1594            cube_sql,
1595            rollup_sql,
1596            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1597            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1598        )
1599
1600        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1601            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1602
1603        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1604
1605    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1606        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1607        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1608
1609    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1610        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1611        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1612        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1613        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1614        return start + connect
1615
1616    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1617        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1618
1619    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1620        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1621            side = None
1622        else:
1623            side = expression.side
1624
1625        op_sql = " ".join(
1626            op
1627            for op in (
1628                expression.method,
1629                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1630                side,
1631                expression.kind,
1632                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1633            )
1634            if op
1635        )
1636        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1637        using = expression.args.get("using")
1638
1639        if not on_sql and using:
1640            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1641
1642        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1643
1644        if on_sql:
1645            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1646            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1647            if using:
1648                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1649            else:
1650                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1651        elif not op_sql:
1652            return f", {this_sql}"
1653
1654        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1655        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1656
1657    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1658        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1659        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1660        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1661
1662    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1663        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1664
1665        if expression.args.get("view"):
1666            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1667            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1668            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1669            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1670            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1671            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1672
1673        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1674        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1675        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1676
1677    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1678        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1679        args = ", ".join(
1680            self.sql(self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e)
1681            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1682            if e
1683        )
1684        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1685
1686    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1687        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1688        expression = expression.expression
1689        expression = (
1690            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1691        )
1692        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1693
1694    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1695        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1696        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1697        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1698        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1699        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1700        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1701        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1702        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1703
1704    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1705        expressions = (
1706            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1707        )
1708        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1709        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1710
1711    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1712        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1713
1714    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1715        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1716            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1717            return ""
1718
1719        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1720        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1721        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1722        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1723
1724        if wait is not None:
1725            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1726                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1727            else:
1728                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1729
1730        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1731
1732    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1733        text = expression.this or ""
1734        if expression.is_string:
1735            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1736        return text
1737
1738    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1739        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1740        if self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1741            text = "".join(self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1742        elif self.pretty:
1743            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1744        return text
1745
1746    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1747        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1748        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1749        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1750        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1751        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1752        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1753        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1754        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1755        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1756        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1757        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1758
1759    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1760        return "NULL"
1761
1762    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1763        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1764
1765    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1766        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1767        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1768        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1769
1770    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1771        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1772
1773    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1774        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1775
1776    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1777        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1778
1779    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1780        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1781        asc = not desc
1782
1783        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1784        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1785        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1786        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1787        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1788
1789        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1790        nulls_sort_change = ""
1791        if nulls_first and (
1792            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1793        ):
1794            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1795        elif (
1796            nulls_last
1797            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1798            and not nulls_are_last
1799        ):
1800            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1801
1802        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1803            self.unsupported(
1804                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1805            )
1806            nulls_sort_change = ""
1807
1808        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1809
1810    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1811        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1812        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1813        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1814        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1815        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1816        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1817        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1818        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1819        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1820        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1821        definition_sqls = [
1822            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1823            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1824        ]
1825        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1826        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1827        body = "".join(
1828            (
1829                partition,
1830                order,
1831                measures,
1832                rows,
1833                after,
1834                pattern,
1835                define,
1836            )
1837        )
1838        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1839        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1840        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1841
1842    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1843        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1844
1845        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1846        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1847
1848        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1849            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1850        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1851            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1852
1853        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1854
1855        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1856            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1857            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1858            else []
1859        )
1860
1861        return csv(
1862            *sqls,
1863            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1864            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1865            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1866            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1867            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1868            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1869            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1870            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1871            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1872            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1873            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1874            sep="",
1875        )
1876
1877    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1878        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1879    ) -> t.List[str]:
1880        return [
1881            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1882            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1883        ]
1884
1885    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1886        return [
1887            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1888            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1889            if expression.args.get("windows")
1890            else "",
1891            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1892            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1893            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1894        ]
1895
1896    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1897        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1898        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1899        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1900
1901    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1902        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1903        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1904        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1905        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1906        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1907        top = (
1908            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1909            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1910            else ""
1911        )
1912
1913        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1914
1915        if kind:
1916            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1917                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1918            else:
1919                if kind == "STRUCT":
1920                    expressions = self.expressions(
1921                        sqls=[
1922                            self.sql(
1923                                exp.Struct(
1924                                    expressions=[
1925                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1926                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1927                                        )
1928                                        for e in expression.expressions
1929                                    ]
1930                                )
1931                            )
1932                        ]
1933                    )
1934                kind = ""
1935
1936        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1937        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1938            expression,
1939            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1940            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1941            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1942        )
1943        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1944
1945    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1947        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1948        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
1949
1950    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1951        if expression.expressions:
1952            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1953        return ""
1954
1955    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1956        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1957        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1958        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1959        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1960        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1961
1962    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1963        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1964        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
1965
1966    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1967        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1968        kind = expression.text("kind")
1969        if kind:
1970            kind = f"{kind}."
1971        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1972
1973    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1974        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1975
1976    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1977        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1978        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1979
1980        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1981        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1982
1983        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1984        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1985
1986    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1987        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1988        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1989
1990    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1991        return self.prepend_ctes(
1992            expression,
1993            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1994        )
1995
1996    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1997        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1998        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1999        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2000        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2001
2002    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2003        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2004
2005        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2006        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2007
2008        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2009            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2010                alias.append("columns", offset)
2011
2012        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2013            columns = alias.columns
2014            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2015        else:
2016            alias = self.sql(alias)
2017
2018        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2019        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2020            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2021        else:
2022            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2023                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2024            elif offset:
2025                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2026            else:
2027                suffix = alias
2028
2029        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2030
2031    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2032        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2033        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2034
2035    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2036        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2037        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2038        order = expression.args.get("order")
2039        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2040        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2041        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2042        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2043
2044        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2045
2046        first = expression.args.get("first")
2047        if first is None:
2048            first = ""
2049        else:
2050            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2051
2052        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2053            return f"{this} {alias}"
2054
2055        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2056        return f"{this} ({args})"
2057
2058    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2059        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2060        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2061
2062    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2063        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2064        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2065        end = (
2066            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2067            or "CURRENT ROW"
2068        )
2069        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2070
2071    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2072        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2073        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2074        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2075
2076    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2077        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2078        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2079        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2080        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2081
2082    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2083        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
2084        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2085
2086        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2087
2088    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
2089        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
2090
2091    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2092        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2093
2094    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2095        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2096        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2097            this = self.wrap(this)
2098        return f"ANY {this}"
2099
2100    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2101        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2102
2103    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2104        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2105        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2106
2107        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2108            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2109            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2110
2111        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2112
2113        if default:
2114            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2115
2116        statements.append("END")
2117
2118        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2119            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2120
2121        return " ".join(statements)
2122
2123    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2124        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2125        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2126        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2127
2128    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2129        order = expression.args.get("order")
2130        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2131        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2132
2133    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2134        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2135        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2136        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2137
2138    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2139        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2140
2141        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2142            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2143        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2144            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2145        else:
2146            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2147
2148    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2149        expressions = expression.expressions
2150        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2151            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
2152        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2153
2154    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2155        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2156        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2157
2158    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2159        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2160        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2161        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2162        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2163        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2164        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2165        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2166        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2167
2168    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2169        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2170        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2171        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2172        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2173
2174    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2175        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2176
2177    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2178        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2179        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2180        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2181
2182    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2183        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2184
2185    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2186        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2187
2188    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2189        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2190        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2191        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2192        if unique_keys is not None:
2193            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2194        else:
2195            unique_keys = ""
2196        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2197        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2198        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2199        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2200        return self.func(
2201            "JSON_OBJECT",
2202            *expression.expressions,
2203            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2204        )
2205
2206    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2207        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2208        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2209        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2210        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2211        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2212        return self.func(
2213            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2214        )
2215
2216    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2217        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2218        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2219        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2220        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2221        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2222        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2223        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2224        return self.func(
2225            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2226            this,
2227            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2228        )
2229
2230    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2231        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2232        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2233        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2234
2235        if nested_schema:
2236            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2237
2238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2239        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2240        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2241        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2242
2243    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2244        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2245
2246    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2247        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2248        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2249        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2250        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2251        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2252        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2253        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2254        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2255        return self.func(
2256            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2257        )
2258
2259    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2260        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2261        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2262        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2263        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2264        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2265        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2266
2267    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2268        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2269        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2270        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2271        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2272        with_ = (
2273            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2274            if expressions
2275            else ""
2276        )
2277        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2278
2279    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2280        query = expression.args.get("query")
2281        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2282        field = expression.args.get("field")
2283        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2284
2285        if query:
2286            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2287        elif unnest:
2288            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2289        elif field:
2290            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2291        else:
2292            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2293
2294        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2295
2296    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2297        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2298
2299    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2300        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2301        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2302            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2303        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2304
2305        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2306            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2307            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2308
2309        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2310        if this:
2311            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2312            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2313
2314        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2315
2316    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2317        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2318
2319    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2320        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2321        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2322        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2323        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2324        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2325        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2326
2327    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2328        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2329
2330    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2331        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2332            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2333        else:
2334            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2335            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2336
2337        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2338
2339    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2340        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2341        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2342        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2343        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2344
2345    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2346        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2347
2348    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2349        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2350        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2351        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2352
2353    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2354        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2355
2356    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2357        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2358        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2359        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2360
2361    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2362        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2363
2364    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2365        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2366
2367    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2368        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2369
2370    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2371        if not self.pretty:
2372            return self.binary(expression, op)
2373
2374        sqls = tuple(
2375            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2376            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2377        )
2378
2379        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2380        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2381
2382    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2383        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2384
2385    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2386        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2387
2388    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2389        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2390
2391    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2392        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2393
2394    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2395        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2396
2397    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2398        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2399
2400    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2401        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2402        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2403        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2404
2405    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2406        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2407        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2408
2409    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2410        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2411            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2412        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2413
2414    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2415        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2416
2417    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2418        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2419        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2420        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2421        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2422        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2423
2424    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2425        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2426        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2427        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2428        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2429        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2430        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2431        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2432        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2433        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2434
2435    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2436        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2437        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2438        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2439        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2440
2441        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2442            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2443
2444        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2445
2446    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2447        return "BEGIN"
2448
2449    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2450        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2451        if chain is not None:
2452            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2453
2454        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2455
2456    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2457        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2458        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2459        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2460
2461    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2462        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2463
2464        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2465        if dtype:
2466            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2467            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2468            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2469            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2470            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2471
2472        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2473        if default:
2474            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2475
2476        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2477            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2478
2479        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2480
