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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.time import format_time
  13from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  14
  15if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  16    from sqlglot._typing import E
  17    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  18
  19logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  20
  21ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  22
  23
  24class Generator:
  25    """
  26    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  27
  28    Args:
  29        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  30            Default: False.
  31        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  32            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  33            True or 'always': Always quote.
  34            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  35        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  36            Default: False.
  37        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  38            Default: 2.
  39        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  40            Default: 2.
  41        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  42            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  43            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  44            False: Disables function name normalization.
  45        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  46            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  47        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  48            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  49            Default: 3
  50        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  51            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  52            Default: False
  53        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  54            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  55            line length.
  56            Default: 80
  57        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  58            Default: True
  59    """
  60
  61    TRANSFORMS = {
  62        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  63            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  64        ),
  65        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  66        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  69        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  70        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  73        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  74        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  77        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  79        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  80        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  83        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  84        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  85        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  86        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  87        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  88        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  89        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  90        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  91        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  97        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  99        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 100        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 101        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 102        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 103        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
 104        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 105        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 106        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 107        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 108        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 109        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 110        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 111        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 112    }
 113
 114    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 115    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 116
 117    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 118    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 119
 120    # Always do union distinct or union all
 121    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 122
 123    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 124    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 125
 126    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 127    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 128
 129    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 130    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 131
 132    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 133    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 134
 135    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 136    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 137
 138    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 139    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 140
 141    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 142    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 143
 144    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 145    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 146
 147    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 148    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 149
 150    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 151    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 152
 153    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 154    JOIN_HINTS = True
 155
 156    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 157    TABLE_HINTS = True
 158
 159    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 160    QUERY_HINTS = True
 161
 162    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 163    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 164
 165    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 166    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 167
 168    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 169    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 170
 171    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 172    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 173
 174    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 175    RETURNING_END = True
 176
 177    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 178    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 179
 180    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 181    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 182
 183    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 184    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 185
 186    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 187    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 188
 189    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 190    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 191
 192    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 193    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 194    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 195    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 196
 197    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 198    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 199
 200    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 201    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 202
 203    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 204    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 205
 206    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 207    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 208
 209    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 210    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 211
 212    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 213    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 214
 215    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 216    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 217
 218    # Whether or not a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 219    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 220
 221    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 222    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 223
 224    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 225    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 226
 227    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 228    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 229
 230    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 231    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 232
 233    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 234    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 235
 236    # Whether or not conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 237    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 238
 239    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 240    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 241
 242    # Whether or not CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 243    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 244
 245    # Whether or not LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 246    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 247
 248    # Whether or not named columns are allowed in table aliases
 249    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 250
 251    # Whether or not UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 252    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 253
 254    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 255        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 256        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 257        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 258        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 259        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 260        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 261        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 262        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 263        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 264    }
 265
 266    STAR_MAPPING = {
 267        "except": "EXCEPT",
 268        "replace": "REPLACE",
 269    }
 270
 271    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 272        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 273        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 274        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 275        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 276        "DAYS": "DAY",
 277        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 278        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 279        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 280        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 281    }
 282
 283    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 284
 285    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 286
 287    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 288
 289    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 290        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 291        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 292        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 293        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 294        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 295        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 296        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 297        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 298        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 299        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 300        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 301        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 302        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 303        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 304        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 305        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 306        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 307        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 308        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 309        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 310        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 311        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 312        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 313        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 314        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 315        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 316        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 317        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 318        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 319        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 320        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 321        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 322        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 323        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 324        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 325        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 326        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 327        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 328        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 329        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 330        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 331        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 332        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 333        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 334        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 335        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 336        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 337        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 338        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 339        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 340        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 341        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 342        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 343        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 344        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 345        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 346        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 347        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 348        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 349        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 350        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 351        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 352        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 353        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 354        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 355        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 356    }
 357
 358    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 359    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 360
 361    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 362    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 363        exp.Create,
 364        exp.Delete,
 365        exp.Drop,
 366        exp.From,
 367        exp.Insert,
 368        exp.Join,
 369        exp.Select,
 370        exp.Update,
 371        exp.Where,
 372        exp.With,
 373    )
 374
 375    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 376    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 377        exp.Binary,
 378        exp.Union,
 379    )
 380
 381    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 382    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 383        exp.Column,
 384        exp.Literal,
 385        exp.Neg,
 386        exp.Paren,
 387    )
 388
 389    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 390    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 391
 392    KEY_VALUE_DEFINITIONS = (exp.Bracket, exp.EQ, exp.PropertyEQ, exp.Slice)
 393
 394    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 395
 396    __slots__ = (
 397        "pretty",
 398        "identify",
 399        "normalize",
 400        "pad",
 401        "_indent",
 402        "normalize_functions",
 403        "unsupported_level",
 404        "max_unsupported",
 405        "leading_comma",
 406        "max_text_width",
 407        "comments",
 408        "dialect",
 409        "unsupported_messages",
 410        "_escaped_quote_end",
 411        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 412    )
 413
 414    def __init__(
 415        self,
 416        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 417        identify: str | bool = False,
 418        normalize: bool = False,
 419        pad: int = 2,
 420        indent: int = 2,
 421        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 422        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 423        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 424        leading_comma: bool = False,
 425        max_text_width: int = 80,
 426        comments: bool = True,
 427        dialect: DialectType = None,
 428    ):
 429        import sqlglot
 430        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 431
 432        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 433        self.identify = identify
 434        self.normalize = normalize
 435        self.pad = pad
 436        self._indent = indent
 437        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 438        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 439        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 440        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 441        self.comments = comments
 442        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 443
 444        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 445        self.normalize_functions = (
 446            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 447        )
 448
 449        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 450        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 451            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 452        )
 453        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 454            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 455        )
 456
 457    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 458        """
 459        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 460
 461        Args:
 462            expression: The syntax tree.
 463            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 464                it is safer to copy.
 465
 466        Returns:
 467            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 468        """
 469        if copy:
 470            expression = expression.copy()
 471
 472        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 473
 474        self.unsupported_messages = []
 475        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 476
 477        if self.pretty:
 478            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 479
 480        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 481            return sql
 482
 483        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 484            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 485                logger.warning(msg)
 486        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 487            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 488
 489        return sql
 490
 491    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 492        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 493        if (
 494            not expression.parent
 495            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 496            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 497        ):
 498            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 499
 500            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 501
 502        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 503            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 504
 505            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 506
 507        return expression
 508
 509    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 510        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 511            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 512        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 513
 514    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 515        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 516
 517    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 518        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 519
 520    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 521        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 522        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 523        return comment
 524
 525    def maybe_comment(
 526        self,
 527        sql: str,
 528        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 529        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 530    ) -> str:
 531        comments = (
 532            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 533            if self.comments
 534            else None
 535        )
 536
 537        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 538            return sql
 539
 540        comments_sql = " ".join(
 541            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 542        )
 543
 544        if not comments_sql:
 545            return sql
 546
 547        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 548            return (
 549                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 550                if sql[0].isspace()
 551                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 552            )
 553
 554        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 555
 556    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 557        this_sql = self.indent(
 558            self.sql(expression)
 559            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 560            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 561            level=1,
 562            pad=0,
 563        )
 564        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 565
 566    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 567        original = self.identify
 568        self.identify = False
 569        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 570        self.identify = original
 571        return result
 572
 573    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 574        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 575            return name.upper()
 576        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 577            return name.lower()
 578        return name
 579
 580    def indent(
 581        self,
 582        sql: str,
 583        level: int = 0,
 584        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 585        skip_first: bool = False,
 586        skip_last: bool = False,
 587    ) -> str:
 588        if not self.pretty:
 589            return sql
 590
 591        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 592        lines = sql.split("\n")
 593
 594        return "\n".join(
 595            line
 596            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 597            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 598            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 599        )
 600
 601    def sql(
 602        self,
 603        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 604        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 605        comment: bool = True,
 606    ) -> str:
 607        if not expression:
 608            return ""
 609
 610        if isinstance(expression, str):
 611            return expression
 612
 613        if key:
 614            value = expression.args.get(key)
 615            if value:
 616                return self.sql(value)
 617            return ""
 618
 619        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 620
 621        if callable(transform):
 622            sql = transform(self, expression)
 623        elif transform:
 624            sql = transform
 625        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 626            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 627
 628            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 629                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 630            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 631                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 632            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 633                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 634            else:
 635                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 636        else:
 637            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 638
 639        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 640
 641    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 642        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 643        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 644        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 645
 646    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 647        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 648        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 649        options = expression.args.get("options")
 650        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 651        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 652        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 653        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 654        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 655
 656    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 657        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 658            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 659        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 660        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 661
 662    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 663        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 664
 665        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 666            join_mark = ""
 667            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 668
 669        column = ".".join(
 670            self.sql(part)
 671            for part in (
 672                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 673                expression.args.get("db"),
 674                expression.args.get("table"),
 675                expression.args.get("this"),
 676            )
 677            if part
 678        )
 679
 680        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 681
 682    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 683        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 684        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 685        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 686        return f"{position}{this}"
 687
 688    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 689        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 690        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 691        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 692        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 693        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 694        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 695        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 696        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 697
 698        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 699            kind = ""
 700
 701        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 702
 703    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 704        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 705        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 706        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 707
 708    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 709        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 710        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 711            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 712        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 713            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 714        else:
 715            persisted = ""
 716        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 717
 718    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 719        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 720
 721    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 722        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 723            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 724        else:
 725            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 726
 727        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 728
 729    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 730        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 731    ) -> str:
 732        this = ""
 733        if expression.this is not None:
 734            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 735            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 736
 737        start = expression.args.get("start")
 738        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 739        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 740        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 741        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 742        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 743        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 744        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 745        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 746        cycle_sql = ""
 747
 748        if cycle is not None:
 749            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 750            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 751
 752        sequence_opts = ""
 753        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 754            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 755            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 756
 757        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 758        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 759
 760        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 761
 762    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 763        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 764    ) -> str:
 765        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
 766        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 767        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 768
 769    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 770        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 771    ) -> str:
 772        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 773
 774    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 775        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 776
 777    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 778        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 779
 780    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 781        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 782        if desc is not None:
 783            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 784        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 785
 786    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 787        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 788        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 789        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 790        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 791        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 792
 793    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 794        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 795
 796    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 797        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 798        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 799        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 800
 801        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 802
 803        properties_sql = ""
 804        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 805            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 806        ):
 807            properties_sql = self.sql(
 808                exp.Properties(
 809                    expressions=[
 810                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 811                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 812                    ]
 813                )
 814            )
 815
 816        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 817        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 818
 819        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 820        if expression_sql:
 821            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 822
 823            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 824                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 825                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 826                        exp.Properties(
 827                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 828                        ),
 829                        wrapped=False,
 830                    )
 831                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 832                else:
 833                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 834
 835        postindex_props_sql = ""
 836        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 837            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 838                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 839                wrapped=False,
 840                prefix=" ",
 841            )
 842
 843        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 844        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 845        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 846
 847        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 848        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 849
 850        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 851        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 852            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 853                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 854                sep=" ",
 855                prefix=" ",
 856                wrapped=False,
 857            )
 858
 859        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 860
 861        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 862        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 863            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 864                exp.Properties(
 865                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 866                ),
 867                sep=" ",
 868                prefix=" ",
 869                wrapped=False,
 870            )
 871
 872        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 873        no_schema_binding = (
 874            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 875        )
 876
 877        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 878        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 879
 880        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 881        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 882
 883    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 885        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 886        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 887        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 888
 889    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 890        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 891
 892    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 893        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 894        if with_:
 895            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 896        return sql
 897
 898    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 899        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 900        recursive = (
 901            "RECURSIVE "
 902            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 903            else ""
 904        )
 905
 906        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 907
 908    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 909        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 910        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 911
 912    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 913        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 914        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 915        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 916
 917        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
 918            columns = ""
 919            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
 920
 921        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 922            alias = "_t"
 923
 924        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 925
 926    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 927        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 928        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
 929            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
 930        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 931
 932    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 933        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 934        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
 935            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
 936        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 937
 938    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 939        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 940        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
 941            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
 942        return this
 943
 944    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
 945        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 946        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
 947
 948        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
 949            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
 950            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
 951
 952        if escape:
 953            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
 954        else:
 955            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
 956
 957        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
 958        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
 959
 960    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 961        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 962        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
 963
 964    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 965        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 966        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 967        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 968        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 969
 970    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 971        type_value = expression.this
 972
 973        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 974            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 975        else:
 976            type_sql = (
 977                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 978                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 979                else type_value
 980            )
 981
 982        nested = ""
 983        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 984        values = ""
 985
 986        if interior:
 987            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 988                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 989                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 990                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 991                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 992                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 993            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 994                nested = f" {interior}"
 995            else:
 996                nested = f"({interior})"
 997
 998        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 999        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1000            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1001            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1002        ):
1003            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1004
1005        return type_sql
1006
1007    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1008        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1009        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1010        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1011        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1012
1013    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1014        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1015        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1016        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1017        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1018        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1019        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1020        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1021        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1022        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1023        if self.RETURNING_END:
1024            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1025        else:
1026            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1027        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1028
1029    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1030        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1031        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1032        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1033        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1034        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1035        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1036        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1037        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1038        return (
1039            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1040        )
1041
1042    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1043        return self.prepend_ctes(
1044            expression,
1045            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1046        )
1047
1048    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1049        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1050
1051    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1052        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1053        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1054        count = expression.args.get("count")
1055        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1056        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1057            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1058        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1059        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1060
1061    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1062        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1063            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1064            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1065            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1066
1067        agg = expression.this
1068        agg_arg = agg.this
1069        cond = expression.expression.this
1070        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1071        return self.sql(agg)
1072
1073    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1074        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1075            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1076            return ""
