sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.AnalyzeColumns: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 118        exp.AnalyzeWith: lambda self, e: self.expressions(e, prefix="WITH ", sep=" "),
 119        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 120        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 121        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 124        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 125        exp.Ceil: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 126        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 128        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 130        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 131        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 135        exp.CredentialsProperty: lambda self,
 136        e: f"CREDENTIALS=({self.expressions(e, 'expressions', sep=' ')})",
 137        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 139        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 140        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 141        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 142        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 143        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 144        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 145        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 146        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 147        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 148        exp.Floor: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 149        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 150        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 151        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 152        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 153        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 154        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 155        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 156        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 157        exp.Int64: lambda self, e: self.sql(exp.cast(e.this, exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT)),
 158        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 159        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 160        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 161        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 162        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 163        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 164        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 165        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 166        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 167        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 168        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 169        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 170        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 171        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 172        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 173        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 174        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 175        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 176        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 177        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 178        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 179            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 180        ),
 181        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 182        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 183        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 184        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 185        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 186        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 187        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 188        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 189        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 190        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 191        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 192        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 193        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 194        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 195        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 196        exp.Tags: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 197        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 198        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 199        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 200        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 201        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 202        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 203        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 204        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 205        exp.UsingTemplateProperty: lambda self, e: f"USING TEMPLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 206        exp.UsingData: lambda self, e: f"USING DATA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 207        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 208        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 209        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 210        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 211        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 212        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 213        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 214        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 215        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 216        exp.ForceProperty: lambda *_: "FORCE",
 217    }
 218
 219    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 220    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 221    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 222    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 223
 224    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 225    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 226    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 227
 228    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 229    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 230
 231    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 232    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 233
 234    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 235    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 236
 237    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 238    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 239
 240    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 241    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 242
 243    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 244    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 245
 246    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 247    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 248
 249    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 250    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 251
 252    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 253    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 254
 255    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 256    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 257
 258    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 259    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 260
 261    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 262    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 263
 264    # Whether join hints should be generated
 265    JOIN_HINTS = True
 266
 267    # Whether table hints should be generated
 268    TABLE_HINTS = True
 269
 270    # Whether query hints should be generated
 271    QUERY_HINTS = True
 272
 273    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 274    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 275
 276    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 277    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 278
 279    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 280    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 281
 282    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 283    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 284
 285    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 286    RETURNING_END = True
 287
 288    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 289    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 290
 291    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 292    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 293
 294    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 295    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 296
 297    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 298    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 299
 300    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 301    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 302    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 303    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 304
 305    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 306    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 307
 308    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 309    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 310
 311    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 312    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 313
 314    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 315    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 316
 317    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 318    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 319
 320    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 321    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 322
 323    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 324    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 325
 326    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 327    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 328
 329    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 330    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 331
 332    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 333    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 334
 335    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 336    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 337
 338    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 339    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 340
 341    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 342    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 343
 344    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 345    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 346
 347    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 348    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 349
 350    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 351    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 352
 353    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 354    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 355
 356    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 357    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 358
 359    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 360    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 361
 362    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 363    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 364
 365    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 366    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 367
 368    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 369    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 370
 371    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 372    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 373
 374    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 375    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 376
 377    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 378    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 379
 380    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 381    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 382    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 383
 384    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 385    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 386
 387    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 388    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 389
 390    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 391    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 392
 393    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 394    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 395
 396    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 397    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 398
 399    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 400    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 401
 402    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 403    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 404    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 405    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 406
 407    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 408    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 409
 410    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 411    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 412
 413    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 414    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 415
 416    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 417    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 418
 419    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 420    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 421