2481    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2482        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2483            # Remove db from tables
2484            expression = expression.transform(
2485                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2486            )
2487        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2488        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2489
2490    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2491        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2492
2493        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2494            if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2495                actions = self.expressions(
2496                    expression,
2497                    key="actions",
2498                    prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2499                )
2500            else:
2501                actions = f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions')}"
2502        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2503            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2504        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2505            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2506        else:
2507            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2508
2509        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2510        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2511        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2512
2513    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2514        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2515        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2516        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2517
2518    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2519        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2520        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2521        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2522
2523        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2524        if enforced is not None:
2525            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2526
2527        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2528
2529    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2530        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2531        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2532
2533        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2534        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2535        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2536
2537    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2538        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2539
2540    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2541        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2542
2543    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2544        return self.sql(
2545            exp.Cast(
2546                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2547                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2548            )
2549        )
2550
2551    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2552        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2553
2554    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2555        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2556            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2557        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2558
2559    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2560        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2561
2562    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2563        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2564
2565    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2566        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2567
2568    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2569        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2570
2571    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2572        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2573
2574    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2575        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2576
2577    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2578        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2579
2580    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2581        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2582
2583    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2584        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2585
2586    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2587        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2588
2589    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2590        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2591
2592    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2593        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2594            return self.sql(
2595                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2596            )
2597        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2598
2599    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2600        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2601
2602    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2603        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2604
2605    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2606        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2607
2608    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2609        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2610
2611    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2612        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2613
2614    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2615        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2616
2617    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2618        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2619
2620    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2621        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2622
2623    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2624        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2625
2626    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2627        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2628
2629    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2630        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2631
2632    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2633        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2634
2635    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2636        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2637
2638    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2639        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2640
2641    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2642        args = list(expression.args.values())
2643        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2644            args.reverse()
2645        return self.func("LOG", *args)
2646
2647    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2648        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2649        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2650        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2651        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2652        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2653
2654    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2655        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2656        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2657
2658    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2659        args = []
2660
2661        for key in expression.arg_types:
2662            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2663
2664            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2665                for value in arg_value:
2666                    args.append(value)
2667            elif arg_value is not None:
2668                args.append(arg_value)
2669
2670        if self.normalize_functions:
2671            name = expression.sql_name()
2672        else:
2673            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2674
2675        return self.func(name, *args)
2676
2677    def func(
2678        self,
2679        name: str,
2680        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2681        prefix: str = "(",
2682        suffix: str = ")",
2683    ) -> str:
2684        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2685
2686    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2687        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2688        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2689            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2690        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2691
2692    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2693        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2694
2695    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2696        return format_time(
2697            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2698        )
2699
2700    def expressions(
2701        self,
2702        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2703        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2704        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2705        flat: bool = False,
2706        indent: bool = True,
2707        skip_first: bool = False,
2708        sep: str = ", ",
2709        prefix: str = "",
2710    ) -> str:
2711        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2712
2713        if not expressions:
2714            return ""
2715
2716        if flat:
2717            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2718
2719        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2720
2721        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2722        pad = " " * self.pad
2723        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2724
2725        result_sqls = []
2726        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2727            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2728            if not sql:
2729                continue
2730
2731            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2732
2733            if self.pretty:
2734                if self.leading_comma:
2735                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2736                else:
2737                    result_sqls.append(
2738                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2739                    )
2740            else:
2741                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2742
2743        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2744        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2745
2746    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2747        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2748        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2749        if flat:
2750            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2751        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2752
2753    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2754        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2755        if not property_name:
2756            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2757        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2758
2759    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2760        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2761        op = self.seg(op)
2762        return self.query_modifiers(
2763            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2764        )
2765
2766    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2767        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2768
2769    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2770        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2771
2772    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2773        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2774        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2775        expressions = (
2776            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2777        )
2778        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2779
2780    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2781        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2782        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2783        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2784
2785    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2786        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2787
2788    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2789        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2790        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2791        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2792        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2793
2794        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2795        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2796            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2797            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2798                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2799        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2800            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2801                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2802            else:
2803                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2804        else:
2805            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2806        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2807
2808    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2809        table = expression.this
2810        table_alias = ""
2811
2812        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2813        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2814            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2815            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2816
2817        this = self.sql(table)
2818        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2819        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2820        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2821
2822        return self.prepend_ctes(
2823            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2824        )
2825
2826    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2827        if expression.args.get("format"):
2828            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2829
2830        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2831
2832    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2834        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2835        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2836        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2837        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2838
2839    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2840        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2841        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2842        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2843        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2844
2845    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2846        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2847
2848    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2849        return ""
2850
2851    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2852        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2853        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2854        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2855        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2856        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2857
2858    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2860        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2861
2862        if having:
2863            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2864
2865        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2866
2867    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2868        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2869        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2870        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2871        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2872        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2873        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2874        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2875        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2876        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2877        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2878        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2879        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2880        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2881
2882    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2883        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2884        if key_block_size:
2885            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2886
2887        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2888        if using:
2889            return f"USING {using}"
2890
2891        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2892        if parser:
2893            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2894
2895        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2896        if comment:
2897            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2898
2899        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2900        if visible is not None:
2901            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2902
2903        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2904        if engine_attr:
2905            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2906
2907        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2908        if secondary_engine_attr:
2909            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2910
2911        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2912        return ""
2913
2914    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2915        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2916        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2917        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2918        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2919        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2920        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2921        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2922        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2923        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2924        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2925        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
2926
2927    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2928        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2929            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2930
2931        case = exp.Case().when(
2932            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2933            expression.args["true"],
2934            copy=False,
2935        )
2936        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2937        if else_cond:
2938            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
2939
2940        return self.sql(case)
2941
2942    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2943        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2944        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2945        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2946        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2947        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2948        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
2949
2950    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2951        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
2952
2953    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
2954        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2955
2956    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
2957        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
2958        model = f"MODEL {model}"
2959        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2960        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
2961        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
2962        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
2963
2964    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
2965        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
2966            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
2967
2968            expression = simplify(expression)
2969
2970        return expression
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  21class Generator:
  22    """
  23    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  24
  25    Args:
  26        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  27            Default: False.
  28        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  29            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  30            True or 'always': Always quote.
  31            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  32        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  33            Default: False.
  34        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  35            Default: 2.
  36        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  37            Default: 2.
  38        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  39            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  40            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  41            False: Disables function name normalization.
  42        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  43            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  44        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  45            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  46            Default: 3
  47        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  48            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  49            Default: False
  50        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  51            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  52            line length.
  53            Default: 80
  54        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  55            Default: True
  56    """
  57
  58    TRANSFORMS = {
  59        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  60            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  61        ),
  62        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  63            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  64        ),
  65        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  66        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  69        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  70        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  72        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  74        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  77        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  78        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  79        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  82        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  83        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  84        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  85        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  86        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  87        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  89        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  90        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  96        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  98        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  99        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 100        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 101        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
 102        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 103        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 104        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 105        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 107        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 108        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 109        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 110    }
 111
 112    # Whether the base comes first
 113    LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
 114
 115    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 116    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 117
 118    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 119    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 120
 121    # Always do union distinct or union all
 122    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 123
 124    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 125    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 126
 127    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 128    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 129
 130    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 131    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 132
 133    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 134    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 135
 136    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 137    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 138
 139    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 140    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 141
 142    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 143    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 144
 145    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 146    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 147
 148    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 149    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 150
 151    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 152    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 153
 154    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 155    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 156
 157    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 158    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 159
 160    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 161    JOIN_HINTS = True
 162
 163    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 164    TABLE_HINTS = True
 165
 166    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 167    QUERY_HINTS = True
 168
 169    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 170    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 171
 172    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 173    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 174
 175    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 176    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 177
 178    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 179    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 180
 181    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 182    RETURNING_END = True
 183
 184    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 185    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 186
 187    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 188    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 189
 190    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 191    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 192
 193    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 194    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 195
 196    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 197    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 198
 199    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 200    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 201    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 202    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 203
 204    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 205    ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 206
 207    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 208    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 209
 210    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 211    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 212
 213    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 214    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 215
 216    # Whether or not session variables / parameters are supported, e.g. @x in T-SQL
 217    SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
 218
 219    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 220    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 221
 222    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 223    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 224
 225    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 226    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 227
 228    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 229    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 230
 231    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 232    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 233
 234    # Whether or not nested CTEs (e.g. defined inside of subqueries) are allowed
 235    SUPPORTS_NESTED_CTES = True
 236
 237    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 238    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 239
 240    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 241        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 242        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 243        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 244        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 245        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 246        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 247        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 248        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 249        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 250    }
 251
 252    STAR_MAPPING = {
 253        "except": "EXCEPT",
 254        "replace": "REPLACE",
 255    }
 256
 257    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 258        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 259        "seconds": "second",
 260        "minutes": "minute",
 261        "hours": "hour",
 262        "days": "day",
 263        "weeks": "week",
 264        "months": "month",
 265        "quarters": "quarter",
 266        "years": "year",
 267    }
 268
 269    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 270
 271    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 272
 273    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 274
 275    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 276        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 277        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 278        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 279        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 280        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 281        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 282        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 283        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 284        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 285        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 286        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 287        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 288        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 289        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 290        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 291        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 292        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 293        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 294        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 295        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 296        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 297        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 298        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 299        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 300        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 301        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 302        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 303        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 304        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 305        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 306        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 307        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 308        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 309        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 310        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 311        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 312        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 313        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 314        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 315        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 316        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 317        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 318        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 319        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 320        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 321        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 322        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 323        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 324        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 325        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 326        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 327        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 328        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 329        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 330        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 331        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 332        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 333        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 334        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 335        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 336        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 337        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 338        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 339    }
 340
 341    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 342    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 343
 344    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 345    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 346        exp.Create,
 347        exp.Delete,
 348        exp.Drop,
 349        exp.From,
 350        exp.Insert,
 351        exp.Join,
 352        exp.Select,
 353        exp.Update,
 354        exp.Where,
 355        exp.With,
 356    )
 357
 358    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 359    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 360        exp.Binary,
 361        exp.Union,
 362    )
 363
 364    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 365    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 366        exp.Column,
 367        exp.Literal,
 368        exp.Neg,
 369        exp.Paren,
 370    )
 371
 372    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 373
 374    # Autofilled
 375    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 376    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 377    INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 378    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 379    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 380    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 381    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 382    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 383    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 384    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 385
 386    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 387
 388    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 389    QUOTE_START = "'"
 390    QUOTE_END = "'"
 391    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 392    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 393    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 394
 395    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 396    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 397    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 398    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 399    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 400    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 401    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 402
 403    __slots__ = (
 404        "pretty",
 405        "identify",
 406        "normalize",
 407        "pad",
 408        "_indent",
 409        "normalize_functions",
 410        "unsupported_level",
 411        "max_unsupported",
 412        "leading_comma",
 413        "max_text_width",
 414        "comments",
 415        "unsupported_messages",
 416        "_escaped_quote_end",
 417        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 418    )
 419
 420    def __init__(
 421        self,
 422        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 423        identify: str | bool = False,
 424        normalize: bool = False,
 425        pad: int = 2,
 426        indent: int = 2,
 427        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 428        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 429        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 430        leading_comma: bool = False,
 431        max_text_width: int = 80,
 432        comments: bool = True,
 433    ):
 434        import sqlglot
 435
 436        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 437        self.identify = identify
 438        self.normalize = normalize
 439        self.pad = pad
 440        self._indent = indent
 441        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 442        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 443        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 444        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 445        self.comments = comments
 446
 447        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 448        self.normalize_functions = (
 449            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 450        )
 451
 452        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 453        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 454        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 455            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 456        )
 457
 458    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 459        """
 460        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 461
 462        Args:
 463            expression: The syntax tree.