1077
1078        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1079
1080    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1081        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1082        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1083        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1084        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1085        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1086        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1087        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1088        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1089        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1090        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1091        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1092        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1093        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1094        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1095        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1096        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1097
1098    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1099        text = expression.name
1100        lower = text.lower()
1101        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1102        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1103        if (
1104            expression.quoted
1105            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1106            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1107            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1108        ):
1109            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1110        return text
1111
1112    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1113        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1114        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1115        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1116        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1117        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1118
1119    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1120        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1121        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1122
1123    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1124        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1125
1126    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1127        root_properties = []
1128        with_properties = []
1129
1130        for p in expression.expressions:
1131            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1132            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1133                with_properties.append(p)
1134            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1135                root_properties.append(p)
1136
1137        return self.root_properties(
1138            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1139        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1140
1141    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1142        if properties.expressions:
1143            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1144        return ""
1145
1146    def properties(
1147        self,
1148        properties: exp.Properties,
1149        prefix: str = "",
1150        sep: str = ", ",
1151        suffix: str = "",
1152        wrapped: bool = True,
1153    ) -> str:
1154        if properties.expressions:
1155            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1156            if expressions:
1157                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1158                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1159        return ""
1160
1161    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1162        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1163
1164    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1165        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1166        for p in properties.expressions:
1167            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1168            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1169                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1170            else:
1171                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1172
1173        return properties_locs
1174
1175    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1176        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1177            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1178        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1179
1180    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1181        property_cls = expression.__class__
1182        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1183            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1184
1185        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1186        if not property_name:
1187            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1188
1189        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1190
1191    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1192        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1193        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1194        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1195
1196    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1197        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1198        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1199        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1200
1201    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1202        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1203        local = expression.args.get("local")
1204        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1205        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1206        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1207        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1208        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1209
1210    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1211        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1212        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1213        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1214
1215    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1216        if expression.args.get("default"):
1217            property = "DEFAULT"
1218        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1219            property = "ON"
1220        else:
1221            property = "OFF"
1222        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1223
1224    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1225        if expression.args.get("no"):
1226            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1227        if expression.args.get("default"):
1228            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1229
1230        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1231        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1232
1233    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1234        default = expression.args.get("default")
1235        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1236        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1237        if default or minimum or maximum:
1238            if default:
1239                prop = "DEFAULT"
1240            elif minimum:
1241                prop = "MINIMUM"
1242            else:
1243                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1244            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1245        units = expression.args.get("units")
1246        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1247        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1248
1249    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1250        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1251        always = expression.args.get("always")
1252        default = expression.args.get("default")
1253        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1254        never = expression.args.get("never")
1255
1256        if autotemp is not None:
1257            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1258        elif always:
1259            prop = "ALWAYS"
1260        elif default:
1261            prop = "DEFAULT"
1262        elif manual:
1263            prop = "MANUAL"
1264        elif never:
1265            prop = "NEVER"
1266        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1267
1268    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1269        no = expression.args.get("no")
1270        no = " NO" if no else ""
1271        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1272        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1273
1274        for_ = ""
1275        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1276            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1277        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1278            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1279        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1280            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1281        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1282
1283    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1284        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1285            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1286        if expression.this:
1287            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1288            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1289            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1290
1291        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1292        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1293        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1294
1295    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1296        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1297
1298        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1299        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1300            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1301        else:
1302            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1303
1304        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1305
1306    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1307        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1308        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1309        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1310        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1311        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1312        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1313        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1314
1315    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1316        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1317        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1318        statistics_sql = ""
1319        if statistics is not None:
1320            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1321        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1322
1323    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1324        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1325
1326        if expression.this:
1327            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1328            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1329
1330            if expression.expression:
1331                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1332                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1333
1334            sql = f"{sql})"
1335
1336        return f"{sql})"
1337
1338    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1339        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1340
1341        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1342            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1343        else:
1344            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1345
1346        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1347        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1348        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1349
1350        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1351
1352        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1353        partition_sql = (
1354            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1355        )
1356        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1357        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1358        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1359        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1360        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1361        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1362
1363        if self.RETURNING_END:
1364            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1365        else:
1366            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1367
1368        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1369        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1370
1371    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1372        return self.prepend_ctes(
1373            expression,
1374            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1375        )
1376
1377    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1378        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1379
1380    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1381        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1382
1383    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1384        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1385        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1386        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1387        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1388        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1389
1390    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1391        return expression.name
1392
1393    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1394        return expression.name
1395
1396    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1397        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1398        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1399        if constraint:
1400            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1401        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1402        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1403        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1404        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1405        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1406        if expressions:
1407            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1408        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1409
1410    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1411        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1412
1413    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1414        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1415        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1416        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1417        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1418        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1419        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1420        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1421        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1422        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1423        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1424        null = expression.args.get("null")
1425        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1426        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1427
1428    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1429        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1430
1431    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1432        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1433        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1434        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1435        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1436
1437    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1438        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1439        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1440        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1441        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1442
1443    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1444        table = ".".join(
1445            self.sql(part)
1446            for part in (
1447                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1448                expression.args.get("db"),
1449                expression.args.get("this"),
1450            )
1451            if part is not None
1452        )
1453
1454        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1455        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1456        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1457        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1458        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1459        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1460        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1461        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1462        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1463        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1464
1465        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1466        if file_format:
1467            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1468            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1469            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1470
1471        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1472        if ordinality:
1473            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1474            alias = ""
1475
1476        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1477        if when:
1478            table = f"{table} {when}"
1479
1480        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1481
1482    def tablesample_sql(
1483        self,
1484        expression: exp.TableSample,
1485        sep: str = " AS ",
1486        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1487    ) -> str:
1488        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1489            table = expression.this.copy()
1490            table.set("alias", None)
1491            this = self.sql(table)
1492            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1493        else:
1494            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1495            alias = ""
1496
1497        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1498        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1499        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1500        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1501        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1502        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1503        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1504        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1505        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1506
1507        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1508        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1509            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1510
1511        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1512        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1513            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1514
1515        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1516        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1517            expr = f"({expr})"
1518
1519        return (
1520            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1521        )
1522
1523    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1524        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1525
1526        if expression.this:
1527            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1528            if not expressions:
1529                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1530
1531            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1532            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1533            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1534            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1535            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1536
1537        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1538        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1539        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1540        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1541        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1542        if include_nulls is not None:
1543            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1544        else:
1545            nulls = ""
1546        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1547
1548    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1549        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1550        kind = expression.text("kind")
1551        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1552        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1553
1554    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1555        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1556
1557    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1558        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1559        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1560        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1561        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1562        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1563        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1564        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1565        if self.RETURNING_END:
1566            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1567        else:
1568            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1569        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1570        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1571
1572    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1573        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1574        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1575            args = self.expressions(expression)
1576            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1577            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1578            values = (
1579                f"({values})"
1580                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1581                else values
1582            )
1583            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1584
1585        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1586        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1587        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1588
1589        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1590
1591        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1592            row = tup.expressions
1593
1594            if i == 0 and column_names:
1595                row = [
1596                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1597                ]
1598
1599            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1600
1601        if self.pretty:
1602            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1603            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1604            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1605            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1606            return self.subquery_sql(
1607                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1608            )
1609
1610        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1611        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1612        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1613
1614    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1615        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1616
1617    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1618        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1619        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1620        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1621
1622    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1623        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1624
1625    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1626        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1627
1628        if expression.args.get("all"):
1629            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1630
1631        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1632        grouping_sets = (
1633            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1634        )
1635
1636        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1637        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1638            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1639        else:
1640            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1641            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1642
1643        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1644        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1645            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1646        else:
1647            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1648            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1649
1650        groupings = csv(
1651            grouping_sets,
1652            cube_sql,
1653            rollup_sql,
1654            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1655            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1656        )
1657
1658        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1659            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1660
1661        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1662
1663    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1664        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1665        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1666
1667    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1668        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1669        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1670        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1671        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1672        return start + connect
1673
1674    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1675        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1676
1677    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1678        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1679            side = None
1680        else:
1681            side = expression.side
1682
1683        op_sql = " ".join(
1684            op
1685            for op in (
1686                expression.method,
1687                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1688                side,
1689                expression.kind,
1690                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1691            )
1692            if op
1693        )
1694        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1695        using = expression.args.get("using")
1696
1697        if not on_sql and using:
1698            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1699
1700        this = expression.this
1701        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1702
1703        if on_sql:
1704            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1705            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1706            if using:
1707                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1708            else:
1709                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1710        elif not op_sql:
1711            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1712                return f" {this_sql}"
1713
1714            return f", {this_sql}"
1715
1716        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1717        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1718
1719    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1720        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1721        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1722        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1723
1724    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1725        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1726
1727        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1728        if cross_apply is True:
1729            op = "INNER JOIN "
1730        elif cross_apply is False:
1731            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1732        else:
1733            op = ""
1734
1735        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1736
1737    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1739
1740        if expression.args.get("view"):
1741            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1742            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1743            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1744            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1745            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1746            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1747
1748        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1749        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1750        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1751
1752    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1753        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1754
1755        args = [
1756            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1757            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1758            if e
1759        ]
1760
1761        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1762        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1763        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}"
1764
1765    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1766        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1767        expression = expression.expression
1768        expression = (
1769            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1770        )
1771        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1772
1773    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1774        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1775        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1776        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1777        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1778        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1779        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1780        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1781        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1782
1783    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1784        expressions = (
1785            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1786        )
1787        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1788        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1789
1790    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1791        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1792
1793    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1794        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1795            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1796            return ""
1797
1798        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1799        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1800        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1801        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1802
1803        if wait is not None:
1804            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1805                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1806            else:
1807                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1808
1809        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1810
1811    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1812        text = expression.this or ""
1813        if expression.is_string:
1814            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1815        return text
1816
1817    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1818        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1819        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1820            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1821        elif self.pretty:
1822            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1823        return text
1824
1825    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1826        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1827        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1828        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1829        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1830        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1831        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1832        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1833        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1834        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1835        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1836        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1837
1838    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1839        return "NULL"
1840
1841    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1842        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1843
1844    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1845        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1846        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1847        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1848        interpolated_values = [
1849            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
1850            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
1851        ]
1852        interpolate = (
1853            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
1854        )
1855        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
1856
1857    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
1858        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1859        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
1860        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
1861        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
1862        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
1863        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
1864        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
1865
1866    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1867        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1868
1869    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1870        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1871
1872    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1873        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1874
1875    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1876        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1877        asc = not desc
1878
1879        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1880        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1881        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1882        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1883        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1884
1885        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1886
1887        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1888        nulls_sort_change = ""
1889        if nulls_first and (
1890            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1891        ):
1892            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1893        elif (
1894            nulls_last
1895            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1896            and not nulls_are_last
1897        ):
1898            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1899
1900        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1901        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1902            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
1903            if expression.this.is_int:
1904                self.unsupported(
1905                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
1906                )
1907            elif isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
1908                self.unsupported(
1909                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
1910                )
1911            else:
1912                null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
1913                this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
1914            nulls_sort_change = ""
1915
1916        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
1917        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
1918
1919        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
1920
1921    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1922        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1923        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1924        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1925        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1926        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1927        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1928        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1929        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1930        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1931        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1932        definition_sqls = [
1933            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1934            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1935        ]
1936        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1937        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1938        body = "".join(
1939            (
1940                partition,
1941                order,
1942                measures,
1943                rows,
1944                after,
1945                pattern,
1946                define,
1947            )
1948        )
1949        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1950        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1951        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1952
1953    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1954        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1955
1956        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1957        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1958
1959        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1960            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1961        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1962            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1963
1964        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1965
1966        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1967            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1968            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1969            else []
1970        )
1971
1972        return csv(
1973            *sqls,
1974            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1975            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1976            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1977            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1978            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1979            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1980            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1981            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1982            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1983            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1984            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1985            sep="",
1986        )
1987
1988    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1989        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1990    ) -> t.List[str]:
1991        return [
1992            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1993            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1994        ]
1995
1996    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1997        return [
1998            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1999            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
2000            if expression.args.get("windows")
2001            else "",
2002            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
2003            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
2004            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
2005        ]
2006
2007    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2008        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2009        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2010        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2011
2012    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2013        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2014        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2015        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2016        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2017        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2018        top = (
2019            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2020            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
2021            else ""
2022        )
2023
2024        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2025
2026        if kind:
2027            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2028                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2029            else:
2030                if kind == "STRUCT":
2031                    expressions = self.expressions(
2032                        sqls=[
2033                            self.sql(
2034                                exp.Struct(
2035                                    expressions=[
2036                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
2037                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
2038                                        )
2039                                        for e in expression.expressions
2040                                    ]
2041                                )
2042                            )
2043                        ]
2044                    )
2045                kind = ""
2046
2047        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2048        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2049        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2050        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2051        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2052            expression,
2053            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2054            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2055            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2056        )
2057        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2058
2059    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2060        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2061        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2062        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2063
2064    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2065        if expression.expressions:
2066            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2067        return ""
2068
2069    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2070        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2071        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2072        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2073        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2074        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2075
2076    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2077        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2078        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2079
2080    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2081        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2082        kind = expression.text("kind")
2083        if kind:
2084            kind = f"{kind}."