 422    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 423    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 424
 425    # The HEX function name
 426    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 427
 428    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 429    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 430
 431    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 432    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 433
 434    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 435    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 436
 437    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 438    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 439
 440    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 441    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 442
 443    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 444    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 445
 446    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
 447    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
 448
 449    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
 450    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
 451
 452    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 453    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 454
 455    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
 456    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
 457
 458    # The syntax to use when altering the type of a column
 459    ALTER_SET_TYPE = "SET DATA TYPE"
 460
 461    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
 462    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
 463    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
 464    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
 465    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
 466
 467    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 468        exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2: "TIMESTAMP",
 469        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 470        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 471        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 472        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 473        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 474        exp.DataType.Type.BLOB: "VARBINARY",
 475        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 476        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 477        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 478        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 479        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 480        exp.DataType.Type.SMALLDATETIME: "TIMESTAMP",
 481    }
 482
 483    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 484        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 485        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 486        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 487        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 488        "DAYS": "DAY",
 489        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 490        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 491        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 492        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 493    }
 494
 495    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 496        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 497        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 498        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 499        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 500            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 501            if e.args.get("windows")
 502            else ""
 503        ),
 504        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 505    }
 506
 507    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 508
 509    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 510
 511    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 512    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 513
 514    EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: t.Set[str] = set()
 515
 516    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 517        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 519        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 523        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 524        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 525        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 526        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 527        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 528        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 529        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 530        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 531        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 532        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 533        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 534        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 535        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 536        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 537        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 539        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.EncodeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 541        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 542        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 543        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 544        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 545        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 546        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 547        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 548        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 549        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 550        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 551        exp.IncludeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 552        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 553        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 554        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 555        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 556        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 557        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 558        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 559        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 560        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 561        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 562        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 563        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 564        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 565        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 566        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 567        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 568        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 569        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 570        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 571        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 572        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 573        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 574        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 575        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 576        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 577        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 578        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 579        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 580        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 581        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 582        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 583        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 584        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 585        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 586        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 587        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 588        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 589        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 590        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 591        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 592        exp.StorageHandlerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 593        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 594        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 595        exp.Tags: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 596        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 597        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 598        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 599        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 600        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 601        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 602        exp.UsingTemplateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 603        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 604        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 605        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 606        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 607        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 608        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 609        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 610        exp.ForceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 611    }
 612
 613    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 614    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 615
 616    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 617    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 618        exp.Command,
 619        exp.Create,
 620        exp.Describe,
 621        exp.Delete,
 622        exp.Drop,
 623        exp.From,
 624        exp.Insert,
 625        exp.Join,
 626        exp.MultitableInserts,
 627        exp.Select,
 628        exp.SetOperation,
 629        exp.Update,
 630        exp.Where,
 631        exp.With,
 632    )
 633
 634    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 635    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 636        exp.Binary,
 637        exp.SetOperation,
 638    )
 639
 640    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 641    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 642        exp.Column,
 643        exp.Literal,
 644        exp.Neg,
 645        exp.Paren,
 646    )
 647
 648    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 649        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 650        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 651        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 652        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 653    }
 654
 655    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 656    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 657
 658    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 659
 660    __slots__ = (
 661        "pretty",
 662        "identify",
 663        "normalize",
 664        "pad",
 665        "_indent",
 666        "normalize_functions",
 667        "unsupported_level",
 668        "max_unsupported",
 669        "leading_comma",
 670        "max_text_width",
 671        "comments",
 672        "dialect",
 673        "unsupported_messages",
 674        "_escaped_quote_end",
 675        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 676        "_next_name",
 677        "_identifier_start",
 678        "_identifier_end",
 679        "_quote_json_path_key_using_brackets",
 680    )
 681
 682    def __init__(
 683        self,
 684        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 685        identify: str | bool = False,
 686        normalize: bool = False,
 687        pad: int = 2,
 688        indent: int = 2,
 689        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 690        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 691        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 692        leading_comma: bool = False,
 693        max_text_width: int = 80,
 694        comments: bool = True,
 695        dialect: DialectType = None,
 696    ):
 697        import sqlglot
 698        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 699
 700        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 701        self.identify = identify
 702        self.normalize = normalize
 703        self.pad = pad
 704        self._indent = indent
 705        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 706        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 707        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 708        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 709        self.comments = comments
 710        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 711
 712        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 713        self.normalize_functions = (
 714            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 715        )
 716
 717        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 718        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 719            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 720        )
 721        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 722
 723        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 724
 725        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 726        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 727
 728        self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets = True
 729
 730    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 731        """
 732        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 733
 734        Args:
 735            expression: The syntax tree.
 736            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 737                it is safer to copy.