 464            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 465                it is safer to copy.
 466
 467        Returns:
 468            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 469        """
 470        if copy:
 471            expression = expression.copy()
 472
 473        # Some dialects only support CTEs at the top level expression, so we need to bubble up nested
 474        # CTEs to that level in order to produce a syntactically valid expression. This transformation
 475        # happens here to minimize code duplication, since many expressions support CTEs.
 476        if (
 477            not self.SUPPORTS_NESTED_CTES
 478            and isinstance(expression, exp.Expression)
 479            and not expression.parent
 480            and "with" in expression.arg_types
 481            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 482        ):
 483            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 484
 485            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 486
 487        self.unsupported_messages = []
 488        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 489
 490        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 491            return sql
 492
 493        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 494            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 495                logger.warning(msg)
 496        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 497            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 498
 499        if self.pretty:
 500            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 501        return sql
 502
 503    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 504        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 505            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 506        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 507
 508    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 509        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 510
 511    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 512        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 513
 514    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 515        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 516        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 517        return comment
 518
 519    def maybe_comment(
 520        self,
 521        sql: str,
 522        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 523        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 524    ) -> str:
 525        comments = (
 526            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 527            if self.comments
 528            else None
 529        )
 530
 531        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 532            return sql
 533
 534        comments_sql = " ".join(
 535            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 536        )
 537
 538        if not comments_sql:
 539            return sql
 540
 541        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 542            return (
 543                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 544                if sql[0].isspace()
 545                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 546            )
 547
 548        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 549
 550    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 551        this_sql = self.indent(
 552            self.sql(expression)
 553            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 554            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 555            level=1,
 556            pad=0,
 557        )
 558        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 559
 560    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 561        original = self.identify
 562        self.identify = False
 563        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 564        self.identify = original
 565        return result
 566
 567    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 568        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 569            return name.upper()
 570        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 571            return name.lower()
 572        return name
 573
 574    def indent(
 575        self,
 576        sql: str,
 577        level: int = 0,
 578        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 579        skip_first: bool = False,
 580        skip_last: bool = False,
 581    ) -> str:
 582        if not self.pretty:
 583            return sql
 584
 585        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 586        lines = sql.split("\n")
 587
 588        return "\n".join(
 589            line
 590            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 591            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 592            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 593        )
 594
 595    def sql(
 596        self,
 597        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 598        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 599        comment: bool = True,
 600    ) -> str:
 601        if not expression:
 602            return ""
 603
 604        if isinstance(expression, str):
 605            return expression
 606
 607        if key:
 608            value = expression.args.get(key)
 609            if value:
 610                return self.sql(value)
 611            return ""
 612
 613        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 614
 615        if callable(transform):
 616            sql = transform(self, expression)
 617        elif transform:
 618            sql = transform
 619        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 620            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 621
 622            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 623                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 624            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 625                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 626            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 627                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 628            else:
 629                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 630        else:
 631            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 632
 633        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 634
 635    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 636        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 637        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 638        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 639
 640    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 641        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 642        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 643        options = expression.args.get("options")
 644        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 645        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 646        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 647        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 648        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 649
 650    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 651        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 652            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 653        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 654        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 655
 656    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 657        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 658
 659        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 660            join_mark = ""
 661            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 662
 663        column = ".".join(
 664            self.sql(part)
 665            for part in (
 666                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 667                expression.args.get("db"),
 668                expression.args.get("table"),
 669                expression.args.get("this"),
 670            )
 671            if part
 672        )
 673
 674        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 675
 676    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 677        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 678        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 679        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 680        return f"{position}{this}"
 681
 682    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 683        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 684        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 685        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 686        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 687        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 688        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 689        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 690        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 691
 692        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 693            kind = ""
 694
 695        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 696
 697    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 698        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 699        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 700        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 701
 702    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 703        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 704        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 705            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 706        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 707            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 708        else:
 709            persisted = ""
 710        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 711
 712    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 713        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 714
 715    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 716        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 717            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 718        else:
 719            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 720
 721        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 722
 723    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 724        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 725    ) -> str:
 726        this = ""
 727        if expression.this is not None:
 728            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 729            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 730
 731        start = expression.args.get("start")
 732        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 733        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 734        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 735        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 736        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 737        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 738        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 739        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 740        cycle_sql = ""
 741
 742        if cycle is not None:
 743            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 744            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 745
 746        sequence_opts = ""
 747        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 748            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 749            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 750
 751        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 752        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 753
 754        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 755
 756    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 757        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 758
 759    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 760        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 761        if desc is not None:
 762            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 763        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 764
 765    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 766        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 767        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 768        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 769        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 770        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 771
 772    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 773        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 774
 775    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 776        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 777        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 778        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 779
 780        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 781
 782        properties_sql = ""
 783        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 784            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 785        ):
 786            properties_sql = self.sql(
 787                exp.Properties(
 788                    expressions=[
 789                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 790                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 791                    ]
 792                )
 793            )
 794
 795        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 796        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 797
 798        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 799        if expression_sql:
 800            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 801
 802            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 803                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 804                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 805                        exp.Properties(
 806                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 807                        ),
 808                        wrapped=False,
 809                    )
 810                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 811                else:
 812                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 813
 814        postindex_props_sql = ""
 815        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 816            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 817                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 818                wrapped=False,
 819                prefix=" ",
 820            )
 821
 822        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 823        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 824        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 825
 826        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 827        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 828
 829        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 830        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 831            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 832                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 833                sep=" ",
 834                prefix=" ",
 835                wrapped=False,
 836            )
 837
 838        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 839
 840        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 841        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 842            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 843                exp.Properties(
 844                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 845                ),
 846                sep=" ",
 847                prefix=" ",
 848                wrapped=False,
 849            )
 850
 851        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 852        no_schema_binding = (
 853            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 854        )
 855
 856        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 857        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 858
 859        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 860        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 861
 862    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 864        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 865        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 866        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 867        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 868
 869        if when:
 870            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 871            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 872            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 873
 874        return this
 875
 876    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 877        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 878
 879    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 880        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 881        if with_:
 882            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 883        return sql
 884
 885    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 886        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 887        recursive = (
 888            "RECURSIVE "
 889            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 890            else ""
 891        )
 892
 893        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 894
 895    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 896        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 897        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 898
 899    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 900        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 901        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 902        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 903
 904        if not alias and not self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 905            alias = "_t"
 906
 907        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 908
 909    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 910        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 911        if self.BIT_START:
 912            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 913        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 914
 915    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 917        if self.HEX_START:
 918            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 919        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 920
 921    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 922        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 923        if self.BYTE_START:
 924            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 925        return this
 926
 927    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 928        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 929        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 930
 931    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 932        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 933        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 934        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 935        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 936
 937    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 938        type_value = expression.this
 939
 940        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 941            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 942        else:
 943            type_sql = (
 944                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 945                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 946                else type_value
 947            )
 948
 949        nested = ""
 950        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 951        values = ""
 952
 953        if interior:
 954            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 955                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 956                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 957                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 958                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 959                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 960            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 961                nested = f" {interior}"
 962            else:
 963                nested = f"({interior})"
 964
 965        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 966        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 967            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 968            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 969        ):
 970            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 971
 972        return type_sql
 973
 974    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 975        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 976        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 977        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 978        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 979
 980    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 981        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 982        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 983        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 984        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 985        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 986        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 987        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 988        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 989        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 990        if self.RETURNING_END:
 991            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 992        else:
 993            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 994        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 995
 996    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 997        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 998        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 999        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1000        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1001        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1002        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1003        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1004        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1005        return (
1006            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1007        )
1008
1009    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1010        return self.prepend_ctes(
1011            expression,
1012            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1013        )
1014
1015    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1016        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1017
1018    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1019        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1020        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
1021        count = expression.args.get("count")
1022        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1023        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1024            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1025        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1026        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1027
1028    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1029        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1030            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1031            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1032            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1033
1034        agg = expression.this
1035        agg_arg = agg.this
1036        cond = expression.expression.this
1037        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1038        return self.sql(agg)
1039
1040    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1041        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1042            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1043            return ""
1044
1045        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1046
1047    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1048        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1049        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1050        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1051        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1052        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1053        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1054        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1055        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1056        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1057        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1058        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1059        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1060        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1061        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1062        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1063        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1064
1065    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1066        text = expression.name
1067        lower = text.lower()
1068        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1069        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1070        if (
1071            expression.quoted
1072            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1073            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1074            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1075        ):
1076            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1077        return text
1078
1079    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1080        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1081        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1082        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1083        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1084        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1085
1086    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1087        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1088        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1089
1090    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1091        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1092
1093    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1094        root_properties = []
1095        with_properties = []
1096
1097        for p in expression.expressions:
1098            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1099            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1100                with_properties.append(p)
1101            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1102                root_properties.append(p)
1103
1104        return self.root_properties(
1105            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1106        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1107
1108    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1109        if properties.expressions:
1110            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1111        return ""
1112
1113    def properties(
1114        self,
1115        properties: exp.Properties,
1116        prefix: str = "",
1117        sep: str = ", ",
1118        suffix: str = "",
1119        wrapped: bool = True,
1120    ) -> str:
1121        if properties.expressions:
1122            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1123            if expressions:
1124                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1125                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1126        return ""
1127
1128    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1129        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1130
1131    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1132        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1133        for p in properties.expressions:
1134            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1135            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1136                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1137            else:
1138                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1139
1140        return properties_locs
1141
1142    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1143        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1144            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1145        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1146
1147    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1148        property_cls = expression.__class__
1149        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1150            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1151
1152        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1153        if not property_name:
1154            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1155
1156        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1157
1158    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1159        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1160        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1161        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1162
1163    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1164        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1165        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1166        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1167
1168    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1169        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1170        local = expression.args.get("local")
1171        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1172        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1173        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1174        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1175        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1176
1177    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1178        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1179        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1180        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1181
1182    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1183        if expression.args.get("default"):
1184            property = "DEFAULT"
1185        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1186            property = "ON"
1187        else:
1188            property = "OFF"
1189        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1190
1191    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1192        if expression.args.get("no"):
1193            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1194        if expression.args.get("default"):
1195            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1196
1197        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1198        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1199
1200    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1201        default = expression.args.get("default")
1202        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1203        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1204        if default or minimum or maximum:
1205            if default:
1206                prop = "DEFAULT"
1207            elif minimum:
1208                prop = "MINIMUM"
1209            else:
1210                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1211            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1212        units = expression.args.get("units")
1213        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1214        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1215
1216    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1217        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1218        always = expression.args.get("always")
1219        default = expression.args.get("default")
1220        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1221        never = expression.args.get("never")
1222
1223        if autotemp is not None:
1224            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1225        elif always:
1226            prop = "ALWAYS"
1227        elif default:
1228            prop = "DEFAULT"
1229        elif manual:
1230            prop = "MANUAL"
1231        elif never:
1232            prop = "NEVER"
1233        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1234
1235    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1236        no = expression.args.get("no")