2085        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2086
2087    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2088        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2089
2090    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2091        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2092        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2093
2094        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2095        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2096
2097        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2098        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2099
2100    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2101        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2102        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2103
2104    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2105        return self.prepend_ctes(
2106            expression,
2107            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2108        )
2109
2110    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2111        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2112        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2113        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2114        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2115
2116    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2117        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2118
2119        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2120        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2121
2122        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2123            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2124                alias.append("columns", offset)
2125
2126        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2127            columns = alias.columns
2128            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2129        else:
2130            alias = self.sql(alias)
2131
2132        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2133        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2134            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2135        else:
2136            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2137                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2138            elif offset:
2139                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2140            else:
2141                suffix = alias
2142
2143        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2144
2145    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2146        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2147        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2148
2149    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2150        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2151        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2152        order = expression.args.get("order")
2153        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2154        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2155        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2156        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2157
2158        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2159
2160        first = expression.args.get("first")
2161        if first is None:
2162            first = ""
2163        else:
2164            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2165
2166        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2167            return f"{this} {alias}"
2168
2169        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2170        return f"{this} ({args})"
2171
2172    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2173        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2174        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2175
2176    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2177        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2178        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2179        end = (
2180            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2181            or "CURRENT ROW"
2182        )
2183        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2184
2185    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2186        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2187        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2188        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2189
2190    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2191        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2192        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2193        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2194        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2195
2196    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2197        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2198            expression.this,
2199            expression.expressions,
2200            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2201        )
2202        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2203        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2204
2205    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2206        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2207
2208    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2209        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2210        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2211            this = self.wrap(this)
2212        return f"ANY {this}"
2213
2214    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2215        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2216
2217    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2218        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2219        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2220
2221        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2222            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2223            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2224
2225        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2226
2227        if default:
2228            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2229
2230        statements.append("END")
2231
2232        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2233            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2234
2235        return " ".join(statements)
2236
2237    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2239        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2240        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2241
2242    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2243        order = expression.args.get("order")
2244        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2245        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2246
2247    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2248        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2249        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2250        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2251
2252    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2253        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2254
2255        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2256            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2257        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2258            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2259        else:
2260            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2261
2262    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2263        args = expression.expressions
2264        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2265            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2266
2267        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2268            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2269
2270        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2271            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2272
2273        return args
2274
2275    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2276        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2277
2278        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2279        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2280            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2281
2282        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2283
2284    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2285        return self.func(
2286            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2287        )
2288
2289    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2290        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2291        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2292
2293    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2294        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2295        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2296        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2297        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2298        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2299        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2300        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2301        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2302
2303    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2304        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2305        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2306        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2307        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2308
2309    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2310        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2311
2312    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2313        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2314        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2315        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2316
2317    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2318        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2319
2320    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2321        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2322
2323    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2324        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2325        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2326        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2327        if unique_keys is not None:
2328            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2329        else:
2330            unique_keys = ""
2331        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2332        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2333        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2334        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2335        return self.func(
2336            "JSON_OBJECT",
2337            *expression.expressions,
2338            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2339        )
2340
2341    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2342        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2343        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2344        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2345        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2346        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2347        return self.func(
2348            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2349        )
2350
2351    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2352        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2353        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2354        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2355        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2356        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2357        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2358        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2359        return self.func(
2360            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2361            this,
2362            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2363        )
2364
2365    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2366        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2367        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2368        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2369
2370        if nested_schema:
2371            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2372
2373        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2374        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2375        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2376        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2377
2378    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2379        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2380
2381    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2383        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2384        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2385        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2386        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2387        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2388        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2389        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2390        return self.func(
2391            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2392        )
2393
2394    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2395        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2396        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2397        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2398        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2399        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2400        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2401
2402    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2403        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2404        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2405        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2406        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2407        with_ = (
2408            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2409            if expressions
2410            else ""
2411        )
2412        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2413
2414    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2415        query = expression.args.get("query")
2416        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2417        field = expression.args.get("field")
2418        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2419
2420        if query:
2421            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2422        elif unnest:
2423            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2424        elif field:
2425            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2426        else:
2427            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2428
2429        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2430
2431    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2432        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2433
2434    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2435        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2436        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2437            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2438        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2439
2440        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2441            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2442            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2443
2444        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2445        if this:
2446            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2447            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2448
2449        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2450
2451    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2452        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2453
2454    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2455        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2456        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2457        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2458        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2459        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2460        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2461
2462    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2463        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2464
2465    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2466        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2467            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2468        else:
2469            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2470            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2471
2472        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2473
2474    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2475        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2476        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2477        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2478        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2479
2480    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2481        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2482
2483    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2484        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2485        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2486        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2487
2488    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2489        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2490        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2491
2492        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2493            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2494        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2495            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2496
2497        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2498
2499    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2500        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2501
2502    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2503        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2504        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2505        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2506
2507    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2508        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2509        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2510        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2511
2512    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2513        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2514
2515    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2516        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2517
2518    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2519        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2520
2521    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2522        if not self.pretty:
2523            return self.binary(expression, op)
2524
2525        sqls = tuple(
2526            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2527            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2528        )
2529
2530        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2531        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2532
2533    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2534        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2535
2536    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2537        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2538
2539    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2540        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2541
2542    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2543        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2544
2545    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2546        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2547
2548    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2549        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2550
2551    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2552        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2553        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2554        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2555        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2556        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
2557
2558    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2559        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2560        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2561
2562    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2563        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2564            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2565        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2566
2567    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2568        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2569
2570    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2571        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2572        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2573        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2574        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2575        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2576
2577    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2578        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2579        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2580        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2581        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2582        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2583        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2584        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2585        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2586        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2587
2588    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2589        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2590        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2591        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2592        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2593
2594        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2595            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2596
2597        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2598
2599    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2600        return "BEGIN"
2601
2602    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2603        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2604        if chain is not None:
2605            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2606
2607        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2608
2609    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2610        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2611        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2612        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2613
2614    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2615        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2616
2617        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2618        if dtype:
2619            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2620            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2621            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2622            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2623            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2624
2625        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2626        if default:
2627            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2628
2629        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2630            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2631
2632        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2633
2634    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2635        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2636            # Remove db from tables
2637            expression = expression.transform(
2638                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2639            )
2640        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2641        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2642
2643    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2644        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2645
2646        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2647            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2648        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2649            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2650        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2651            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2652        else:
2653            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2654
2655        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2656        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2657        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2658
2659    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2660        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2661            return self.expressions(
2662                expression,
2663                key="actions",
2664                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2665            )
2666        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2667
2668    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2669        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2670        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2671        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2672
2673    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2674        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2675        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2676        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2677
2678        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2679        if enforced is not None:
2680            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2681
2682        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2683
2684    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2685        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2686        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2687
2688        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2689        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2690        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2691
2692    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2693        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2694
2695    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2696        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2697
2698    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2699        return self.sql(
2700            exp.Cast(
2701                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2702                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2703            )
2704        )
2705
2706    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2707        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2708            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2709        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2710
2711    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2712        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2713
2714        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2715            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2716
2717        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2718            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2719                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2720            ):
2721                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2722
2723        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2724            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2725                return self.sql(
2726                    exp.cast(
2727                        l / r,
2728                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2729                    )
2730                )
2731
2732        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2733
2734    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2735        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2736
2737    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2738        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2739
2740    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2741        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2742
2743    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2744        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2745
2746    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2747        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
2748
2749    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2750        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2751
2752    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2753        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2754
2755    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2756        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2757
2758    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2759        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2760
2761    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2762        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2763
2764    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2765        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2766
2767    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2768        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2769            return self.sql(
2770                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2771            )
2772        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2773
2774    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2775        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2776
2777    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2778        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2779
2780    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2781        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2782
2783    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2784        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2785
2786    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2787        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2788
2789    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2790        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2791
2792    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2793        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2794
2795    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2796        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2797
2798    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2799        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2800
2801    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2802        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2803
2804    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2805        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2806
2807    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2808        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2809
2810    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2811        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2812
2813    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2814        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2815
2816    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2817        this = expression.this
2818        expr = expression.expression
2819
2820        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2821            this, expr = expr, this
2822
2823        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
2824
2825    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2826        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2827        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2828        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2829        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2830        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2831
2832    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2833        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2834        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2835
2836    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2837        args = []
2838
2839        for key in expression.arg_types:
2840            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2841
2842            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2843                for value in arg_value:
2844                    args.append(value)
2845            elif arg_value is not None:
2846                args.append(arg_value)
2847
2848        if self.normalize_functions:
2849            name = expression.sql_name()
2850        else:
2851            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2852
2853        return self.func(name, *args)
2854
2855    def func(
2856        self,
2857        name: str,
2858        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2859        prefix: str = "(",
2860        suffix: str = ")",
2861    ) -> str:
2862        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2863
2864    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2865        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2866        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2867            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2868        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2869
2870    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2871        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2872
2873    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2874        return format_time(
2875            self.sql(expression, "format"),
2876            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
2877            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
2878        )
2879
2880    def expressions(
2881        self,
2882        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2883        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2884        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2885        flat: bool = False,
2886        indent: bool = True,
2887        skip_first: bool = False,
2888        sep: str = ", ",
2889        prefix: str = "",
2890    ) -> str:
2891        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2892
2893        if not expressions:
2894            return ""
2895
2896        if flat:
2897            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2898
2899        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2900
2901        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2902        pad = " " * self.pad
2903        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2904
2905        result_sqls = []
2906        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2907            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2908            if not sql:
2909                continue
2910
2911            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2912
2913            if self.pretty:
2914                if self.leading_comma:
2915                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2916                else:
2917                    result_sqls.append(
2918                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2919                    )
2920            else:
2921                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2922
2923        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2924        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2925
2926    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2927        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2928        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2929        if flat:
2930            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2931        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2932
2933    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2934        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2935        if not property_name:
2936            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2937        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2938
2939    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2940        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2941        op = self.seg(op)
2942        return self.query_modifiers(
2943            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2944        )
2945
2946    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2947        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2948
2949    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2950        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2951
2952    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2954        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2955        expressions = (
2956            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2957        )
2958        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2959
2960    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2961        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2962        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2963        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2964
2965    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2966        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2967
2968    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2969        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2970        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2971        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2972        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2973
2974        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2975        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2976            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2977            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2978                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2979        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2980            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2981                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2982            else:
2983                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2984        else:
2985            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2986        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2987
2988    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2989        table = expression.this
2990        table_alias = ""
2991
2992        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2993        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2994            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2995            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2996
2997        this = self.sql(table)
2998        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2999        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3000        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3001
3002        return self.prepend_ctes(
3003            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3004        )
3005
3006    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3007        if expression.args.get("format"):
3008            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3009
3010        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
3011
3012    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3013        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3014        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3015        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3016        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3017        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3018
3019    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3020        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3021        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3022        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3023        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3024
3025    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3026        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3027
3028    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3029        return ""
3030
3031    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3032        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3033        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3034        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3035        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3036        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3037
3038    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3039        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3040        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3041
3042        if having:
3043            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3044
3045        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3046
3047    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3048        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3049        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3050        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3051        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3052        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3053        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3054        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3055        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3056        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3057        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3058        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3059        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3060        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3061
3062    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3063        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3064        if key_block_size:
3065            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3066
3067        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3068        if using:
3069            return f"USING {using}"
3070
3071        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3072        if parser:
3073            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3074
3075        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3076        if comment:
3077            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3078
3079        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3080        if visible is not None:
3081            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3082
3083        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3084        if engine_attr:
3085            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3086
3087        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3088        if secondary_engine_attr:
3089            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3090
3091        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3092        return ""
3093
3094    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3095        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3096        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3097        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3098        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3099        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3100        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3101        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3102        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3103        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3104        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3105        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
3106
3107    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3108        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3109            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3110
3111        case = exp.Case().when(
3112            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3113            expression.args["true"],
3114            copy=False,
3115        )
3116        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3117        if else_cond:
3118            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3119
3120        return self.sql(case)
3121
3122    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3123        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3124        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3125        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3126        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3127        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3128        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3129
3130    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3131        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3132
3133    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3134        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3135
3136    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3137        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3138        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3139        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3140        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3141        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3142        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3143
3144    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3145        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3146        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3147        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3148
3149    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3150        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3151        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3152        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3153
3154    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3155        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3156
3157    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3158        arg = expression.this
3159        if not arg.type:
3160            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3161
3162            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3163
3164        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3165            return self.sql(arg)
3166
3167        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3168        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.Array(expressions=[arg])))
3169
3170    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3171        this = expression.this
3172        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3173            return self.sql(this)
3174
3175        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
3176
3177    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3178        this = expression.this
3179        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3180
3181        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3182            return self.sql(
3183                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3184            )
3185
3186        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3187            return self.sql(this)
3188
3189        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
3190
3191    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3192        return self.sql(
3193            exp.func(
3194                "DATEDIFF",
3195                expression.this,
3196                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3197                "day",
3198            )
3199        )
3200
3201    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3202        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3203            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3204
3205        unit = expression.text("unit")
3206        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3207            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3208
3209        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3210
3211    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3212        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3213            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3214
3215            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3216
3217        return expression
3218
3219    def _ensure_string_if_null(self, values: t.List[exp.Expression]) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
3220        return [
3221            exp.func("COALESCE", exp.cast(value, "text"), exp.Literal.string(""))
3222            for value in values
3223            if value
3224        ]
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  25class Generator:
  26    """
  27    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  28
  29    Args:
  30        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  31            Default: False.
  32        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  33            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  34            True or 'always': Always quote.
  35            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  36        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  37            Default: False.
  38        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  39            Default: 2.
  40        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  41            Default: 2.
  42        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  43            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  44            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  45            False: Disables function name normalization.
  46        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  47            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  48        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  49            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  50            Default: 3
  51        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  52            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  53            Default: False
  54        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  55            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  56            line length.