1237        no = " NO" if no else ""
1238        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1239        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1240
1241        for_ = ""
1242        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1243            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1244        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1245            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1246        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1247            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1248        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1249
1250    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1251        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1252            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1253        if expression.this:
1254            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1255            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1256            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1257
1258        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1259        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1260        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1261
1262    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1263        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1264
1265        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1266        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1267            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1268        else:
1269            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1270
1271        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1272
1273    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1274        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1275        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1276        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1277        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1278        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1279        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1280        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1281
1282    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1283        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1284        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1285        statistics_sql = ""
1286        if statistics is not None:
1287            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1288        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1289
1290    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1291        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1292
1293        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1294            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1295        else:
1296            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1297
1298        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1299        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1300        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1301
1302        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1303
1304        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1305        partition_sql = (
1306            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1307        )
1308        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1309        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1310        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1311        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1312        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1313        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1314
1315        if self.RETURNING_END:
1316            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1317        else:
1318            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1319
1320        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1321        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1322
1323    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1324        return self.prepend_ctes(
1325            expression,
1326            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1327        )
1328
1329    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1330        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1331
1332    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1333        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1334
1335    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1336        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1337        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1338        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1339        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1340        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1341
1342    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1343        return expression.name.upper()
1344
1345    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1346        return expression.name.upper()
1347
1348    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1349        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1350        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1351        if constraint:
1352            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1353        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1354        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1355        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1356        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1357        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1358        if expressions:
1359            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1360        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1361
1362    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1363        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1364
1365    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1366        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1367        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1368        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1369        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1370        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1371        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1372        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1373        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1374        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1375        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1376        null = expression.args.get("null")
1377        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1378        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1379
1380    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1381        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1382
1383    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1384        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1385        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1386        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1387        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1388
1389    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1390        table = ".".join(
1391            part
1392            for part in [
1393                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1394                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1395                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1396            ]
1397            if part
1398        )
1399
1400        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1401        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1402        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1403        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1404        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1405        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1406        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1407        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1408        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1409        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1410
1411        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1412        if file_format:
1413            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1414            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1415            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1416
1417        index = self.sql(expression, "index")
1418        index = f" AT {index}" if index else ""
1419
1420        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1421        if ordinality:
1422            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1423            alias = ""
1424
1425        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{index}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1426
1427    def tablesample_sql(
1428        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1429    ) -> str:
1430        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1431            table = expression.this.copy()
1432            table.set("alias", None)
1433            this = self.sql(table)
1434            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1435        else:
1436            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1437            alias = ""
1438
1439        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1440        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1441        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1442        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1443        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1444        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1445        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1446        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1447        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1448        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1449        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1450
1451        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1452        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1453            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1454
1455        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1456        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1457        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1458
1459        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1460        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1461            expr = f"({expr})"
1462
1463        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1464
1465    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1466        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1467
1468        if expression.this:
1469            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1470            if not expressions:
1471                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1472
1473            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1474            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1475            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1476            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1477            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1478
1479        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1480        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1481        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1482        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1483        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1484        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1485        if include_nulls is not None:
1486            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1487        else:
1488            nulls = ""
1489        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1490
1491    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1492        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1493        kind = expression.text("kind")
1494        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1495        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1496
1497    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1498        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1499
1500    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1502        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1503        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1504        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1505        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1506        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1507        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1508        if self.RETURNING_END:
1509            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1510        else:
1511            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1512        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1513        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1514
1515    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1516        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1517        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1518            args = self.expressions(expression)
1519            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1520            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1521            values = (
1522                f"({values})"
1523                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1524                else values
1525            )
1526            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1527
1528        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1529        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1530        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1531
1532        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1533
1534        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1535            row = tup.expressions
1536
1537            if i == 0 and column_names:
1538                row = [
1539                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1540                ]
1541
1542            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1543
1544        if self.pretty:
1545            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1546            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1547            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1548            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1549            return self.subquery_sql(
1550                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1551            )
1552
1553        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1554        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1555        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1556
1557    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1558        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1559
1560    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1561        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1562        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1563        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1564
1565    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1566        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1567
1568    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1569        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1570
1571        if expression.args.get("all"):
1572            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1573
1574        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1575        grouping_sets = (
1576            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1577        )
1578
1579        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1580        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1581            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1582        else:
1583            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1584            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1585
1586        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1587        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1588            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1589        else:
1590            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1591            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1592
1593        groupings = csv(
1594            grouping_sets,
1595            cube_sql,
1596            rollup_sql,
1597            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1598            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1599        )
1600
1601        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1602            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1603
1604        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1605
1606    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1607        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1608        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1609
1610    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1611        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1612        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1613        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1614        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1615        return start + connect
1616
1617    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1618        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1619
1620    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1621        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1622            side = None
1623        else:
1624            side = expression.side
1625
1626        op_sql = " ".join(
1627            op
1628            for op in (
1629                expression.method,
1630                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1631                side,
1632                expression.kind,
1633                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1634            )
1635            if op
1636        )
1637        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1638        using = expression.args.get("using")
1639
1640        if not on_sql and using:
1641            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1642
1643        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1644
1645        if on_sql:
1646            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1647            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1648            if using:
1649                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1650            else:
1651                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1652        elif not op_sql:
1653            return f", {this_sql}"
1654
1655        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1656        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1657
1658    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1659        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1660        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1661        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1662
1663    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1664        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1665
1666        if expression.args.get("view"):
1667            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1668            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1669            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1670            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1671            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1672            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1673
1674        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1675        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1676        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1677
1678    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1679        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1680        args = ", ".join(
1681            self.sql(self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e)
1682            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1683            if e
1684        )
1685        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1686
1687    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1688        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1689        expression = expression.expression
1690        expression = (
1691            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1692        )
1693        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1694
1695    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1696        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1697        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1698        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1699        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1700        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1701        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1702        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1703        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1704
1705    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1706        expressions = (
1707            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1708        )
1709        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1710        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1711
1712    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1713        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1714
1715    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1716        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1717            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1718            return ""
1719
1720        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1721        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1722        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1723        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1724
1725        if wait is not None:
1726            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1727                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1728            else:
1729                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1730
1731        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1732
1733    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1734        text = expression.this or ""
1735        if expression.is_string:
1736            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1737        return text
1738
1739    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1740        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1741        if self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1742            text = "".join(self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1743        elif self.pretty:
1744            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1745        return text
1746
1747    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1748        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1749        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1750        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1751        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1752        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1753        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1754        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1755        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1756        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1757        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1758        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1759
1760    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1761        return "NULL"
1762
1763    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1764        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1765
1766    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1767        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1768        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1769        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1770
1771    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1772        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1773
1774    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1775        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1776
1777    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1778        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1779
1780    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1781        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1782        asc = not desc
1783
1784        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1785        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1786        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1787        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1788        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1789
1790        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1791        nulls_sort_change = ""
1792        if nulls_first and (
1793            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1794        ):
1795            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1796        elif (
1797            nulls_last
1798            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1799            and not nulls_are_last
1800        ):
1801            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1802
1803        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1804            self.unsupported(
1805                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1806            )
1807            nulls_sort_change = ""
1808
1809        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1810
1811    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1812        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1813        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1814        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1815        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1816        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1817        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1818        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1819        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1820        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1821        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1822        definition_sqls = [
1823            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1824            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1825        ]
1826        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1827        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1828        body = "".join(
1829            (
1830                partition,
1831                order,
1832                measures,
1833                rows,
1834                after,
1835                pattern,
1836                define,
1837            )
1838        )
1839        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1840        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1841        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1842
1843    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1844        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1845
1846        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1847        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1848
1849        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1850            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1851        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1852            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1853
1854        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1855
1856        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1857            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1858            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1859            else []
1860        )
1861
1862        return csv(
1863            *sqls,
1864            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1865            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1866            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1867            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1868            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1869            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1870            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1871            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1872            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1873            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1874            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1875            sep="",
1876        )
1877
1878    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1879        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1880    ) -> t.List[str]:
1881        return [
1882            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1883            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1884        ]
1885
1886    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1887        return [
1888            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1889            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1890            if expression.args.get("windows")
1891            else "",
1892            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1893            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1894            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1895        ]
1896
1897    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1898        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1899        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1900        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1901
1902    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1903        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1904        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1905        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1906        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1907        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1908        top = (
1909            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1910            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1911            else ""
1912        )
1913
1914        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1915
1916        if kind:
1917            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1918                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1919            else:
1920                if kind == "STRUCT":
1921                    expressions = self.expressions(
1922                        sqls=[
1923                            self.sql(
1924                                exp.Struct(
1925                                    expressions=[
1926                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1927                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1928                                        )
1929                                        for e in expression.expressions
1930                                    ]
1931                                )
1932                            )
1933                        ]
1934                    )
1935                kind = ""
1936
1937        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1938        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1939            expression,
1940            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1941            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1942            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1943        )
1944        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1945
1946    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1948        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1949        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
1950
1951    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1952        if expression.expressions:
1953            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1954        return ""
1955
1956    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1957        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1958        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1959        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1960        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1961        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1962
1963    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1964        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1965        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
1966
1967    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1969        kind = expression.text("kind")
1970        if kind:
1971            kind = f"{kind}."
1972        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1973
1974    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1975        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1976
1977    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1978        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1979        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1980
1981        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1982        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1983
1984        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1985        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1986
1987    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1988        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1989        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1990
1991    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1992        return self.prepend_ctes(
1993            expression,
1994            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1995        )
1996
1997    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1998        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1999        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2000        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2001        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2002
2003    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2004        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2005
2006        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2007        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2008
2009        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2010            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2011                alias.append("columns", offset)
2012
2013        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2014            columns = alias.columns
2015            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2016        else:
2017            alias = self.sql(alias)
2018
2019        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2020        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2021            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2022        else:
2023            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2024                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2025            elif offset:
2026                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2027            else:
2028                suffix = alias
2029
2030        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2031
2032    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2033        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2034        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2035
2036    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2037        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2038        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2039        order = expression.args.get("order")
2040        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2041        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2042        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2043        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2044
2045        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2046
2047        first = expression.args.get("first")
2048        if first is None:
2049            first = ""
2050        else:
2051            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2052
2053        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2054            return f"{this} {alias}"
2055
2056        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2057        return f"{this} ({args})"
2058
2059    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2060        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2061        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2062
2063    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2064        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2065        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2066        end = (
2067            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2068            or "CURRENT ROW"
2069        )
2070        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2071
2072    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2073        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2074        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2075        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2076
2077    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2078        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2079        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2080        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2081        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2082
2083    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2084        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
2085        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2086
2087        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2088
2089    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
2090        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
2091
2092    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2093        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2094
2095    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2096        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2097        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2098            this = self.wrap(this)
2099        return f"ANY {this}"
2100
2101    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2102        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2103
2104    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2105        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2106        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2107
2108        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2109            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2110            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2111
2112        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2113
2114        if default:
2115            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2116
2117        statements.append("END")
2118
2119        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2120            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2121
2122        return " ".join(statements)
2123
2124    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2125        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2126        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2127        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2128
2129    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2130        order = expression.args.get("order")
2131        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2132        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2133
2134    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2135        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2136        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2137        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2138
2139    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2140        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2141
2142        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2143            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2144        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2145            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2146        else:
2147            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2148
2149    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2150        expressions = expression.expressions
2151        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2152            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
2153        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2154
2155    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2156        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2157        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2158
2159    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2160        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2161        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2162        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2163        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2164        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2165        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2166        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2167        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2168
2169    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2170        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2171        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2172        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2173        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2174
2175    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2176        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2177
2178    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2179        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2180        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2181        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2182
2183    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2184        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2185
2186    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2187        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2188
2189    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2190        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2191        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2192        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2193        if unique_keys is not None:
2194            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2195        else:
2196            unique_keys = ""
2197        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2198        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2199        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2200        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2201        return self.func(
2202            "JSON_OBJECT",
2203            *expression.expressions,
2204            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2205        )
2206
2207    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2208        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2209        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2210        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2211        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2212        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2213        return self.func(
2214            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2215        )
2216
2217    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2218        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2219        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2220        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2221        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2222        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2223        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2224        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2225        return self.func(
2226            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2227            this,
2228            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2229        )
2230
2231    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2232        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2233        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2234        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2235
2236        if nested_schema:
2237            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2238
2239        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2240        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2241        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2242        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2243
2244    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2245        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2246
2247    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2248        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2249        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2250        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2251        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2252        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2253        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2254        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2255        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2256        return self.func(
2257            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2258        )
2259
2260    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2261        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2262        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2263        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2264        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2265        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2266        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2267
2268    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2269        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2270        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2271        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2272        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2273        with_ = (
2274            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2275            if expressions
2276            else ""
2277        )
2278        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2279
2280    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2281        query = expression.args.get("query")
2282        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2283        field = expression.args.get("field")
2284        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2285
2286        if query:
2287            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2288        elif unnest:
2289            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2290        elif field:
2291            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2292        else:
2293            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2294
2295        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2296
2297    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2298        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2299
2300    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2301        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2302        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2303            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2304        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2305
2306        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2307            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2308            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2309
2310        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2311        if this:
2312            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2313            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2314
2315        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2316
2317    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2318        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2319
2320    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2321        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2322        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2323        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2324        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2325        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2326        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2327
2328    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2329        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2330
2331    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2332        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2333            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2334        else:
2335            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2336            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2337
2338        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2339
2340    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2341        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2342        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2343        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2344        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2345
2346    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2347        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2348
2349    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2350        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2351        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2352        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2353
2354    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2355        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2356
2357    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2358        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2359        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2360        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2361
2362    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2363        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2364
2365    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2366        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2367
2368    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2369        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2370
2371    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2372        if not self.pretty:
2373            return self.binary(expression, op)
2374
2375        sqls = tuple(
2376            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2377            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2378        )
2379
2380        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2381        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2382
2383    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2384        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2385
2386    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2387        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2388
2389    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2390        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2391
2392    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2393        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2394
2395    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2396        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2397
2398    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2399        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2400
2401    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2402        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2403        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2404        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2405
2406    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2407        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2408        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2409
2410    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2411        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2412            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2413        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2414
2415    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2416        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2417
2418    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2419        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2420        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2421        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2422        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2423        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2424
2425    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2426        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2427        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2428        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2429        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2430        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2431        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2432        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2433        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2434        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2435
2436    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2437        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2438        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2439        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2440        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2441
2442        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2443            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2444
2445        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2446
2447    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2448        return "BEGIN"
2449
2450    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2451        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2452        if chain is not None:
2453            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2454
2455        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2456
2457    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2458        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2459        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2460        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2461
2462    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2463        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2464
2465        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2466        if dtype:
2467            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2468            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2469            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2470            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2471            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2472
2473        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2474        if default:
2475            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2476
2477        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2478            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2479
2480        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2481
2482    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2483        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2484            # Remove db from tables
2485            expression = expression.transform(
2486                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2487            )
2488        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2489        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2490
2491    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2492        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2493
2494        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2495            if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2496                actions = self.expressions(
2497                    expression,
2498                    key="actions",
2499                    prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2500                )
2501            else:
2502                actions = f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions')}"
2503        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2504            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2505        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2506            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2507        else:
2508            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2509
2510        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2511        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2512        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2513
2514    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2515        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2516        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2517        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2518
2519    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2520        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2521        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2522        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2523
2524        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2525        if enforced is not None:
2526            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2527
2528        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2529
2530    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2531        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2532        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2533
2534        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2535        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2536        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2537
2538    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2539        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2540
2541    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2542        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2543
2544    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2545        return self.sql(
2546            exp.Cast(
2547                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2548                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2549            )
2550        )
2551
2552    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2553        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2554
2555    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2556        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2557            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2558        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2559
2560    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2561        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2562
2563    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2564        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2565
2566    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2567        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2568
2569    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2570        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2571
2572    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2573        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2574
2575    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2576        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2577
2578    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2579        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2580
2581    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2582        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2583
2584    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2585        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2586
2587    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2588        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2589
2590    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2591        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2592
2593    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2594        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2595            return self.sql(
2596                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2597            )
2598        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2599
2600    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2601        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2602
2603    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2604        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2605
2606    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2607        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2608
2609    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2610        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2611
2612    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2613        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2614
2615    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2616        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2617
2618    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2619        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2620
2621    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2622        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2623
2624    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2625        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2626
2627    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2628        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2629
2630    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2631        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2632
2633    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2634        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2635
2636    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2637        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2638
2639    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2640        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2641
2642    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2643        args = list(expression.args.values())
2644        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2645            args.reverse()
2646        return self.func("LOG", *args)
2647
2648    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2649        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2650        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2651        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2652        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2653        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2654
2655    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2656        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2657        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2658
2659    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2660        args = []
2661
2662        for key in expression.arg_types:
2663            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2664
2665            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2666                for value in arg_value:
2667                    args.append(value)
2668            elif arg_value is not None:
2669                args.append(arg_value)
2670
2671        if self.normalize_functions:
2672            name = expression.sql_name()
2673        else:
2674            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2675
2676        return self.func(name, *args)
2677
2678    def func(
2679        self,
2680        name: str,
2681        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2682        prefix: str = "(",
2683        suffix: str = ")",
2684    ) -> str:
2685        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2686
2687    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2688        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2689        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2690            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2691        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2692
2693    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2694        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2695
2696    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2697        return format_time(
2698            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2699        )
2700
2701    def expressions(
2702        self,
2703        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2704        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2705        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2706        flat: bool = False,
2707        indent: bool = True,
2708        skip_first: bool = False,
2709        sep: str = ", ",
2710        prefix: str = "",
2711    ) -> str:
2712        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2713
2714        if not expressions:
2715            return ""
2716
2717        if flat:
2718            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2719
2720        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2721
2722        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2723        pad = " " * self.pad
2724        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2725
2726        result_sqls = []
2727        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2728            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2729            if not sql:
2730                continue
2731
2732            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2733
2734            if self.pretty:
2735                if self.leading_comma:
2736                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2737                else:
2738                    result_sqls.append(
2739                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2740                    )
2741            else:
2742                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2743
2744        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2745        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2746
2747    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2748        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2749        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2750        if flat:
2751            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2752        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2753
2754    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2755        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2756        if not property_name:
2757            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2758        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2759
2760    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2761        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2762        op = self.seg(op)
2763        return self.query_modifiers(
2764            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2765        )
2766
2767    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2768        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2769
2770    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2771        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2772
2773    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2774        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2775        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2776        expressions = (
2777            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2778        )
2779        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2780
2781    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2782        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2783        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2784        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2785
2786    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2787        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2788
2789    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2790        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2791        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2792        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2793        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2794
2795        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2796        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2797            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2798            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2799                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2800        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2801            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2802                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2803            else:
2804                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2805        else:
2806            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2807        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2808
2809    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2810        table = expression.this
2811        table_alias = ""
2812
2813        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2814        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2815            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2816            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2817
2818        this = self.sql(table)
2819        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2820        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2821        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2822
2823        return self.prepend_ctes(
2824            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2825        )
2826
2827    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2828        if expression.args.get("format"):
2829            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2830
2831        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2832
2833    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2834        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2835        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2836        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2837        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2838        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2839
2840    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2841        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2842        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2843        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2844        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2845
2846    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2847        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2848
2849    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2850        return ""
2851
2852    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2853        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2854        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2855        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2856        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2857        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2858
2859    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2860        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2861        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2862
2863        if having:
2864            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2865
2866        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2867
2868    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2869        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2870        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2871        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2872        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2873        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2874        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2875        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2876        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2877        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2878        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2879        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2880        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2881        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2882
2883    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2884        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2885        if key_block_size:
2886            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2887
2888        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2889        if using:
2890            return f"USING {using}"
2891
2892        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2893        if parser:
2894            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2895
2896        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2897        if comment:
2898            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2899
2900        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2901        if visible is not None:
2902            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2903
2904        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2905        if engine_attr:
2906            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2907
2908        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2909        if secondary_engine_attr:
2910            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2911
2912        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2913        return ""
2914
2915    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2916        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2917        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2918        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2919        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2920        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2921        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2922        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2923        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2924        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2925        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2926        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
2927
2928    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2929        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2930            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2931
2932        case = exp.Case().when(
2933            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2934            expression.args["true"],
2935            copy=False,
2936        )
2937        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2938        if else_cond:
2939            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
2940
2941        return self.sql(case)
2942
2943    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2944        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2945        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2946        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2947        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2948        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2949        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
2950
2951    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2952        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
2953
2954    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
2955        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2956
2957    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
2958        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
2959        model = f"MODEL {model}"
2960        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2961        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
2962        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
2963        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
2964
2965    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
2966        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
2967            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
2968
2969            expression = simplify(expression)
2970
2971        return expression

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
420    def __init__(
421        self,
422        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
423        identify: str | bool = False,
424        normalize: bool = False,
425        pad: int = 2,
426        indent: int = 2,
427        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
428        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
429        max_unsupported: int = 3,
430        leading_comma: bool = False,
431        max_text_width: int = 80,
432        comments: bool = True,
433    ):
434        import sqlglot
435
436        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
437        self.identify = identify
438        self.normalize = normalize
439        self.pad = pad
440        self._indent = indent
441        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
442        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
443        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
444        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
445        self.comments = comments
446
447        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
448        self.normalize_functions = (
449            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
450        )
451
452        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
453        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
454        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
455            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
456        )
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
SUPPORTS_NESTED_CTES = True
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES: Dict[str, str] = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
279    @classmethod
280    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
281        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
282
283        Args:
284            text: The text to check.