  57            Default: 80
  58        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  59            Default: True
  60    """
  61
  62    TRANSFORMS = {
  63        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  64            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  65        ),
  66        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  67        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  70        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  71        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  74        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  77        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  78        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  80        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  81        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  83        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  84        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  85        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  86        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  87        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  88        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  89        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  90        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  91        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  92        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  98        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  99        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 100        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 101        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 102        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 103        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 104        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
 105        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 106        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 107        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 108        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 109        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 110        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 111        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 112        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 113    }
 114
 115    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 116    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 117
 118    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 119    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 120
 121    # Always do union distinct or union all
 122    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 123
 124    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 125    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 126
 127    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 128    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 129
 130    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 131    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 132
 133    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 134    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 135
 136    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 137    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 138
 139    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 140    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 141
 142    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 143    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 144
 145    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 146    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 147
 148    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 149    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 150
 151    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 152    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 153
 154    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 155    JOIN_HINTS = True
 156
 157    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 158    TABLE_HINTS = True
 159
 160    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 161    QUERY_HINTS = True
 162
 163    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 164    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 165
 166    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 167    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 168
 169    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 170    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 171
 172    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 173    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 174
 175    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 176    RETURNING_END = True
 177
 178    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 179    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 180
 181    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 182    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 183
 184    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 185    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 186
 187    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 188    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 189
 190    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 191    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 192
 193    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 194    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 195    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 196    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 197
 198    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 199    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 200
 201    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 202    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 203
 204    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 205    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 206
 207    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 208    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 209
 210    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 211    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 212
 213    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 214    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 215
 216    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 217    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 218
 219    # Whether or not a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 220    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 221
 222    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 223    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 224
 225    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 226    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 227
 228    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 229    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 230
 231    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 232    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 233
 234    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 235    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 236
 237    # Whether or not conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 238    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 239
 240    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 241    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 242
 243    # Whether or not CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 244    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 245
 246    # Whether or not LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 247    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 248
 249    # Whether or not named columns are allowed in table aliases
 250    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 251
 252    # Whether or not UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 253    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 254
 255    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 256        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 257        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 258        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 259        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 260        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 261        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 262        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 263        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 264        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 265    }
 266
 267    STAR_MAPPING = {
 268        "except": "EXCEPT",
 269        "replace": "REPLACE",
 270    }
 271
 272    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 273        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 274        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 275        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 276        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 277        "DAYS": "DAY",
 278        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 279        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 280        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 281        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 282    }
 283
 284    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 285
 286    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 287
 288    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 289
 290    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 291        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 292        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 293        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 294        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 295        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 296        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 297        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 298        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 299        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 300        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 301        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 302        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 303        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 304        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 305        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 306        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 307        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 308        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 309        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 310        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 311        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 312        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 313        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 314        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 315        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 316        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 317        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 318        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 319        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 320        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 321        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 322        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 323        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 324        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 325        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 326        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 327        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 328        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 329        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 330        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 331        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 332        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 333        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 334        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 335        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 336        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 337        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 338        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 339        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 340        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 341        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 342        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 343        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 344        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 345        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 346        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 347        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 348        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 349        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 350        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 351        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 352        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 353        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 354        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 355        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 356        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 357    }
 358
 359    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 360    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 361
 362    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 363    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 364        exp.Create,
 365        exp.Delete,
 366        exp.Drop,
 367        exp.From,
 368        exp.Insert,
 369        exp.Join,
 370        exp.Select,
 371        exp.Update,
 372        exp.Where,
 373        exp.With,
 374    )
 375
 376    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 377    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 378        exp.Binary,
 379        exp.Union,
 380    )
 381
 382    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 383    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 384        exp.Column,
 385        exp.Literal,
 386        exp.Neg,
 387        exp.Paren,
 388    )
 389
 390    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 391    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 392
 393    KEY_VALUE_DEFINITIONS = (exp.Bracket, exp.EQ, exp.PropertyEQ, exp.Slice)
 394
 395    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 396
 397    __slots__ = (
 398        "pretty",
 399        "identify",
 400        "normalize",
 401        "pad",
 402        "_indent",
 403        "normalize_functions",
 404        "unsupported_level",
 405        "max_unsupported",
 406        "leading_comma",
 407        "max_text_width",
 408        "comments",
 409        "dialect",
 410        "unsupported_messages",
 411        "_escaped_quote_end",
 412        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 413    )
 414
 415    def __init__(
 416        self,
 417        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 418        identify: str | bool = False,
 419        normalize: bool = False,
 420        pad: int = 2,
 421        indent: int = 2,
 422        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 423        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 424        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 425        leading_comma: bool = False,
 426        max_text_width: int = 80,
 427        comments: bool = True,
 428        dialect: DialectType = None,
 429    ):
 430        import sqlglot
 431        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 432
 433        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 434        self.identify = identify
 435        self.normalize = normalize
 436        self.pad = pad
 437        self._indent = indent
 438        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 439        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 440        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 441        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 442        self.comments = comments
 443        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 444
 445        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 446        self.normalize_functions = (
 447            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 448        )
 449
 450        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 451        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 452            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 453        )
 454        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 455            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 456        )
 457
 458    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 459        """
 460        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 461
 462        Args:
 463            expression: The syntax tree.
 464            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 465                it is safer to copy.
 466
 467        Returns:
 468            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 469        """
 470        if copy:
 471            expression = expression.copy()
 472
 473        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 474
 475        self.unsupported_messages = []
 476        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 477
 478        if self.pretty:
 479            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 480
 481        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 482            return sql
 483
 484        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 485            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 486                logger.warning(msg)
 487        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 488            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 489
 490        return sql
 491
 492    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 493        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 494        if (
 495            not expression.parent
 496            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 497            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 498        ):
 499            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 500
 501            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 502
 503        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 504            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 505
 506            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 507
 508        return expression
 509
 510    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 511        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 512            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 513        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 514
 515    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 516        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 517
 518    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 519        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 520
 521    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 522        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 523        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 524        return comment
 525
 526    def maybe_comment(
 527        self,
 528        sql: str,
 529        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 530        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 531    ) -> str:
 532        comments = (
 533            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 534            if self.comments
 535            else None
 536        )
 537
 538        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 539            return sql
 540
 541        comments_sql = " ".join(
 542            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 543        )
 544
 545        if not comments_sql:
 546            return sql
 547
 548        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 549            return (
 550                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 551                if sql[0].isspace()
 552                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 553            )
 554
 555        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 556
 557    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 558        this_sql = self.indent(
 559            self.sql(expression)
 560            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 561            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 562            level=1,
 563            pad=0,
 564        )
 565        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 566
 567    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 568        original = self.identify
 569        self.identify = False
 570        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 571        self.identify = original
 572        return result
 573
 574    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 575        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 576            return name.upper()
 577        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 578            return name.lower()
 579        return name
 580
 581    def indent(
 582        self,
 583        sql: str,
 584        level: int = 0,
 585        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 586        skip_first: bool = False,
 587        skip_last: bool = False,
 588    ) -> str:
 589        if not self.pretty:
 590            return sql
 591
 592        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 593        lines = sql.split("\n")
 594
 595        return "\n".join(
 596            line
 597            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 598            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 599            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 600        )
 601
 602    def sql(
 603        self,
 604        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 605        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 606        comment: bool = True,
 607    ) -> str:
 608        if not expression:
 609            return ""
 610
 611        if isinstance(expression, str):
 612            return expression
 613
 614        if key:
 615            value = expression.args.get(key)
 616            if value:
 617                return self.sql(value)
 618            return ""
 619
 620        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 621
 622        if callable(transform):
 623            sql = transform(self, expression)
 624        elif transform:
 625            sql = transform
 626        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 627            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 628
 629            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 630                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 631            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 632                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 633            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 634                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 635            else:
 636                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 637        else:
 638            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 639
 640        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 641
 642    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 643        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 644        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 645        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 646
 647    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 648        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 649        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 650        options = expression.args.get("options")
 651        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 652        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 653        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 654        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 655        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 656
 657    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 658        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 659            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 660        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 661        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 662
 663    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 664        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 665
 666        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 667            join_mark = ""
 668            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 669
 670        column = ".".join(
 671            self.sql(part)
 672            for part in (
 673                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 674                expression.args.get("db"),
 675                expression.args.get("table"),
 676                expression.args.get("this"),
 677            )
 678            if part
 679        )
 680
 681        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 682
 683    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 684        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 685        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 686        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 687        return f"{position}{this}"
 688
 689    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 690        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 691        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 692        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 693        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 694        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 695        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 696        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 697        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 698
 699        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 700            kind = ""
 701
 702        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 703
 704    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 705        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 706        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 707        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 708
 709    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 710        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 711        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 712            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 713        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 714            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 715        else:
 716            persisted = ""
 717        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 718
 719    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 720        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 721
 722    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 723        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 724            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 725        else:
 726            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 727
 728        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 729
 730    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 731        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 732    ) -> str:
 733        this = ""
 734        if expression.this is not None:
 735            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 736            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 737
 738        start = expression.args.get("start")
 739        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 740        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 741        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 742        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 743        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 744        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 745        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 746        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 747        cycle_sql = ""
 748
 749        if cycle is not None:
 750            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 751            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 752
 753        sequence_opts = ""
 754        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 755            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 756            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 757
 758        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 759        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 760
 761        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 762
 763    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 764        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 765    ) -> str:
 766        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
 767        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 768        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 769
 770    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 771        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 772    ) -> str:
 773        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 774
 775    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 776        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 777
 778    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 779        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 780
 781    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 782        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 783        if desc is not None:
 784            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 785        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 786
 787    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 788        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 789        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 790        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 791        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 792        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 793
 794    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 795        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 796
 797    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 798        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 799        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 800        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 801
 802        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 803
 804        properties_sql = ""
 805        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 806            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 807        ):
 808            properties_sql = self.sql(
 809                exp.Properties(
 810                    expressions=[
 811                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 812                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 813                    ]
 814                )
 815            )
 816
 817        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 818        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 819
 820        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 821        if expression_sql:
 822            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 823
 824            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 825                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 826                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 827                        exp.Properties(
 828                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 829                        ),
 830                        wrapped=False,
 831                    )
 832                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 833                else:
 834                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 835
 836        postindex_props_sql = ""
 837        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 838            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 839                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 840                wrapped=False,
 841                prefix=" ",
 842            )
 843
 844        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 845        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 846        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 847
 848        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 849        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 850
 851        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 852        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 853            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 854                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 855                sep=" ",
 856                prefix=" ",
 857                wrapped=False,
 858            )
 859
 860        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 861
 862        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 863        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 864            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 865                exp.Properties(
 866                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 867                ),
 868                sep=" ",
 869                prefix=" ",
 870                wrapped=False,
 871            )
 872
 873        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 874        no_schema_binding = (
 875            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 876        )
 877
 878        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 879        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 880
 881        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 882        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 883
 884    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 885        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 886        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 887        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 888        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 889
 890    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 891        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 892
 893    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 894        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 895        if with_:
 896            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 897        return sql
 898
 899    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 900        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 901        recursive = (
 902            "RECURSIVE "
 903            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 904            else ""
 905        )
 906
 907        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 908
 909    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 910        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 911        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 912
 913    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 914        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 915        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 916        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 917
 918        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
 919            columns = ""
 920            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
 921
 922        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 923            alias = "_t"
 924
 925        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 926
 927    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 928        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 929        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
 930            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
 931        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 932
 933    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 935        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
 936            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
 937        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 938
 939    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 940        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 941        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
 942            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
 943        return this
 944
 945    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
 946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 947        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
 948
 949        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
 950            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
 951            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
 952
 953        if escape:
 954            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
 955        else:
 956            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
 957
 958        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
 959        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
 960
 961    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 962        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 963        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
 964
 965    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 966        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 967        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 968        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 969        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 970
 971    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 972        type_value = expression.this
 973
 974        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 975            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 976        else:
 977            type_sql = (
 978                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 979                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 980                else type_value
 981            )
 982
 983        nested = ""
 984        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 985        values = ""
 986
 987        if interior:
 988            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 989                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 990                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 991                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 992                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 993                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 994            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 995                nested = f" {interior}"
 996            else:
 997                nested = f"({interior})"
 998
 999        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1000        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1001            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1002            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1003        ):
1004            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1005
1006        return type_sql
1007
1008    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1009        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1010        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1011        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1012        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1013
1014    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1015        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1016        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1017        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1018        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1019        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1020        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1021        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1022        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1023        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1024        if self.RETURNING_END:
1025            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1026        else:
1027            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1028        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1029
1030    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1031        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1032        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1033        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1034        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1035        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1036        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1037        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1038        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1039        return (
1040            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1041        )
1042
1043    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1044        return self.prepend_ctes(
1045            expression,
1046            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1047        )
1048
1049    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1050        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1051
1052    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1053        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1054        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1055        count = expression.args.get("count")
1056        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1057        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1058            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1059        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1060        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1061
1062    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1063        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1064            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1065            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1066            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1067
1068        agg = expression.this
1069        agg_arg = agg.this
1070        cond = expression.expression.this
1071        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1072        return self.sql(agg)
1073
1074    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1075        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1076            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1077            return ""
1078
1079        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1080
1081    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1082        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1083        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1084        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1085        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1086        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1087        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1088        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1089        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1090        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1091        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1092        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1093        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1094        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1095        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1096        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1097        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1098
1099    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1100        text = expression.name
1101        lower = text.lower()
1102        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1103        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1104        if (
1105            expression.quoted
1106            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1107            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1108            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1109        ):
1110            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1111        return text
1112
1113    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1114        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1115        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1116        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1117        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1118        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1119
1120    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1121        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1122        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1123
1124    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1125        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1126
1127    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1128        root_properties = []
1129        with_properties = []
1130
1131        for p in expression.expressions:
1132            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1133            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1134                with_properties.append(p)
1135            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1136                root_properties.append(p)
1137
1138        return self.root_properties(
1139            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1140        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1141
1142    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1143        if properties.expressions:
1144            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1145        return ""
1146
1147    def properties(
1148        self,
1149        properties: exp.Properties,
1150        prefix: str = "",
1151        sep: str = ", ",
1152        suffix: str = "",
1153        wrapped: bool = True,
1154    ) -> str:
1155        if properties.expressions:
1156            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1157            if expressions:
1158                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1159                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1160        return ""
1161
1162    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1163        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1164
1165    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1166        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1167        for p in properties.expressions:
1168            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1169            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1170                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1171            else:
1172                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1173
1174        return properties_locs
1175
1176    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1177        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1178            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1179        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1180
1181    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1182        property_cls = expression.__class__
1183        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1184            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1185
1186        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1187        if not property_name:
1188            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1189
1190        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1191
1192    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1193        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1194        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1195        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1196
1197    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1198        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1199        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1200        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1201
1202    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1203        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1204        local = expression.args.get("local")
1205        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1206        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1207        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1208        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1209        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1210
1211    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1212        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1213        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1214        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1215
1216    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1217        if expression.args.get("default"):
1218            property = "DEFAULT"
1219        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1220            property = "ON"
1221        else:
1222            property = "OFF"
1223        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1224
1225    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1226        if expression.args.get("no"):
1227            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1228        if expression.args.get("default"):
1229            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1230
1231        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1232        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1233
1234    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1235        default = expression.args.get("default")
1236        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1237        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1238        if default or minimum or maximum:
1239            if default:
1240                prop = "DEFAULT"
1241            elif minimum:
1242                prop = "MINIMUM"
1243            else:
1244                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1245            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1246        units = expression.args.get("units")
1247        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1248        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1249
1250    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1251        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1252        always = expression.args.get("always")
1253        default = expression.args.get("default")
1254        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1255        never = expression.args.get("never")
1256
1257        if autotemp is not None:
1258            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1259        elif always:
1260            prop = "ALWAYS"
1261        elif default:
1262            prop = "DEFAULT"
1263        elif manual:
1264            prop = "MANUAL"
1265        elif never:
1266            prop = "NEVER"
1267        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1268
1269    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1270        no = expression.args.get("no")
1271        no = " NO" if no else ""
1272        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1273        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1274
1275        for_ = ""
1276        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1277            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1278        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1279            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1280        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1281            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1282        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1283
1284    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1285        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1286            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1287        if expression.this:
1288            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1289            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1290            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1291
1292        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1293        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1294        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1295
1296    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1297        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1298
1299        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1300        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1301            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1302        else:
1303            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1304
1305        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1306
1307    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1308        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1309        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1310        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1311        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1312        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1313        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1314        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1315
1316    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1317        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1318        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1319        statistics_sql = ""
1320        if statistics is not None:
1321            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1322        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1323
1324    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1325        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1326
1327        if expression.this:
1328            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1329            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1330
1331            if expression.expression:
1332                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1333                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1334
1335            sql = f"{sql})"
1336
1337        return f"{sql})"
1338
1339    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1340        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1341
1342        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1343            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1344        else:
1345            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1346
1347        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1348        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1349        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1350
1351        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1352
1353        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1354        partition_sql = (
1355            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1356        )
1357        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1358        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1359        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1360        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1361        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1362        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1363
1364        if self.RETURNING_END:
1365            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1366        else:
1367            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1368
1369        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1370        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1371
1372    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1373        return self.prepend_ctes(
1374            expression,
1375            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1376        )
1377
1378    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1379        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1380
1381    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1382        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1383
1384    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1385        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1386        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1387        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1388        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1389        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1390
1391    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1392        return expression.name
1393
1394    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1395        return expression.name
1396
1397    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1398        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1399        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1400        if constraint:
1401            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1402        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1403        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1404        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1405        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1406        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1407        if expressions:
1408            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1409        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1410
1411    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1412        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1413
1414    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1415        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1416        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1417        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1418        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1419        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1420        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1421        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1422        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1423        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1424        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1425        null = expression.args.get("null")
1426        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1427        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1428
1429    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1430        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1431
1432    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1433        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1434        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1435        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1436        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1437
1438    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1439        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1440        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1441        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1442        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1443
1444    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1445        table = ".".join(
1446            self.sql(part)
1447            for part in (
1448                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1449                expression.args.get("db"),
1450                expression.args.get("this"),
1451            )
1452            if part is not None
1453        )
1454
1455        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1456        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1457        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1458        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1459        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1460        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1461        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1462        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1463        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1464        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1465
1466        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1467        if file_format:
1468            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1469            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1470            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1471
1472        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1473        if ordinality:
1474            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1475            alias = ""
1476
1477        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1478        if when:
1479            table = f"{table} {when}"
1480
1481        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1482
1483    def tablesample_sql(
1484        self,
1485        expression: exp.TableSample,
1486        sep: str = " AS ",
1487        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1488    ) -> str:
1489        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1490            table = expression.this.copy()
1491            table.set("alias", None)
1492            this = self.sql(table)
1493            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1494        else:
1495            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1496            alias = ""
1497
1498        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1499        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1500        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1501        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1502        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1503        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1504        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1505        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1506        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1507
1508        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1509        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1510            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1511
1512        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1513        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1514            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1515
1516        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1517        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1518            expr = f"({expr})"
1519
1520        return (
1521            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1522        )
1523
1524    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1525        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1526
1527        if expression.this:
1528            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1529            if not expressions:
1530                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1531
1532            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1533            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1534            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1535            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1536            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1537
1538        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1539        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1540        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1541        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1542        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1543        if include_nulls is not None:
1544            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1545        else:
1546            nulls = ""
1547        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1548
1549    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1550        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1551        kind = expression.text("kind")
1552        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1553        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1554
1555    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1556        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1557
1558    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1559        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1560        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1561        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1562        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1563        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1564        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1565        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1566        if self.RETURNING_END:
1567            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1568        else:
1569            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1570        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1571        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1572
1573    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1574        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1575        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1576            args = self.expressions(expression)
1577            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1578            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1579            values = (
1580                f"({values})"
1581                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1582                else values
1583            )
1584            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1585
1586        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1587        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1588        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1589
1590        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1591
1592        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1593            row = tup.expressions
1594
1595            if i == 0 and column_names:
1596                row = [
1597                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1598                ]
1599
1600            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1601
1602        if self.pretty:
1603            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1604            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1605            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1606            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1607            return self.subquery_sql(
1608                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1609            )
1610
1611        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1612        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1613        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1614
1615    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1616        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1617
1618    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1619        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1620        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1621        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1622
1623    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1624        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1625
1626    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1627        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1628
1629        if expression.args.get("all"):
1630            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1631
1632        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1633        grouping_sets = (
1634            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1635        )
1636
1637        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1638        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1639            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1640        else:
1641            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1642            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1643
1644        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1645        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1646            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1647        else:
1648            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1649            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1650
1651        groupings = csv(
1652            grouping_sets,
1653            cube_sql,
1654            rollup_sql,
1655            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1656            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1657        )
1658
1659        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1660            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1661
1662        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1663
1664    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1665        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1666        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1667
1668    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1669        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1670        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1671        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1672        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1673        return start + connect
1674
1675    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1676        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1677
1678    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1679        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1680            side = None
1681        else:
1682            side = expression.side
1683
1684        op_sql = " ".join(
1685            op
1686            for op in (
1687                expression.method,
1688                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1689                side,
1690                expression.kind,
1691                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1692            )
1693            if op
1694        )
1695        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1696        using = expression.args.get("using")
1697
1698        if not on_sql and using:
1699            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1700
1701        this = expression.this
1702        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1703
1704        if on_sql:
1705            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1706            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1707            if using:
1708                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1709            else:
1710                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1711        elif not op_sql:
1712            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1713                return f" {this_sql}"
1714
1715            return f", {this_sql}"
1716
1717        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1718        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1719
1720    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1721        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1722        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1723        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1724
1725    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1726        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1727
1728        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1729        if cross_apply is True:
1730            op = "INNER JOIN "
1731        elif cross_apply is False:
1732            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1733        else:
1734            op = ""
1735
1736        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1737
1738    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1739        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1740
1741        if expression.args.get("view"):
1742            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1743            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1744            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1745            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1746            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1747            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1748
1749        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1750        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1751        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1752
1753    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1754        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1755
1756        args = [
1757            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1758            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1759            if e
1760        ]
1761
1762        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1763        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1764        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}"
1765
1766    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1767        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1768        expression = expression.expression
1769        expression = (
1770            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1771        )
1772        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1773
1774    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1775        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1776        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1777        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1778        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1779        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1780        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1781        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1782        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1783
1784    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1785        expressions = (
1786            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1787        )
1788        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1789        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1790
1791    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1792        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1793
1794    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1795        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1796            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1797            return ""
1798
1799        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1800        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1801        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1802        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1803
1804        if wait is not None:
1805            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1806                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1807            else:
1808                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1809
1810        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1811
1812    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1813        text = expression.this or ""
1814        if expression.is_string:
1815            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1816        return text
1817
1818    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1819        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1820        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1821            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1822        elif self.pretty:
1823            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1824        return text
1825
1826    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1827        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1828        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1829        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1830        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1831        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1832        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1833        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1834        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1835        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1836        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1837        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1838
1839    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1840        return "NULL"
1841
1842    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1843        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1844
1845    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1846        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1847        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1848        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1849        interpolated_values = [
1850            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
1851            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
1852        ]
1853        interpolate = (
1854            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
1855        )
1856        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
1857
1858    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
1859        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1860        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
1861        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
1862        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
1863        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
1864        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
1865        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
1866
1867    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1868        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1869
1870    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1871        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1872
1873    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1874        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1875
1876    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1877        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1878        asc = not desc
1879
1880        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1881        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1882        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1883        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1884        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1885
1886        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1887
1888        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1889        nulls_sort_change = ""
1890        if nulls_first and (
1891            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1892        ):
1893            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1894        elif (
1895            nulls_last
1896            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1897            and not nulls_are_last
1898        ):
1899            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1900
1901        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1902        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1903            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
1904            if expression.this.is_int:
1905                self.unsupported(
1906                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
1907                )
1908            elif isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
1909                self.unsupported(
1910                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
1911                )
1912            else:
1913                null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
1914                this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
1915            nulls_sort_change = ""
1916
1917        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
1918        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
1919
1920        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
1921
1922    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1923        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1924        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1925        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1926        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1927        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1928        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1929        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1930        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1931        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1932        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1933        definition_sqls = [
1934            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1935            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1936        ]
1937        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1938        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1939        body = "".join(
1940            (
1941                partition,
1942                order,
1943                measures,
1944                rows,
1945                after,
1946                pattern,
1947                define,
1948            )
1949        )
1950        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1951        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1952        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1953
1954    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1955        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1956
1957        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1958        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1959
1960        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1961            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1962        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1963            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1964
1965        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1966
1967        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1968            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1969            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1970            else []
1971        )
1972
1973        return csv(
1974            *sqls,
1975            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1976            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1977            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1978            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1979            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1980            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1981            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1982            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1983            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1984            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1985            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1986            sep="",
1987        )
1988
1989    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1990        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1991    ) -> t.List[str]:
1992        return [
1993            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1994            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1995        ]
1996
1997    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1998        return [
1999            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
2000            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
2001            if expression.args.get("windows")
2002            else "",
2003            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
2004            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
2005            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
2006        ]
2007
2008    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2009        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2010        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2011        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2012
2013    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2014        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2015        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2016        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2017        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2018        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2019        top = (
2020            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2021            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
2022            else ""
2023        )
2024
2025        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2026
2027        if kind:
2028            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2029                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2030            else:
2031                if kind == "STRUCT":
2032                    expressions = self.expressions(
2033                        sqls=[
2034                            self.sql(
2035                                exp.Struct(
2036                                    expressions=[
2037                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
2038                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
2039                                        )
2040                                        for e in expression.expressions
2041                                    ]
2042                                )
2043                            )
2044                        ]
2045                    )
2046                kind = ""
2047
2048        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2049        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2050        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2051        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2052        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2053            expression,
2054            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2055            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2056            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2057        )
2058        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2059
2060    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2061        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2062        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2063        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2064
2065    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2066        if expression.expressions:
2067            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2068        return ""
2069
2070    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2071        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2072        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2073        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2074        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2075        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2076
2077    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2078        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2079        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2080
2081    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2083        kind = expression.text("kind")
2084        if kind:
2085            kind = f"{kind}."