285            identify:
286                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
287                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
288
289        Returns:
290            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
291        """
292        if identify is True or identify == "always":
293            return True
294
295        if identify == "safe":
296            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
297
298        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
TOKENIZER_CLASS = <class 'sqlglot.tokens.Tokenizer'>
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
458    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
459        """
460        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
461
462        Args:
463            expression: The syntax tree.
464            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
465                it is safer to copy.
466
467        Returns:
468            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
469        """
470        if copy:
471            expression = expression.copy()
472
473        # Some dialects only support CTEs at the top level expression, so we need to bubble up nested
474        # CTEs to that level in order to produce a syntactically valid expression. This transformation
475        # happens here to minimize code duplication, since many expressions support CTEs.
476        if (
477            not self.SUPPORTS_NESTED_CTES
478            and isinstance(expression, exp.Expression)
479            and not expression.parent
480            and "with" in expression.arg_types
481            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
482        ):
483            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
484
485            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
486
487        self.unsupported_messages = []
488        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
489
490        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
491            return sql
492
493        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
494            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
495                logger.warning(msg)
496        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
497            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
498
499        if self.pretty:
500            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
501        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
503    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
504        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
505            raise UnsupportedError(message)
506        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
508    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
509        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
511    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
512        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
514    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
515        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
516        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
517        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
519    def maybe_comment(
520        self,
521        sql: str,
522        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
523        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
524    ) -> str:
525        comments = (
526            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
527            if self.comments
528            else None
529        )
530
531        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
532            return sql
533
534        comments_sql = " ".join(
535            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
536        )
537
538        if not comments_sql:
539            return sql
540
541        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
542            return (
543                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
544                if sql[0].isspace()
545                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
546            )
547
548        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
550    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
551        this_sql = self.indent(
552            self.sql(expression)
553            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
554            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
555            level=1,
556            pad=0,
557        )
558        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
560    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
561        original = self.identify
562        self.identify = False
563        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
564        self.identify = original
565        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
567    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
568        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
569            return name.upper()
570        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
571            return name.lower()
572        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
574    def indent(
575        self,
576        sql: str,
577        level: int = 0,
578        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
579        skip_first: bool = False,
580        skip_last: bool = False,
581    ) -> str:
582        if not self.pretty:
583            return sql
584
585        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
586        lines = sql.split("\n")
587
588        return "\n".join(
589            line
590            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
591            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
592            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
593        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
595    def sql(
596        self,
597        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
598        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
599        comment: bool = True,
600    ) -> str:
601        if not expression:
602            return ""
603
604        if isinstance(expression, str):
605            return expression
606
607        if key:
608            value = expression.args.get(key)
609            if value:
610                return self.sql(value)
611            return ""
612
613        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
614
615        if callable(transform):
616            sql = transform(self, expression)
617        elif transform:
618            sql = transform
619        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
620            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
621
622            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
623                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
624            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
625                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
626            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
627                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
628            else:
629                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
630        else:
631            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
632
633        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
635    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
636        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
637        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
638        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
640    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
641        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
642        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
643        options = expression.args.get("options")
644        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
645        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
646        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
647        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
648        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
650    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
651        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
652            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
653        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
654        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
656    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
657        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
658
659        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
660            join_mark = ""
661            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
662
663        column = ".".join(
664            self.sql(part)
665            for part in (
666                expression.args.get("catalog"),
667                expression.args.get("db"),
668                expression.args.get("table"),
669                expression.args.get("this"),
670            )
671            if part
672        )
673
674        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
676    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
677        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
678        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
679        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
680        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
682    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
683        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
684        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
685        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
686        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
687        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
688        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
689        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
690        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
691
692        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
693            kind = ""
694
695        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
697    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
698        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
699        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
700        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
702    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
703        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
704        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
705            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
706        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
707            persisted = " PERSISTED"
708        else:
709            persisted = ""
710        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
712    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
713        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
715    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
716        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
717            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
718        else:
719            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
720
721        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
723    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
724        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
725    ) -> str:
726        this = ""
727        if expression.this is not None:
728            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
729            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
730
731        start = expression.args.get("start")
732        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
733        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
734        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
735        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
736        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
737        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
738        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
739        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
740        cycle_sql = ""
741
742        if cycle is not None:
743            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
744            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
745
746        sequence_opts = ""
747        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
748            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
749            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
750
751        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
752        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
753
754        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
756    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
757        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
759    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
760        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
761        if desc is not None:
762            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
763        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
765    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
766        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
767        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
768        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
769        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
770        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
772    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
773        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
775    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
776        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
777        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
778        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
779
780        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
781
782        properties_sql = ""
783        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
784            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
785        ):
786            properties_sql = self.sql(
787                exp.Properties(
788                    expressions=[
789                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
790                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
791                    ]
792                )
793            )
794
795        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
796        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
797
798        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
799        if expression_sql:
800            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
801
802            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
803                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
804                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
805                        exp.Properties(
806                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
807                        ),
808                        wrapped=False,
809                    )
810                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
811                else:
812                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
813
814        postindex_props_sql = ""
815        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
816            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
817                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
818                wrapped=False,
819                prefix=" ",
820            )
821
822        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
823        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
824        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
825
826        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
827        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
828
829        postcreate_props_sql = ""
830        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
831            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
832                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
833                sep=" ",
834                prefix=" ",
835                wrapped=False,
836            )
837
838        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
839
840        postexpression_props_sql = ""
841        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
842            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
843                exp.Properties(
844                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
845                ),
846                sep=" ",
847                prefix=" ",
848                wrapped=False,
849            )
850
851        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
852        no_schema_binding = (
853            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
854        )
855
856        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
857        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
858
859        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
860        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
862    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
864        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
865        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
866        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
867        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
868
869        if when:
870            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
871            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
872            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
873
874        return this
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
876    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
877        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
879    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
880        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
881        if with_:
882            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
883        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
885    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
886        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
887        recursive = (
888            "RECURSIVE "
889            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
890            else ""
891        )
892
893        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
895    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
896        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
897        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
899    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
900        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
901        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
902        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
903
904        if not alias and not self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
905            alias = "_t"
906
907        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
909    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
910        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
911        if self.BIT_START:
912            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
913        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
915    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
917        if self.HEX_START:
918            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
919        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
921    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
922        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
923        if self.BYTE_START:
924            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
925        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
927    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
928        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
929        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
931    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
932        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
933        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
934        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
935        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
937    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
938        type_value = expression.this
939
940        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
941            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
942        else:
943            type_sql = (
944                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
945                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
946                else type_value
947            )
948
949        nested = ""
950        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
951        values = ""
952
953        if interior:
954            if expression.args.get("nested"):
955                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
956                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
957                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
958                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
959                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
960            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
961                nested = f" {interior}"
962            else:
963                nested = f"({interior})"
964
965        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
966        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
967            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
968            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
969        ):
970            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
971
972        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
974    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
975        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
976        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
977        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
978        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
980    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
981        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
982        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
983        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
984        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
985        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
986        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
987        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
988        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
989        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
990        if self.RETURNING_END:
991            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
992        else:
993            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
994        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
 996    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 997        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 998        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 999        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1000        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1001        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1002        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1003        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1004        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1005        return (
1006            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1007        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1009    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1010        return self.prepend_ctes(
1011            expression,
1012            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1013        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1015    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1016        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1018    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1019        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1020        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
1021        count = expression.args.get("count")
1022        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1023        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1024            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1025        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1026        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1028    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1029        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1030            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1031            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1032            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1033
1034        agg = expression.this
1035        agg_arg = agg.this
1036        cond = expression.expression.this
1037        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1038        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1040    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1041        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1042            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1043            return ""
1044
1045        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1047    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1048        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1049        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1050        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1051        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1052        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1053        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1054        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1055        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1056        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1057        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1058        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1059        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1060        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1061        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1062        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1063        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1065    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1066        text = expression.name
1067        lower = text.lower()
1068        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1069        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1070        if (
1071            expression.quoted
1072            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1073            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1074            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1075        ):
1076            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1077        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1079    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1080        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1081        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1082        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1083        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1084        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1086    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1087        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1088        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1090    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1091        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1093    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1094        root_properties = []
1095        with_properties = []
1096
1097        for p in expression.expressions:
1098            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1099            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1100                with_properties.append(p)
1101            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1102                root_properties.append(p)
1103
1104        return self.root_properties(
1105            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1106        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1108    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1109        if properties.expressions:
1110            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1111        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1113    def properties(
1114        self,
1115        properties: exp.Properties,
1116        prefix: str = "",
1117        sep: str = ", ",
1118        suffix: str = "",
1119        wrapped: bool = True,
1120    ) -> str:
1121        if properties.expressions:
1122            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1123            if expressions:
1124                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1125                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1126        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1128    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1129        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1131    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1132        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1133        for p in properties.expressions:
1134            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1135            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1136                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1137            else:
1138                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1139
1140        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1142    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1143        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1144            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1145        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1147    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1148        property_cls = expression.__class__
1149        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1150            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1151
1152        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1153        if not property_name:
1154            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1155
1156        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1158    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1159        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1160        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1161        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1163    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1164        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1165        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1166        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1168    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1169        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1170        local = expression.args.get("local")
1171        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1172        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1173        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1174        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1175        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1177    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1178        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1179        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1180        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1182    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1183        if expression.args.get("default"):
1184            property = "DEFAULT"
1185        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1186            property = "ON"
1187        else:
1188            property = "OFF"
1189        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1191    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1192        if expression.args.get("no"):
1193            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1194        if expression.args.get("default"):
1195            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1196
1197        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1198        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1200    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1201        default = expression.args.get("default")
1202        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1203        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1204        if default or minimum or maximum:
1205            if default:
1206                prop = "DEFAULT"
1207            elif minimum:
1208                prop = "MINIMUM"
1209            else:
1210                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1211            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1212        units = expression.args.get("units")
1213        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1214        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1216    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1217        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1218        always = expression.args.get("always")
1219        default = expression.args.get("default")
1220        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1221        never = expression.args.get("never")
1222
1223        if autotemp is not None:
1224            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1225        elif always:
1226            prop = "ALWAYS"
1227        elif default:
1228            prop = "DEFAULT"
1229        elif manual:
1230            prop = "MANUAL"
1231        elif never:
1232            prop = "NEVER"
1233        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1235    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1236        no = expression.args.get("no")
1237        no = " NO" if no else ""
1238        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1239        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1240
1241        for_ = ""
1242        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1243            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1244        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1245            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1246        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1247            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1248        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1250    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1251        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1252            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1253        if expression.this:
1254            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1255            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1256            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1257
1258        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1259        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1260        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1262    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1263        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1264
1265        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1266        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1267            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1268        else:
1269            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1270
1271        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1273    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1274        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1275        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1276        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1277        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1278        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1279        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1280        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1282    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1283        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1284        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1285        statistics_sql = ""
1286        if statistics is not None:
1287            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1288        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1290    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1291        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1292
1293        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1294            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1295        else:
1296            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1297
1298        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1299        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1300        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1301
1302        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1303
1304        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1305        partition_sql = (
1306            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1307        )
1308        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1309        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1310        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1311        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1312        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1313        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1314
1315        if self.RETURNING_END:
1316            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1317        else:
1318            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1319
1320        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1321        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1323    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1324        return self.prepend_ctes(
1325            expression,
1326            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1327        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1329    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1330        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1332    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1333        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1335    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1336        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1337        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1338        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1339        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1340        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1342    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1343        return expression.name.upper()
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1345    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1346        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1348    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1349        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1350        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1351        if constraint:
1352            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1353        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1354        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1355        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1356        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1357        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1358        if expressions:
1359            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1360        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1362    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1363        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1365    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1366        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1367        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1368        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1369        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1370        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1371        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1372        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1373        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1374        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1375        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1376        null = expression.args.get("null")
1377        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1378        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1380    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1381        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1383    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1384        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1385        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1386        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1387        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1389    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1390        table = ".".join(
1391            part
1392            for part in [
1393                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1394                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1395                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1396            ]
1397            if part
1398        )
1399
1400        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1401        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1402        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1403        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1404        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1405        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1406        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1407        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1408        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1409        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1410
1411        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1412        if file_format:
1413            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1414            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1415            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1416
1417        index = self.sql(expression, "index")
1418        index = f" AT {index}" if index else ""
1419
1420        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1421        if ordinality:
1422            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1423            alias = ""
1424
1425        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{index}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1427    def tablesample_sql(
1428        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1429    ) -> str:
1430        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1431            table = expression.this.copy()
1432            table.set("alias", None)
1433            this = self.sql(table)
1434            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1435        else:
1436            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1437            alias = ""
1438
1439        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1440        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1441        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1442        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1443        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1444        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1445        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1446        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1447        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1448        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1449        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1450
1451        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1452        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1453            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1454
1455        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1456        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1457        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1458
1459        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1460        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1461            expr = f"({expr})"
1462
1463        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1465    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1466        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1467
1468        if expression.this:
1469            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1470            if not expressions:
1471                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1472
1473            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1474            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1475            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1476            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1477            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1478
1479        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1480        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1481        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1482        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1483        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1484        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1485        if include_nulls is not None:
1486            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1487        else:
1488            nulls = ""
1489        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1491    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1492        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1493        kind = expression.text("kind")
1494        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1495        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1497    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1498        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1500    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1502        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1503        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1504        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1505        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1506        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1507        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1508        if self.RETURNING_END:
1509            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1510        else:
1511            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1512        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1513        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1515    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1516        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1517        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1518            args = self.expressions(expression)
1519            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1520            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1521            values = (
1522                f"({values})"
1523                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1524                else values
1525            )
1526            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1527
1528        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1529        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1530        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1531
1532        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1533
1534        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1535            row = tup.expressions
1536
1537            if i == 0 and column_names:
1538                row = [
1539                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1540                ]
1541
1542            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1543
1544        if self.pretty:
1545            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1546            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1547            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1548            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1549            return self.subquery_sql(
1550                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1551            )
1552
1553        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1554        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1555        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1557    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1558        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1560    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1561        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1562        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1563        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1565    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1566        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1568    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1569        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1570
1571        if expression.args.get("all"):
1572            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1573
1574        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1575        grouping_sets = (
1576            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1577        )
1578
1579        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1580        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1581            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1582        else:
1583            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1584            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1585
1586        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1587        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1588            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1589        else:
1590            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1591            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1592
1593        groupings = csv(
1594            grouping_sets,
1595            cube_sql,
1596            rollup_sql,
1597            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1598            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1599        )
1600
1601        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1602            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1603
1604        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1606    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1607        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1608        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1610    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1611        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1612        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1613        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1614        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1615        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1617    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1618        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1620    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1621        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1622            side = None
1623        else:
1624            side = expression.side
1625
1626        op_sql = " ".join(
1627            op
1628            for op in (
1629                expression.method,
1630                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1631                side,
1632                expression.kind,
1633                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1634            )
1635            if op
1636        )
1637        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1638        using = expression.args.get("using")
1639
1640        if not on_sql and using:
1641            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1642
1643        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1644
1645        if on_sql:
1646            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1647            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1648            if using:
1649                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1650            else:
1651                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1652        elif not op_sql:
1653            return f", {this_sql}"
1654
1655        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1656        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1658    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1659        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1660        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1661        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1663    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1664        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1665
1666        if expression.args.get("view"):
1667            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1668            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1669            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1670            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1671            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1672            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1673
1674        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1675        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1676        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1678    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1679        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1680        args = ", ".join(
1681            self.sql(self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e)
1682            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1683            if e
1684        )
1685        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1687    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1688        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1689        expression = expression.expression
1690        expression = (
1691            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1692        )
1693        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1695    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1696        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1697        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1698        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1699        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1700        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1701        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1702        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1703        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1705    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1706        expressions = (
1707            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1708        )
1709        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1710        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1712    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1713        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1715    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1716        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1717            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1718            return ""
1719
1720        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1721        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1722        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1723        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1724
1725        if wait is not None:
1726            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1727                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1728            else:
1729                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1730
1731        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1733    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1734        text = expression.this or ""
1735        if expression.is_string:
1736            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1737        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1739    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1740        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1741        if self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1742            text = "".join(self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1743        elif self.pretty:
1744            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1745        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1747    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1748        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1749        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1750        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1751        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1752        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1753        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1754        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1755        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1756        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1757        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1758        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1760    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1761        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1763    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1764        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1766    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1767        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1768        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1769        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1771    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1772        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1774    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1775        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1777    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1778        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1780    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1781        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1782        asc = not desc
1783
1784        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1785        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1786        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1787        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1788        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1789
1790        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1791        nulls_sort_change = ""
1792        if nulls_first and (
1793            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1794        ):
1795            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1796        elif (
1797            nulls_last
1798            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1799            and not nulls_are_last
1800        ):
1801            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1802
1803        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1804            self.unsupported(
1805                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1806            )
1807            nulls_sort_change = ""
1808
1809        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1811    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1812        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1813        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1814        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1815        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1816        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1817        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1818        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1819        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1820        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1821        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1822        definition_sqls = [
1823            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1824            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1825        ]
1826        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1827        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1828        body = "".join(
1829            (
1830                partition,
1831                order,
1832                measures,
1833                rows,
1834                after,
1835                pattern,
1836                define,
1837            )
1838        )
1839        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1840        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1841        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1843    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1844        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1845
1846        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1847        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1848
1849        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1850            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1851        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1852            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1853
1854        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1855
1856        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1857            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1858            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1859            else []
1860        )
1861
1862        return csv(
1863            *sqls,
1864            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1865            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1866            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1867            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1868            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1869            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1870            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1871            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1872            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1873            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1874            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1875            sep="",
1876        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1878    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1879        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1880    ) -> t.List[str]:
1881        return [
1882            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1883            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1884        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1886    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1887        return [
1888            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1889            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1890            if expression.args.get("windows")
1891            else "",
1892            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1893            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1894            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1895        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1897    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1898        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1899        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1900        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1902    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1903        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1904        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1905        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1906        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1907        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1908        top = (
1909            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1910            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1911            else ""
1912        )
1913
1914        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1915
1916        if kind:
1917            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1918                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1919            else:
1920                if kind == "STRUCT":
1921                    expressions = self.expressions(
1922                        sqls=[
1923                            self.sql(
1924                                exp.Struct(
1925                                    expressions=[
1926                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1927                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1928                                        )
1929                                        for e in expression.expressions
1930                                    ]
1931                                )
1932                            )
1933                        ]
1934                    )
1935                kind = ""
1936
1937        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1938        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1939            expression,
1940            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1941            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1942            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1943        )
1944        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1946    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1948        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1949        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1951    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1952        if expression.expressions:
1953            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1954        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1956    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1957        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1958        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1959        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1960        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1961        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1963    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1964        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1965        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1967    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1969        kind = expression.text("kind")
1970        if kind:
1971            kind = f"{kind}."