2086        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2087
2088    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2089        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2090
2091    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2092        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2093        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2094
2095        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2096        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2097
2098        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2099        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2100
2101    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2102        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2103        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2104
2105    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2106        return self.prepend_ctes(
2107            expression,
2108            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2109        )
2110
2111    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2112        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2113        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2114        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2115        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2116
2117    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2118        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2119
2120        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2121        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2122
2123        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2124            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2125                alias.append("columns", offset)
2126
2127        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2128            columns = alias.columns
2129            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2130        else:
2131            alias = self.sql(alias)
2132
2133        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2134        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2135            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2136        else:
2137            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2138                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2139            elif offset:
2140                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2141            else:
2142                suffix = alias
2143
2144        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2145
2146    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2147        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2148        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2149
2150    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2151        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2152        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2153        order = expression.args.get("order")
2154        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2155        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2156        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2157        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2158
2159        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2160
2161        first = expression.args.get("first")
2162        if first is None:
2163            first = ""
2164        else:
2165            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2166
2167        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2168            return f"{this} {alias}"
2169
2170        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2171        return f"{this} ({args})"
2172
2173    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2174        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2175        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2176
2177    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2178        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2179        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2180        end = (
2181            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2182            or "CURRENT ROW"
2183        )
2184        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2185
2186    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2187        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2188        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2189        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2190
2191    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2192        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2193        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2194        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2195        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2196
2197    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2198        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2199            expression.this,
2200            expression.expressions,
2201            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2202        )
2203        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2204        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2205
2206    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2207        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2208
2209    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2210        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2211        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2212            this = self.wrap(this)
2213        return f"ANY {this}"
2214
2215    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2216        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2217
2218    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2219        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2220        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2221
2222        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2223            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2224            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2225
2226        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2227
2228        if default:
2229            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2230
2231        statements.append("END")
2232
2233        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2234            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2235
2236        return " ".join(statements)
2237
2238    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2239        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2240        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2241        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2242
2243    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2244        order = expression.args.get("order")
2245        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2246        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2247
2248    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2249        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2250        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2251        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2252
2253    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2254        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2255
2256        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2257            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2258        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2259            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2260        else:
2261            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2262
2263    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2264        args = expression.expressions
2265        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2266            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2267
2268        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2269            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2270
2271        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2272            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2273
2274        return args
2275
2276    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2277        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2278
2279        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2280        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2281            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2282
2283        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2284
2285    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2286        return self.func(
2287            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2288        )
2289
2290    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2291        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2292        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2293
2294    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2295        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2296        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2297        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2298        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2299        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2300        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2301        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2302        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2303
2304    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2305        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2306        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2307        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2308        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2309
2310    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2311        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2312
2313    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2314        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2315        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2316        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2317
2318    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2319        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2320
2321    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2322        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2323
2324    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2325        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2326        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2327        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2328        if unique_keys is not None:
2329            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2330        else:
2331            unique_keys = ""
2332        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2333        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2334        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2335        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2336        return self.func(
2337            "JSON_OBJECT",
2338            *expression.expressions,
2339            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2340        )
2341
2342    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2343        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2344        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2345        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2346        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2347        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2348        return self.func(
2349            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2350        )
2351
2352    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2353        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2354        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2355        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2356        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2357        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2358        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2359        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2360        return self.func(
2361            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2362            this,
2363            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2364        )
2365
2366    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2367        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2368        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2369        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2370
2371        if nested_schema:
2372            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2373
2374        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2375        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2376        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2377        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2378
2379    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2380        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2381
2382    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2383        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2384        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2385        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2386        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2387        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2388        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2389        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2390        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2391        return self.func(
2392            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2393        )
2394
2395    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2396        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2397        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2398        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2399        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2400        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2401        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2402
2403    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2404        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2405        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2406        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2407        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2408        with_ = (
2409            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2410            if expressions
2411            else ""
2412        )
2413        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2414
2415    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2416        query = expression.args.get("query")
2417        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2418        field = expression.args.get("field")
2419        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2420
2421        if query:
2422            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2423        elif unnest:
2424            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2425        elif field:
2426            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2427        else:
2428            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2429
2430        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2431
2432    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2433        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2434
2435    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2436        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2437        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2438            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2439        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2440
2441        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2442            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2443            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2444
2445        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2446        if this:
2447            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2448            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2449
2450        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2451
2452    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2453        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2454
2455    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2456        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2457        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2458        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2459        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2460        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2461        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2462
2463    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2464        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2465
2466    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2467        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2468            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2469        else:
2470            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2471            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2472
2473        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2474
2475    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2476        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2477        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2478        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2479        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2480
2481    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2482        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2483
2484    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2485        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2486        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2487        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2488
2489    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2490        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2491        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2492
2493        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2494            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2495        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2496            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2497
2498        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2499
2500    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2501        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2502
2503    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2504        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2505        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2506        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2507
2508    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2509        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2510        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2511        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2512
2513    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2514        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2515
2516    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2517        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2518
2519    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2520        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2521
2522    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2523        if not self.pretty:
2524            return self.binary(expression, op)
2525
2526        sqls = tuple(
2527            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2528            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2529        )
2530
2531        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2532        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2533
2534    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2535        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2536
2537    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2538        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2539
2540    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2541        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2542
2543    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2544        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2545
2546    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2547        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2548
2549    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2550        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2551
2552    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2553        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2554        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2555        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2556        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2557        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
2558
2559    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2560        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2561        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2562
2563    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2564        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2565            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2566        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2567
2568    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2569        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2570
2571    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2572        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2573        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2574        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2575        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2576        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2577
2578    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2579        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2580        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2581        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2582        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2583        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2584        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2585        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2586        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2587        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2588
2589    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2590        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2591        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2592        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2593        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2594
2595        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2596            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2597
2598        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2599
2600    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2601        return "BEGIN"
2602
2603    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2604        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2605        if chain is not None:
2606            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2607
2608        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2609
2610    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2611        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2612        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2613        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2614
2615    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2616        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2617
2618        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2619        if dtype:
2620            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2621            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2622            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2623            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2624            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2625
2626        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2627        if default:
2628            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2629
2630        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2631            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2632
2633        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2634
2635    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2636        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2637            # Remove db from tables
2638            expression = expression.transform(
2639                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2640            )
2641        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2642        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2643
2644    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2645        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2646
2647        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2648            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2649        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2650            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2651        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2652            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2653        else:
2654            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2655
2656        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2657        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2658        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2659
2660    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2661        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2662            return self.expressions(
2663                expression,
2664                key="actions",
2665                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2666            )
2667        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2668
2669    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2670        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2671        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2672        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2673
2674    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2675        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2676        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2677        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2678
2679        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2680        if enforced is not None:
2681            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2682
2683        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2684
2685    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2686        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2687        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2688
2689        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2690        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2691        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2692
2693    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2694        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2695
2696    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2697        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2698
2699    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2700        return self.sql(
2701            exp.Cast(
2702                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2703                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2704            )
2705        )
2706
2707    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2708        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2709            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2710        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2711
2712    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2713        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2714
2715        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2716            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2717
2718        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2719            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2720                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2721            ):
2722                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2723
2724        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2725            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2726                return self.sql(
2727                    exp.cast(
2728                        l / r,
2729                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2730                    )
2731                )
2732
2733        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2734
2735    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2736        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2737
2738    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2739        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2740
2741    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2742        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2743
2744    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2745        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2746
2747    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2748        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
2749
2750    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2751        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2752
2753    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2754        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2755
2756    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2757        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2758
2759    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2760        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2761
2762    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2763        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2764
2765    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2766        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2767
2768    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2769        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2770            return self.sql(
2771                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2772            )
2773        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2774
2775    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2776        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2777
2778    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2779        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2780
2781    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2782        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2783
2784    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2785        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2786
2787    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2788        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2789
2790    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2791        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2792
2793    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2794        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2795
2796    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2797        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2798
2799    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2800        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2801
2802    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2803        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2804
2805    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2806        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2807
2808    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2809        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2810
2811    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2812        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2813
2814    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2815        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2816
2817    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2818        this = expression.this
2819        expr = expression.expression
2820
2821        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2822            this, expr = expr, this
2823
2824        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
2825
2826    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2827        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2828        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2829        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2830        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2831        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2832
2833    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2834        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2835        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2836
2837    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2838        args = []
2839
2840        for key in expression.arg_types:
2841            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2842
2843            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2844                for value in arg_value:
2845                    args.append(value)
2846            elif arg_value is not None:
2847                args.append(arg_value)
2848
2849        if self.normalize_functions:
2850            name = expression.sql_name()
2851        else:
2852            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2853
2854        return self.func(name, *args)
2855
2856    def func(
2857        self,
2858        name: str,
2859        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2860        prefix: str = "(",
2861        suffix: str = ")",
2862    ) -> str:
2863        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2864
2865    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2866        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2867        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2868            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2869        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2870
2871    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2872        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2873
2874    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2875        return format_time(
2876            self.sql(expression, "format"),
2877            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
2878            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
2879        )
2880
2881    def expressions(
2882        self,
2883        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2884        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2885        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2886        flat: bool = False,
2887        indent: bool = True,
2888        skip_first: bool = False,
2889        sep: str = ", ",
2890        prefix: str = "",
2891    ) -> str:
2892        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2893
2894        if not expressions:
2895            return ""
2896
2897        if flat:
2898            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2899
2900        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2901
2902        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2903        pad = " " * self.pad
2904        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2905
2906        result_sqls = []
2907        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2908            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2909            if not sql:
2910                continue
2911
2912            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2913
2914            if self.pretty:
2915                if self.leading_comma:
2916                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2917                else:
2918                    result_sqls.append(
2919                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2920                    )
2921            else:
2922                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2923
2924        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2925        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2926
2927    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2928        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2929        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2930        if flat:
2931            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2932        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2933
2934    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2935        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2936        if not property_name:
2937            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2938        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2939
2940    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2941        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2942        op = self.seg(op)
2943        return self.query_modifiers(
2944            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2945        )
2946
2947    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2948        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2949
2950    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2951        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2952
2953    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2954        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2955        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2956        expressions = (
2957            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2958        )
2959        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2960
2961    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2962        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2963        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2964        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2965
2966    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2967        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2968
2969    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2970        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2971        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2972        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2973        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2974
2975        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2976        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2977            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2978            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2979                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2980        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2981            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2982                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2983            else:
2984                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2985        else:
2986            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2987        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2988
2989    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2990        table = expression.this
2991        table_alias = ""
2992
2993        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2994        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2995            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2996            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2997
2998        this = self.sql(table)
2999        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3000        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3001        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3002
3003        return self.prepend_ctes(
3004            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3005        )
3006
3007    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3008        if expression.args.get("format"):
3009            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3010
3011        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
3012
3013    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3014        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3015        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3016        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3017        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3018        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3019
3020    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3022        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3023        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3024        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3025
3026    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3027        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3028
3029    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3030        return ""
3031
3032    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3033        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3034        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3035        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3036        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3037        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3038
3039    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3040        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3041        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3042
3043        if having:
3044            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3045
3046        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3047
3048    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3049        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3050        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3051        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3052        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3053        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3054        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3055        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3056        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3057        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3058        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3059        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3060        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3061        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3062
3063    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3064        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3065        if key_block_size:
3066            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3067
3068        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3069        if using:
3070            return f"USING {using}"
3071
3072        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3073        if parser:
3074            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3075
3076        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3077        if comment:
3078            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3079
3080        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3081        if visible is not None:
3082            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3083
3084        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3085        if engine_attr:
3086            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3087
3088        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3089        if secondary_engine_attr:
3090            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3091
3092        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3093        return ""
3094
3095    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3096        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3097        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3098        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3099        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3100        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3101        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3102        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3103        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3104        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3105        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3106        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
3107
3108    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3109        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3110            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3111
3112        case = exp.Case().when(
3113            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3114            expression.args["true"],
3115            copy=False,
3116        )
3117        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3118        if else_cond:
3119            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3120
3121        return self.sql(case)
3122
3123    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3124        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3125        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3126        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3127        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3128        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3129        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3130
3131    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3132        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3133
3134    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3135        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3136
3137    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3138        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3139        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3140        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3141        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3142        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3143        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3144
3145    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3146        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3147        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3148        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3149
3150    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3151        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3152        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3153        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3154
3155    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3156        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3157
3158    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3159        arg = expression.this
3160        if not arg.type:
3161            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3162
3163            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3164
3165        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3166            return self.sql(arg)
3167
3168        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3169        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.Array(expressions=[arg])))
3170
3171    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3172        this = expression.this
3173        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3174            return self.sql(this)
3175
3176        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
3177
3178    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3179        this = expression.this
3180        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3181
3182        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3183            return self.sql(
3184                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3185            )
3186
3187        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3188            return self.sql(this)
3189
3190        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
3191
3192    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3193        return self.sql(
3194            exp.func(
3195                "DATEDIFF",
3196                expression.this,
3197                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3198                "day",
3199            )
3200        )
3201
3202    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3203        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3204            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3205
3206        unit = expression.text("unit")
3207        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3208            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3209
3210        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3211
3212    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3213        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3214            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3215
3216            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3217
3218        return expression
3219
3220    def _ensure_string_if_null(self, values: t.List[exp.Expression]) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
3221        return [
3222            exp.func("COALESCE", exp.cast(value, "text"), exp.Literal.string(""))
3223            for value in values
3224            if value
3225        ]

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
415    def __init__(
416        self,
417        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
418        identify: str | bool = False,
419        normalize: bool = False,
420        pad: int = 2,
421        indent: int = 2,
422        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
423        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
424        max_unsupported: int = 3,
425        leading_comma: bool = False,
426        max_text_width: int = 80,
427        comments: bool = True,
428        dialect: DialectType = None,
429    ):
430        import sqlglot
431        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
432
433        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
434        self.identify = identify
435        self.normalize = normalize
436        self.pad = pad
437        self._indent = indent
438        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
439        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
440        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
441        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
442        self.comments = comments
443        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
444
445        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
446        self.normalize_functions = (
447            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
448        )
449
450        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
451        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
452            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
453        )
454        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
455            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
456        )
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
KEY_VALUE_DEFINITIONS = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Bracket'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EQ'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Slice'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
458    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
459        """
460        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
461
462        Args:
463            expression: The syntax tree.
464            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
465                it is safer to copy.