1972        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1974    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1975        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1977    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1978        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1979        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1980
1981        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1982        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1983
1984        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1985        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1987    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1988        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1989        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1991    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1992        return self.prepend_ctes(
1993            expression,
1994            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1995        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1997    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1998        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1999        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2000        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2001        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2003    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2004        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2005
2006        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2007        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2008
2009        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2010            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2011                alias.append("columns", offset)
2012
2013        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2014            columns = alias.columns
2015            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2016        else:
2017            alias = self.sql(alias)
2018
2019        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2020        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2021            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2022        else:
2023            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2024                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2025            elif offset:
2026                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2027            else:
2028                suffix = alias
2029
2030        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2032    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2033        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2034        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2036    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2037        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2038        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2039        order = expression.args.get("order")
2040        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2041        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2042        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2043        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2044
2045        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2046
2047        first = expression.args.get("first")
2048        if first is None:
2049            first = ""
2050        else:
2051            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2052
2053        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2054            return f"{this} {alias}"
2055
2056        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2057        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2059    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2060        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2061        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2063    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2064        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2065        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2066        end = (
2067            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2068            or "CURRENT ROW"
2069        )
2070        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2072    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2073        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2074        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2075        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2077    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2078        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2079        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2080        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2081        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2083    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2084        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
2085        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2086
2087        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
2089    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
2090        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2092    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2093        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2095    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2096        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2097        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2098            this = self.wrap(this)
2099        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2101    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2102        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2104    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2105        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2106        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2107
2108        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2109            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2110            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2111
2112        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2113
2114        if default:
2115            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2116
2117        statements.append("END")
2118
2119        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2120            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2121
2122        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2124    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2125        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2126        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2127        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2129    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2130        order = expression.args.get("order")
2131        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2132        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2134    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2135        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2136        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2137        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2139    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2140        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2141
2142        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2143            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2144        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2145            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2146        else:
2147            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
2149    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2150        expressions = expression.expressions
2151        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2152            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
2153        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2155    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2156        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2157        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2159    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2160        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2161        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2162        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2163        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2164        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2165        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2166        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2167        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2169    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2170        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2171        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2172        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2173        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2175    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2176        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2178    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2179        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2180        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2181        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2183    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2184        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2186    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2187        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
2189    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2190        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2191        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2192        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2193        if unique_keys is not None:
2194            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2195        else:
2196            unique_keys = ""
2197        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2198        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2199        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2200        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2201        return self.func(
2202            "JSON_OBJECT",
2203            *expression.expressions,
2204            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2205        )
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2207    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2208        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2209        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2210        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2211        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2212        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2213        return self.func(
2214            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2215        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2217    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2218        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2219        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2220        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2221        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2222        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2223        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2224        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2225        return self.func(
2226            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2227            this,
2228            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2229        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2231    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2232        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2233        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2234        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2235
2236        if nested_schema:
2237            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2238
2239        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2240        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2241        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2242        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2244    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2245        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2247    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2248        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2249        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2250        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2251        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2252        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2253        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2254        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2255        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2256        return self.func(
2257            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2258        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2260    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2261        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2262        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2263        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2264        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2265        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2266        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2268    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2269        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2270        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2271        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2272        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2273        with_ = (
2274            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2275            if expressions
2276            else ""
2277        )
2278        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2280    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2281        query = expression.args.get("query")
2282        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2283        field = expression.args.get("field")
2284        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2285
2286        if query:
2287            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2288        elif unnest:
2289            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2290        elif field:
2291            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2292        else:
2293            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2294
2295        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2297    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2298        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2300    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2301        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2302        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2303            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2304        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2305
2306        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2307            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2308            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2309
2310        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2311        if this:
2312            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2313            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2314
2315        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2317    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2318        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2320    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2321        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2322        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2323        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2324        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2325        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2326        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2328    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2329        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2331    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2332        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2333            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2334        else:
2335            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2336            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2337
2338        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2340    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2341        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2342        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2343        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2344        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2346    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2347        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2349    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2350        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2351        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2352        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2354    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2355        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2357    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2358        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2359        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2360        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2362    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2363        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2365    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2366        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2368    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2369        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2371    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2372        if not self.pretty:
2373            return self.binary(expression, op)
2374
2375        sqls = tuple(
2376            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2377            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2378        )
2379
2380        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2381        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2383    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2384        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2386    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2387        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2389    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2390        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2392    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2393        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2395    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2396        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2398    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2399        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2401    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2402        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2403        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2404        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2406    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2407        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2408        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2410    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2411        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2412            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2413        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2415    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2416        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2418    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2419        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2420        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2421        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2422        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2423        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2425    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2426        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2427        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2428        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2429        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2430        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2431        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2432        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2433        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2434        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2436    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2437        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2438        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2439        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2440        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2441
2442        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2443            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2444
2445        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2447    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2448        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2450    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2451        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2452        if chain is not None:
2453            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2454
2455        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2457    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2458        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2459        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2460        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2462    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2463        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2464
2465        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2466        if dtype:
2467            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2468            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2469            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2470            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2471            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2472
2473        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2474        if default:
2475            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2476
2477        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2478            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2479
2480        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2482    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2483        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2484            # Remove db from tables
2485            expression = expression.transform(
2486                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2487            )
2488        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2489        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2491    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2492        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2493
2494        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2495            if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2496                actions = self.expressions(
2497                    expression,
2498                    key="actions",
2499                    prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2500                )
2501            else:
2502                actions = f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions')}"
2503        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2504            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2505        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2506            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2507        else:
2508            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2509
2510        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2511        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2512        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2514    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2515        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2516        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2517        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2519    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2520        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2521        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2522        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2523
2524        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2525        if enforced is not None:
2526            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2527
2528        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2530    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2531        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2532        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2533
2534        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2535        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2536        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2538    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2539        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2541    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2542        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2544    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2545        return self.sql(
2546            exp.Cast(
2547                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2548                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2549            )
2550        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2552    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2553        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2555    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2556        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2557            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2558        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2560    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2561        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2563    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2564        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2566    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2567        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2569    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2570        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2572    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2573        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2575    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2576        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2578    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2579        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2581    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2582        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2584    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2585        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2587    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2588        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2590    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2591        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2593    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2594        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2595            return self.sql(
2596                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2597            )
2598        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2600    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2601        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2603    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2604        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2606    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2607        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2609    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2610        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2612    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2613        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2615    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2616        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2618    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2619        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2621    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2622        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2624    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2625        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2627    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2628        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2630    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2631        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2633    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2634        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2636    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2637        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2639    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2640        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
2642    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2643        args = list(expression.args.values())
2644        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2645            args.reverse()
2646        return self.func("LOG", *args)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2648    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2649        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2650        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2651        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2652        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2653        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2655    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2656        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2657        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2659    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2660        args = []
2661
2662        for key in expression.arg_types:
2663            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2664
2665            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2666                for value in arg_value:
2667                    args.append(value)
2668            elif arg_value is not None:
2669                args.append(arg_value)
2670
2671        if self.normalize_functions:
2672            name = expression.sql_name()
2673        else:
2674            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2675
2676        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2678    def func(
2679        self,
2680        name: str,
2681        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2682        prefix: str = "(",
2683        suffix: str = ")",
2684    ) -> str:
2685        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2687    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2688        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2689        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2690            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2691        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2693    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2694        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2696    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2697        return format_time(
2698            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2699        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2701    def expressions(
2702        self,
2703        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2704        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2705        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2706        flat: bool = False,
2707        indent: bool = True,
2708        skip_first: bool = False,
2709        sep: str = ", ",
2710        prefix: str = "",
2711    ) -> str:
2712        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2713
2714        if not expressions:
2715            return ""
2716
2717        if flat:
2718            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2719
2720        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2721
2722        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2723        pad = " " * self.pad
2724        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2725
2726        result_sqls = []
2727        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2728            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2729            if not sql:
2730                continue
2731
2732            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2733
2734            if self.pretty:
2735                if self.leading_comma:
2736                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2737                else:
2738                    result_sqls.append(
2739                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2740                    )
2741            else:
2742                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2743
2744        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2745        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2747    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2748        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2749        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2750        if flat:
2751            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2752        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2754    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2755        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2756        if not property_name:
2757            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2758        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union, op: str) -> str:
2760    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2761        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2762        op = self.seg(op)
2763        return self.query_modifiers(
2764            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2765        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2767    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2768        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2770    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2771        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2773    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2774        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2775        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2776        expressions = (
2777            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2778        )
2779        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2781    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2782        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2783        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2784        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2786    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2787        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2789    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2790        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2791        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2792        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2793        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2794
2795        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2796        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2797            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2798            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2799                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2800        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2801            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2802                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2803            else:
2804                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2805        else:
2806            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2807        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2809    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2810        table = expression.this
2811        table_alias = ""
2812
2813        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2814        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2815            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2816            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2817
2818        this = self.sql(table)
2819        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2820        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2821        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2822
2823        return self.prepend_ctes(
2824            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2825        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2827    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2828        if expression.args.get("format"):
2829            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2830
2831        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2833    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2834        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2835        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2836        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2837        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2838        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2840    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2841        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2842        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2843        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2844        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2846    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2847        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2849    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2850        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2852    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2853        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2854        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2855        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2856        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2857        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2859    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2860        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2861        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2862
2863        if having:
2864            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2865
2866        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
2868    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2869        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2870        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2871        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2872        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2873        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2874        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2875        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2876        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2877        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2878        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2879        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2880        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2881        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2883    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2884        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2885        if key_block_size:
2886            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2887
2888        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2889        if using:
2890            return f"USING {using}"
2891
2892        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2893        if parser:
2894            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2895
2896        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2897        if comment:
2898            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2899
2900        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2901        if visible is not None:
2902            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2903
2904        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2905        if engine_attr:
2906            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2907
2908        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2909        if secondary_engine_attr:
2910            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2911
2912        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2913        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2915    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2916        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2917        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2918        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2919        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2920        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2921        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2922        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2923        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2924        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2925        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2926        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
2928    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2929        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2930            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2931
2932        case = exp.Case().when(
2933            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2934            expression.args["true"],
2935            copy=False,
2936        )
2937        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2938        if else_cond:
2939            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
2940
2941        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
2943    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2944        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2945        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2946        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2947        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2948        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2949        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2951    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2952        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
2954    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
2955        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
2957    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
2958        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
2959        model = f"MODEL {model}"
2960        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2961        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
2962        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
2963        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)