466
467        Returns:
468            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
469        """
470        if copy:
471            expression = expression.copy()
472
473        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
474
475        self.unsupported_messages = []
476        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
477
478        if self.pretty:
479            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
480
481        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
482            return sql
483
484        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
485            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
486                logger.warning(msg)
487        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
488            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
489
490        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
492    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
493        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
494        if (
495            not expression.parent
496            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
497            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
498        ):
499            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
500
501            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
502
503        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
504            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
505
506            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
507
508        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
510    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
511        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
512            raise UnsupportedError(message)
513        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
515    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
516        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
518    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
519        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
521    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
522        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
523        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
524        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
526    def maybe_comment(
527        self,
528        sql: str,
529        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
530        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
531    ) -> str:
532        comments = (
533            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
534            if self.comments
535            else None
536        )
537
538        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
539            return sql
540
541        comments_sql = " ".join(
542            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
543        )
544
545        if not comments_sql:
546            return sql
547
548        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
549            return (
550                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
551                if sql[0].isspace()
552                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
553            )
554
555        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
557    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
558        this_sql = self.indent(
559            self.sql(expression)
560            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
561            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
562            level=1,
563            pad=0,
564        )
565        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
567    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
568        original = self.identify
569        self.identify = False
570        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
571        self.identify = original
572        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
574    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
575        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
576            return name.upper()
577        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
578            return name.lower()
579        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
581    def indent(
582        self,
583        sql: str,
584        level: int = 0,
585        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
586        skip_first: bool = False,
587        skip_last: bool = False,
588    ) -> str:
589        if not self.pretty:
590            return sql
591
592        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
593        lines = sql.split("\n")
594
595        return "\n".join(
596            line
597            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
598            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
599            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
600        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
602    def sql(
603        self,
604        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
605        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
606        comment: bool = True,
607    ) -> str:
608        if not expression:
609            return ""
610
611        if isinstance(expression, str):
612            return expression
613
614        if key:
615            value = expression.args.get(key)
616            if value:
617                return self.sql(value)
618            return ""
619
620        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
621
622        if callable(transform):
623            sql = transform(self, expression)
624        elif transform:
625            sql = transform
626        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
627            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
628
629            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
630                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
631            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
632                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
633            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
634                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
635            else:
636                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
637        else:
638            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
639
640        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
642    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
643        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
644        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
645        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
647    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
648        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
649        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
650        options = expression.args.get("options")
651        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
652        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
653        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
654        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
655        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
657    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
658        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
659            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
660        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
661        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
663    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
664        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
665
666        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
667            join_mark = ""
668            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
669
670        column = ".".join(
671            self.sql(part)
672            for part in (
673                expression.args.get("catalog"),
674                expression.args.get("db"),
675                expression.args.get("table"),
676                expression.args.get("this"),
677            )
678            if part
679        )
680
681        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
683    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
684        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
685        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
686        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
687        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
689    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
690        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
691        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
692        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
693        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
694        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
695        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
696        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
697        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
698
699        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
700            kind = ""
701
702        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
704    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
705        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
706        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
707        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
709    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
710        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
711        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
712            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
713        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
714            persisted = " PERSISTED"
715        else:
716            persisted = ""
717        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
719    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
720        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
722    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
723        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
724            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
725        else:
726            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
727
728        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
730    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
731        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
732    ) -> str:
733        this = ""
734        if expression.this is not None:
735            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
736            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
737
738        start = expression.args.get("start")
739        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
740        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
741        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
742        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
743        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
744        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
745        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
746        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
747        cycle_sql = ""
748
749        if cycle is not None:
750            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
751            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
752
753        sequence_opts = ""
754        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
755            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
756            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
757
758        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
759        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
760
761        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
763    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
764        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
765    ) -> str:
766        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
767        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
768        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
770    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
771        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
772    ) -> str:
773        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
775    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
776        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
778    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
779        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
781    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
782        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
783        if desc is not None:
784            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
785        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
787    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
788        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
789        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
790        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
791        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
792        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
794    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
795        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
797    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
798        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
799        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
800        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
801
802        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
803
804        properties_sql = ""
805        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
806            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
807        ):
808            properties_sql = self.sql(
809                exp.Properties(
810                    expressions=[
811                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
812                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
813                    ]
814                )
815            )
816
817        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
818        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
819
820        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
821        if expression_sql:
822            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
823
824            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
825                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
826                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
827                        exp.Properties(
828                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
829                        ),
830                        wrapped=False,
831                    )
832                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
833                else:
834                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
835
836        postindex_props_sql = ""
837        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
838            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
839                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
840                wrapped=False,
841                prefix=" ",
842            )
843
844        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
845        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
846        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
847
848        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
849        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
850
851        postcreate_props_sql = ""
852        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
853            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
854                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
855                sep=" ",
856                prefix=" ",
857                wrapped=False,
858            )
859
860        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
861
862        postexpression_props_sql = ""
863        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
864            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
865                exp.Properties(
866                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
867                ),
868                sep=" ",
869                prefix=" ",
870                wrapped=False,
871            )
872
873        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
874        no_schema_binding = (
875            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
876        )
877
878        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
879        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
880
881        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
882        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
884    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
885        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
886        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
887        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
888        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
890    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
891        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
893    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
894        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
895        if with_:
896            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
897        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
899    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
900        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
901        recursive = (
902            "RECURSIVE "
903            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
904            else ""
905        )
906
907        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
909    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
910        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
911        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
913    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
914        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
915        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
916        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
917
918        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
919            columns = ""
920            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
921
922        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
923            alias = "_t"
924
925        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
927    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
928        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
929        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
930            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
931        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
933    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
935        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
936            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
937        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
939    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
940        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
941        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
942            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
943        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
945    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
947        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
948
949        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
950            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
951            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
952
953        if escape:
954            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
955        else:
956            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
957
958        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
959        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
961    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
962        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
963        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
965    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
966        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
967        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
968        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
969        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
 971    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 972        type_value = expression.this
 973
 974        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 975            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 976        else:
 977            type_sql = (
 978                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 979                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 980                else type_value
 981            )
 982
 983        nested = ""
 984        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 985        values = ""
 986
 987        if interior:
 988            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 989                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 990                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 991                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 992                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 993                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 994            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 995                nested = f" {interior}"
 996            else:
 997                nested = f"({interior})"
 998
 999        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1000        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1001            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1002            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1003        ):
1004            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1005
1006        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1008    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1009        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1010        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1011        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1012        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1014    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1015        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1016        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1017        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1018        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1019        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1020        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1021        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1022        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1023        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1024        if self.RETURNING_END:
1025            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1026        else:
1027            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1028        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1030    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1031        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1032        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1033        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1034        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1035        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1036        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1037        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1038        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1039        return (
1040            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1041        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1043    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1044        return self.prepend_ctes(
1045            expression,
1046            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1047        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1049    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1050        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1052    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1053        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1054        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1055        count = expression.args.get("count")
1056        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1057        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1058            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1059        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1060        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1062    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1063        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1064            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1065            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1066            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1067
1068        agg = expression.this
1069        agg_arg = agg.this
1070        cond = expression.expression.this
1071        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1072        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1074    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1075        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1076            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1077            return ""
1078
1079        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1081    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1082        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1083        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1084        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1085        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1086        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1087        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1088        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1089        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1090        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1091        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1092        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1093        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1094        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1095        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1096        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1097        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1099    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1100        text = expression.name
1101        lower = text.lower()
1102        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1103        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1104        if (
1105            expression.quoted
1106            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1107            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1108            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1109        ):
1110            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1111        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1113    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1114        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1115        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1116        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1117        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1118        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1120    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1121        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1122        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1124    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1125        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1127    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1128        root_properties = []
1129        with_properties = []
1130
1131        for p in expression.expressions:
1132            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1133            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1134                with_properties.append(p)
1135            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1136                root_properties.append(p)
1137
1138        return self.root_properties(
1139            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1140        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1142    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1143        if properties.expressions:
1144            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1145        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1147    def properties(
1148        self,
1149        properties: exp.Properties,
1150        prefix: str = "",
1151        sep: str = ", ",
1152        suffix: str = "",
1153        wrapped: bool = True,
1154    ) -> str:
1155        if properties.expressions:
1156            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1157            if expressions:
1158                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1159                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1160        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1162    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1163        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1165    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1166        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1167        for p in properties.expressions:
1168            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1169            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1170                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1171            else:
1172                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1173
1174        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1176    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1177        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1178            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1179        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1181    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1182        property_cls = expression.__class__
1183        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1184            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1185
1186        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1187        if not property_name:
1188            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1189
1190        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1192    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1193        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1194        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1195        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1197    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1198        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1199        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1200        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1202    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1203        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1204        local = expression.args.get("local")
1205        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1206        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1207        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1208        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1209        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1211    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1212        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1213        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1214        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1216    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1217        if expression.args.get("default"):
1218            property = "DEFAULT"
1219        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1220            property = "ON"
1221        else:
1222            property = "OFF"
1223        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1225    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1226        if expression.args.get("no"):
1227            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1228        if expression.args.get("default"):
1229            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1230
1231        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1232        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1234    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1235        default = expression.args.get("default")
1236        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1237        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1238        if default or minimum or maximum:
1239            if default:
1240                prop = "DEFAULT"
1241            elif minimum:
1242                prop = "MINIMUM"
1243            else:
1244                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1245            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1246        units = expression.args.get("units")
1247        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1248        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1250    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1251        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1252        always = expression.args.get("always")
1253        default = expression.args.get("default")
1254        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1255        never = expression.args.get("never")
1256
1257        if autotemp is not None:
1258            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1259        elif always:
1260            prop = "ALWAYS"
1261        elif default:
1262            prop = "DEFAULT"
1263        elif manual:
1264            prop = "MANUAL"
1265        elif never:
1266            prop = "NEVER"
1267        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1269    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1270        no = expression.args.get("no")
1271        no = " NO" if no else ""
1272        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1273        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1274
1275        for_ = ""
1276        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1277            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1278        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1279            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1280        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1281            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1282        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1284    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1285        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1286            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1287        if expression.this:
1288            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1289            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1290            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1291
1292        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1293        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1294        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1296    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1297        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1298
1299        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1300        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1301            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1302        else:
1303            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1304
1305        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1307    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1308        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1309        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1310        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1311        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1312        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1313        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1314        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1316    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1317        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1318        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1319        statistics_sql = ""
1320        if statistics is not None:
1321            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1322        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1324    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1325        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1326
1327        if expression.this:
1328            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1329            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1330
1331            if expression.expression:
1332                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1333                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1334
1335            sql = f"{sql})"
1336
1337        return f"{sql})"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1339    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1340        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1341
1342        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1343            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1344        else:
1345            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1346
1347        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1348        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1349        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1350
1351        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1352
1353        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1354        partition_sql = (
1355            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1356        )
1357        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1358        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1359        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1360        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1361        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1362        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1363
1364        if self.RETURNING_END:
1365            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1366        else:
1367            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1368
1369        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1370        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1372    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1373        return self.prepend_ctes(
1374            expression,
1375            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1376        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1378    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1379        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1381    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1382        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1384    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1385        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1386        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1387        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1388        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1389        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1391    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1392        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1394    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1395        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1397    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1398        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1399        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1400        if constraint:
1401            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1402        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1403        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1404        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1405        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1406        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1407        if expressions:
1408            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1409        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1411    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1412        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1414    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1415        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1416        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1417        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1418        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1419        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1420        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1421        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1422        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1423        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1424        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1425        null = expression.args.get("null")
1426        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1427        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1429    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1430        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1432    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1433        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1434        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1435        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1436        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1438    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1439        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1440        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1441        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1442        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1444    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1445        table = ".".join(
1446            self.sql(part)
1447            for part in (
1448                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1449                expression.args.get("db"),
1450                expression.args.get("this"),
1451            )
1452            if part is not None
1453        )
1454
1455        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1456        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1457        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1458        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1459        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1460        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1461        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1462        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1463        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1464        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1465
1466        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1467        if file_format:
1468            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1469            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1470            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1471
1472        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1473        if ordinality:
1474            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1475            alias = ""
1476
1477        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1478        if when:
1479            table = f"{table} {when}"
1480
1481        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1483    def tablesample_sql(
1484        self,
1485        expression: exp.TableSample,
1486        sep: str = " AS ",
1487        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1488    ) -> str:
1489        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1490            table = expression.this.copy()
1491            table.set("alias", None)
1492            this = self.sql(table)
1493            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1494        else:
1495            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1496            alias = ""
1497
1498        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1499        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1500        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1501        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1502        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1503        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1504        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1505        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1506        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1507
1508        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1509        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1510            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1511
1512        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1513        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1514            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1515
1516        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1517        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1518            expr = f"({expr})"
1519
1520        return (
1521            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1522        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1524    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1525        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1526
1527        if expression.this:
1528            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1529            if not expressions:
1530                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1531
1532            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1533            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1534            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1535            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1536            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1537
1538        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1539        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1540        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1541        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1542        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1543        if include_nulls is not None:
1544            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1545        else:
1546            nulls = ""
1547        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1549    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1550        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1551        kind = expression.text("kind")
1552        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1553        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1555    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1556        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1558    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1559        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1560        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1561        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1562        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1563        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1564        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1565        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1566        if self.RETURNING_END:
1567            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1568        else:
1569            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1570        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1571        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1573    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1574        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1575        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1576            args = self.expressions(expression)
1577            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1578            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1579            values = (
1580                f"({values})"
1581                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1582                else values
1583            )
1584            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1585
1586        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1587        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1588        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1589
1590        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1591
1592        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1593            row = tup.expressions
1594
1595            if i == 0 and column_names:
1596                row = [
1597                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1598                ]
1599
1600            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1601
1602        if self.pretty:
1603            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1604            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1605            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1606            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1607            return self.subquery_sql(
1608                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1609            )
1610
1611        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1612        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1613        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1615    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1616        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1618    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1619        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1620        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1621        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1623    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1624        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1626    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1627        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1628
1629        if expression.args.get("all"):
1630            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1631
1632        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1633        grouping_sets = (
1634            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1635        )
1636
1637        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1638        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1639            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1640        else:
1641            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1642            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1643
1644        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1645        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1646            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1647        else:
1648            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1649            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1650
1651        groupings = csv(
1652            grouping_sets,
1653            cube_sql,
1654            rollup_sql,
1655            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1656            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1657        )
1658
1659        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1660            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1661
1662        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1664    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1665        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1666        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1668    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1669        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1670        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1671        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1672        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1673        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1675    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1676        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1678    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1679        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1680            side = None
1681        else:
1682            side = expression.side
1683
1684        op_sql = " ".join(
1685            op
1686            for op in (
1687                expression.method,
1688                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1689                side,
1690                expression.kind,
1691                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1692            )
1693            if op
1694        )
1695        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1696        using = expression.args.get("using")
1697
1698        if not on_sql and using:
1699            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1700
1701        this = expression.this
1702        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1703
1704        if on_sql:
1705            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1706            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1707            if using:
1708                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1709            else:
1710                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1711        elif not op_sql:
1712            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1713                return f" {this_sql}"
1714
1715            return f", {this_sql}"
1716
1717        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1718        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1720    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1721        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1722        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1723        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1725    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1726        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1727
1728        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1729        if cross_apply is True:
1730            op = "INNER JOIN "
1731        elif cross_apply is False:
1732            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1733        else:
1734            op = ""
1735
1736        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1738    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1739        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1740
1741        if expression.args.get("view"):
1742            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1743            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1744            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1745            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1746            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1747            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1748
1749        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1750        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1751        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1753    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1754        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1755
1756        args = [
1757            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1758            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1759            if e
1760        ]
1761
1762        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1763        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1764        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1766    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1767        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1768        expression = expression.expression
1769        expression = (
1770            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1771        )
1772        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1774    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1775        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1776        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1777        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1778        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1779        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1780        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1781        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1782        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1784    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1785        expressions = (
1786            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1787        )
1788        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1789        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1791    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1792        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1794    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1795        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1796            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1797            return ""
1798
1799        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1800        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1801        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1802        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1803
1804        if wait is not None:
1805            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1806                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1807            else:
1808                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1809
1810        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1812    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1813        text = expression.this or ""
1814        if expression.is_string:
1815            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1816        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1818    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1819        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1820        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1821            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1822        elif self.pretty:
1823            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1824        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1826    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1827        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1828        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1829        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1830        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1831        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1832        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1833        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1834        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1835        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1836        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1837        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1839    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1840        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1842    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1843        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1845    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1846        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1847        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1848        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1849        interpolated_values = [
1850            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
1851            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
1852        ]
1853        interpolate = (
1854            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
1855        )
1856        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
1858    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
1859        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1860        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
1861        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
1862        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
1863        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
1864        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
1865        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1867    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1868        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1870    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1871        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1873    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1874        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1876    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1877        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1878        asc = not desc
1879
1880        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1881        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1882        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1883        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1884        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1885
1886        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1887
1888        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1889        nulls_sort_change = ""
1890        if nulls_first and (
1891            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1892        ):
1893            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1894        elif (
1895            nulls_last
1896            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1897            and not nulls_are_last
1898        ):
1899            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1900
1901        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1902        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1903            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
1904            if expression.this.is_int:
1905                self.unsupported(
1906                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
1907                )
1908            elif isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
1909                self.unsupported(
1910                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
1911                )
1912            else:
1913                null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
1914                this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
1915            nulls_sort_change = ""
1916
1917        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
1918        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
1919
1920        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1922    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1923        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1924        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1925        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1926        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1927        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1928        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1929        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1930        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1931        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1932        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1933        definition_sqls = [
1934            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1935            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1936        ]
1937        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1938        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1939        body = "".join(
1940            (
1941                partition,
1942                order,
1943                measures,
1944                rows,
1945                after,
1946                pattern,
1947                define,
1948            )
1949        )
1950        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1951        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1952        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1954    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1955        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1956
1957        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1958        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1959
1960        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1961            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1962        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1963            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1964
1965        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1966
1967        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1968            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1969            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1970            else []
1971        )
1972
1973        return csv(
1974            *sqls,
1975            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1976            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1977            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1978            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1979            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1980            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1981            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1982            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1983            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1984            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1985            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1986            sep="",
1987        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1989    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1990        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1991    ) -> t.List[str]:
1992        return [
1993            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1994            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1995        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1997    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1998        return [
1999            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
2000            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
2001            if expression.args.get("windows")
2002            else "",
2003            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
2004            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
2005            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
2006        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2008    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2009        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2010        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2011        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2013    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2014        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2015        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2016        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2017        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2018        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2019        top = (
2020            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2021            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
2022            else ""
2023        )
2024
2025        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2026
2027        if kind:
2028            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2029                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2030            else:
2031                if kind == "STRUCT":
2032                    expressions = self.expressions(
2033                        sqls=[
2034                            self.sql(
2035                                exp.Struct(
2036                                    expressions=[
2037                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
2038                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
2039                                        )
2040                                        for e in expression.expressions
2041                                    ]
2042                                )
2043                            )
2044                        ]
2045                    )
2046                kind = ""
2047
2048        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2049        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2050        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2051        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2052        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2053            expression,
2054            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2055            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2056            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2057        )
2058        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2060    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2061        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2062        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2063        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2065    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2066        if expression.expressions:
2067            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2068        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2070    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2071        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2072        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2073        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2074        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2075        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2077    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2078        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2079        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2081    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2083        kind = expression.text("kind")
2084        if kind:
2085            kind = f"{kind}."
2086        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2088    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2089        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2091    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2092        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2093        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2094
2095        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2096        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2097
2098        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2099        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2101    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2102        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2103        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2105    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2106        return self.prepend_ctes(
2107            expression,
2108            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2109        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2111    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2112        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2113        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2114        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2115        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2117    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2118        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2119
2120        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2121        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2122
2123        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2124            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2125                alias.append("columns", offset)
2126
2127        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2128            columns = alias.columns
2129            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2130        else:
2131            alias = self.sql(alias)
2132
2133        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2134        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2135            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2136        else:
2137            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2138                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2139            elif offset:
2140                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2141            else:
2142                suffix = alias
2143
2144        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2146    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2147        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2148        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2150    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2151        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2152        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2153        order = expression.args.get("order")
2154        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2155        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2156        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2157        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2158
2159        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2160
2161        first = expression.args.get("first")
2162        if first is None:
2163            first = ""
2164        else:
2165            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2166
2167        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2168            return f"{this} {alias}"
2169
2170        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2171        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2173    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2174        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2175        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2177    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2178        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2179        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2180        end = (
2181            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2182            or "CURRENT ROW"
2183        )
2184        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2186    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2187        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2188        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2189        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2191    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2192        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2193        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2194        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2195        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2197    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2198        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2199            expression.this,
2200            expression.expressions,
2201            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2202        )
2203        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2204        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2206    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2207        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2209    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2210        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2211        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2212            this = self.wrap(this)
2213        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2215    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2216        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2218    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2219        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2220        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2221
2222        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2223            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2224            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2225
2226        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2227
2228        if default:
2229            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2230
2231        statements.append("END")
2232
2233        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2234            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2235
2236        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2238    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2239        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2240        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2241        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2243    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2244        order = expression.args.get("order")
2245        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2246        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2248    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2249        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2250        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2251        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2253    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2254        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2255
2256        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2257            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2258        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2259            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2260        else:
2261            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2263    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2264        args = expression.expressions
2265        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2266            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2267
2268        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2269            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2270
2271        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2272            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2273
2274        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2276    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2277        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2278
2279        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2280        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2281            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2282
2283        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2285    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2286        return self.func(
2287            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2288        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2290    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2291        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2292        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2294    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2295        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2296        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2297        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2298        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2299        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2300        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2301        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2302        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2304    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2305        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2306        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2307        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2308        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2310    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2311        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2313    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2314        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2315        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2316        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2318    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2319        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2321    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2322        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
2324    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2325        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2326        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2327        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2328        if unique_keys is not None:
2329            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2330        else:
2331            unique_keys = ""
2332        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2333        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2334        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2335        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2336        return self.func(
2337            "JSON_OBJECT",
2338            *expression.expressions,
2339            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2340        )
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2342    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2343        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2344        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2345        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2346        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2347        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2348        return self.func(
2349            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2350        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2352    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2353        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2354        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2355        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2356        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2357        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2358        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2359        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2360        return self.func(
2361            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2362            this,
2363            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2364        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2366    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2367        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2368        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2369        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2370
2371        if nested_schema:
2372            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2373
2374        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2375        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2376        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2377        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2379    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2380        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2382    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2383        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2384        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2385        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2386        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2387        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2388        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2389        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2390        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2391        return self.func(
2392            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2393        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2395    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2396        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2397        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2398        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2399        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2400        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2401        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2403    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2404        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2405        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2406        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2407        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2408        with_ = (
2409            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2410            if expressions
2411            else ""
2412        )
2413        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2415    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2416        query = expression.args.get("query")
2417        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2418        field = expression.args.get("field")
2419        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2420
2421        if query:
2422            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2423        elif unnest:
2424            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2425        elif field:
2426            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2427        else:
2428            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2429
2430        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2432    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2433        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2435    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2436        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2437        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2438            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2439        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2440
2441        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2442            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2443            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2444
2445        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2446        if this:
2447            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2448            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2449
2450        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2452    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2453        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2455    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2456        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2457        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2458        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2459        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2460        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2461        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2463    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2464        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2466    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2467        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2468            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2469        else:
2470            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2471            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2472
2473        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2475    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2476        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2477        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2478        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2479        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2481    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2482        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2484    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2485        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2486        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2487        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2489    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2490        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2491        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2492
2493        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2494            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2495        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2496            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2497
2498        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2500    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2501        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2503    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2504        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2505        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2506        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2508    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2509        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2510        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2511        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2513    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2514        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2516    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2517        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2519    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2520        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2522    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2523        if not self.pretty:
2524            return self.binary(expression, op)
2525
2526        sqls = tuple(
2527            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2528            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2529        )
2530
2531        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2532        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2534    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2535        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2537    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2538        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2540    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2541        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2543    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2544        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2546    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2547        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2549    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2550        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2552    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2553        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2554        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2555        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2556        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2557        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2559    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2560        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2561        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2563    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2564        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2565            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2566        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2568    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2569        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2571    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2572        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2573        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2574        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2575        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2576        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2578    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2579        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2580        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2581        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2582        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2583        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2584        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2585        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2586        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2587        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2589    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2590        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2591        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2592        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2593        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2594
2595        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2596            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2597
2598        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2600    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2601        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2603    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2604        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2605        if chain is not None:
2606            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2607
2608        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2610    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2611        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2612        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2613        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2615    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2616        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2617
2618        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2619        if dtype:
2620            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2621            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2622            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2623            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2624            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2625
2626        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2627        if default:
2628            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2629
2630        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2631            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2632
2633        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2635    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2636        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2637            # Remove db from tables
2638            expression = expression.transform(
2639                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2640            )
2641        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2642        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2644    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2645        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2646
2647        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2648            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2649        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2650            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2651        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2652            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2653        else:
2654            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2655
2656        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2657        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2658        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2660    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2661        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2662            return self.expressions(
2663                expression,
2664                key="actions",
2665                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2666            )
2667        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2669    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2670        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2671        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2672        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2674    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2675        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2676        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2677        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2678
2679        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2680        if enforced is not None:
2681            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2682
2683        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2685    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2686        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2687        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2688
2689        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2690        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2691        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2693    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2694        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2696    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2697        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2699    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2700        return self.sql(
2701            exp.Cast(
2702                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2703                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2704            )
2705        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2707    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2708        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2709            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2710        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2712    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2713        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2714
2715        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2716            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2717
2718        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2719            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2720                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2721            ):
2722                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2723
2724        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2725            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2726                return self.sql(
2727                    exp.cast(
2728                        l / r,
2729                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2730                    )
2731                )
2732
2733        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2735    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2736        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2738    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2739        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2741    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2742        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2744    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2745        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2747    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2748        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2750    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2751        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2753    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2754        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2756    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2757        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2759    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2760        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2762    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2763        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2765    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2766        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2768    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2769        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2770            return self.sql(
2771                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2772            )
2773        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2775    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2776        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2778    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2779        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2781    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2782        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2784    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2785        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2787    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2788        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2790    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2791        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2793    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2794        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2796    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2797        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2799    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2800        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2802    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2803        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2805    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2806        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2808    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2809        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2811    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2812        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2814    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2815        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
2817    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2818        this = expression.this
2819        expr = expression.expression
2820
2821        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2822            this, expr = expr, this
2823
2824        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2826    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2827        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2828        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2829        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2830        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2831        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2833    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2834        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2835        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2837    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2838        args = []
2839
2840        for key in expression.arg_types:
2841            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2842
2843            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2844                for value in arg_value:
2845                    args.append(value)
2846            elif arg_value is not None:
2847                args.append(arg_value)
2848
2849        if self.normalize_functions:
2850            name = expression.sql_name()
2851        else:
2852            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2853
2854        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2856    def func(
2857        self,
2858        name: str,
2859        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2860        prefix: str = "(",
2861        suffix: str = ")",
2862    ) -> str:
2863        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2865    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2866        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2867        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2868            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2869        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2871    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2872        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2874    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2875        return format_time(
2876            self.sql(expression, "format"),
2877            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
2878            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
2879        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2881    def expressions(
2882        self,
2883        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2884        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2885        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2886        flat: bool = False,
2887        indent: bool = True,
2888        skip_first: bool = False,
2889        sep: str = ", ",
2890        prefix: str = "",
2891    ) -> str:
2892        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2893
2894        if not expressions:
2895            return ""
2896
2897        if flat:
2898            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2899
2900        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2901
2902        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2903        pad = " " * self.pad
2904        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2905
2906        result_sqls = []
2907        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2908            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2909            if not sql:
2910                continue
2911
2912            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2913
2914            if self.pretty:
2915                if self.leading_comma:
2916                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2917                else:
2918                    result_sqls.append(
2919                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2920                    )
2921            else:
2922                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2923
2924        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2925        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2927    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2928        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2929        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2930        if flat:
2931            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2932        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2934    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2935        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2936        if not property_name:
2937            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2938        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union, op: str) -> str:
2940    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2941        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2942        op = self.seg(op)
2943        return self.query_modifiers(
2944            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2945        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2947    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2948        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2950    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2951        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2953    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2954        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2955        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2956        expressions = (
2957            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2958        )
2959        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2961    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2962        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2963        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2964        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2966    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2967        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2969    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2970        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2971        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2972        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2973        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2974
2975        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2976        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2977            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2978            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2979                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2980        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2981            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2982                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2983            else:
2984                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2985        else:
2986            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2987        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2989    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2990        table = expression.this
2991        table_alias = ""
2992
2993        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2994        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2995            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2996            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2997
2998        this = self.sql(table)
2999        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3000        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3001        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3002
3003        return self.prepend_ctes(
3004            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3005        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3007    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3008        if expression.args.get("format"):
3009            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3010
3011        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3013    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3014        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3015        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3016        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3017        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3018        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3020    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3022        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3023        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3024        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3026    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3027        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3029    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3030        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3032    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3033        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3034        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3035        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3036        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3037        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3039    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3040        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3041        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3042
3043        if having:
3044            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3045
3046        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3048    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3049        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3050        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3051        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3052        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3053        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3054        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3055        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3056        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3057        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3058        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3059        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3060        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3061        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3063    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3064        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3065        if key_block_size:
3066            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3067
3068        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3069        if using:
3070            return f"USING {using}"
3071
3072        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3073        if parser:
3074            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3075
3076        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3077        if comment:
3078            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3079
3080        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3081        if visible is not None:
3082            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3083
3084        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3085        if engine_attr:
3086            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3087
3088        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3089        if secondary_engine_attr:
3090            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3091
3092        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3093        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3095    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3096        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3097        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3098        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3099        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3100        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3101        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3102        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3103        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3104        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3105        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3106        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3108    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3109        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3110            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3111
3112        case = exp.Case().when(
3113            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3114            expression.args["true"],
3115            copy=False,
3116        )
3117        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3118        if else_cond:
3119            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3120
3121        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3123    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3124        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3125        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3126        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3127        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3128        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3129        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3131    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3132        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3134    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3135        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3137    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3138        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3139        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3140        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3141        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3142        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3143        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3145    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3146        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3147        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3148        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3150    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3151        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3152        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3153        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3155    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3156        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3158    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3159        arg = expression.this
3160        if not arg.type:
3161            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3162
3163            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3164
3165        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3166            return self.sql(arg)
3167
3168        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3169        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.Array(expressions=[arg])))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3171    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3172        this = expression.this
3173        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3174            return self.sql(this)
3175
3176        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3178    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3179        this = expression.this
3180        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3181
3182        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3183            return self.sql(
3184                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3185            )
3186
3187        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3188            return self.sql(this)
3189
3190        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3192    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3193        return self.sql(
3194            exp.func(
3195                "DATEDIFF",
3196                expression.this,
3197                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3198                "day",
3199            )
3200        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3202    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3203        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3204            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3205
3206        unit = expression.text("unit")
3207        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3208            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3209
3210        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)