 738
 739        Returns:
 740            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 741        """
 742        if copy:
 743            expression = expression.copy()
 744
 745        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 746
 747        self.unsupported_messages = []
 748        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 749
 750        if self.pretty:
 751            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 752
 753        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 754            return sql
 755
 756        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 757            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 758                logger.warning(msg)
 759        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 760            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 761
 762        return sql
 763
 764    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 765        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 766        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 767
 768        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 769            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 770
 771            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 772
 773        return expression
 774
 775    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 776        if (
 777            not expression.parent
 778            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 779            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 780        ):
 781            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 782
 783            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 784        return expression
 785
 786    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 787        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 788            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 789        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 790
 791    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 792        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 793
 794    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 795        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 796
 797    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 798        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 799        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 800        return comment
 801
 802    def maybe_comment(
 803        self,
 804        sql: str,
 805        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 806        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 807        separated: bool = False,
 808    ) -> str:
 809        comments = (
 810            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 811            if self.comments
 812            else None
 813        )
 814
 815        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 816            return sql
 817
 818        comments_sql = " ".join(
 819            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 820        )
 821
 822        if not comments_sql:
 823            return sql
 824
 825        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 826
 827        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 828            return (
 829                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 830                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 831                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 832            )
 833
 834        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 835
 836    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 837        this_sql = (
 838            self.sql(expression)
 839            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 840            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 841        )
 842        if not this_sql:
 843            return "()"
 844
 845        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 846        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 847
 848    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 849        original = self.identify
 850        self.identify = False
 851        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 852        self.identify = original
 853        return result
 854
 855    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 856        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 857            return name.upper()
 858        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 859            return name.lower()
 860        return name
 861
 862    def indent(
 863        self,
 864        sql: str,
 865        level: int = 0,
 866        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 867        skip_first: bool = False,
 868        skip_last: bool = False,
 869    ) -> str:
 870        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 871            return sql
 872
 873        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 874        lines = sql.split("\n")
 875
 876        return "\n".join(
 877            (
 878                line
 879                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 880                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 881            )
 882            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 883        )
 884
 885    def sql(
 886        self,
 887        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 888        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 889        comment: bool = True,
 890    ) -> str:
 891        if not expression:
 892            return ""
 893
 894        if isinstance(expression, str):
 895            return expression
 896
 897        if key:
 898            value = expression.args.get(key)
 899            if value:
 900                return self.sql(value)
 901            return ""
 902
 903        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 904
 905        if callable(transform):
 906            sql = transform(self, expression)
 907        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 908            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 909
 910            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 911                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 912            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 913                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 914            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 915                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 916            else:
 917                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 918        else:
 919            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 920
 921        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 922
 923    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 924        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 925        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 926        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 927
 928    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 929        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 930        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 931        options = expression.args.get("options")
 932        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 933        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 934        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 935        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 936        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 937
 938    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 939        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 940            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 941        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 942        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 943
 944    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 945        return ".".join(
 946            self.sql(part)
 947            for part in (
 948                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 949                expression.args.get("db"),
 950                expression.args.get("table"),
 951                expression.args.get("this"),
 952            )
 953            if part
 954        )
 955
 956    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 957        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 958
 959        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 960            join_mark = ""
 961            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 962
 963        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 964
 965    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 966        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 967        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 968        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 969        return f"{position}{this}"
 970
 971    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 972        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 973        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 974        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 975        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 976        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 977        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 978        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 979        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 980
 981        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 982            kind = ""
 983
 984        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 985
 986    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 987        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 988        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 989        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 990
 991    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 992        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 993        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 994            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 995        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 996            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 997        else:
 998            persisted = ""
 999        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
1000
1001    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
1002        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
1003
1004    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
1005        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1006            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
1007        else:
1008            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1009
1010        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
1011
1012    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
1013        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
1014    ) -> str:
1015        this = ""
1016        if expression.this is not None:
1017            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
1018            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
1019
1020        start = expression.args.get("start")
1021        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1022        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
1023        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1024        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
1025        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1026        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
1027        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1028        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
1029        cycle_sql = ""
1030
1031        if cycle is not None:
1032            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
1033            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
1034
1035        sequence_opts = ""
1036        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
1037            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
1038            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
1039
1040        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1041        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1042
1043        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
1044
1045    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1046        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1047    ) -> str:
1048        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1049        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1050        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1051
1052    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1053        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1054    ) -> str:
1055        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1056
1057    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1058        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1059
1060    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1061        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1062
1063    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1064        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1065        if desc is not None:
1066            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1067        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1068
1069    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1070        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1071        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1072        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1073        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1074        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1075        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1076        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1077        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1078
1079    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1080        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1081
1082    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1083        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1084        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1085        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1086        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1087
1088        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1089
1090        properties_sql = ""
1091        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1092            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1093        ):
1094            properties_sql = self.sql(
1095                exp.Properties(
1096                    expressions=[
1097                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1098                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1099                    ]
1100                )
1101            )
1102
1103            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1104                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1105            elif not self.pretty:
1106                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1107                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1108
1109        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1110        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1111
1112        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1113        if expression_sql:
1114            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1115
1116            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1117                postalias_props_sql = ""
1118                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1119                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1120                        exp.Properties(
1121                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1122                        ),
1123                        wrapped=False,
1124                    )
1125                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1126                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1127
1128        postindex_props_sql = ""
1129        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1130            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1131                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1132                wrapped=False,
1133                prefix=" ",
1134            )
1135
1136        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1137        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1138        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1139
1140        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1141        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1142        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1143
1144        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1145        if clustered is None:
1146            clustered_sql = ""
1147        elif clustered:
1148            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1149        else:
1150            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1151
1152        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1153        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1154            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1155                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1156                sep=" ",
1157                prefix=" ",
1158                wrapped=False,
1159            )
1160
1161        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1162
1163        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1164        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1165            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1166                exp.Properties(
1167                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1168                ),
1169                sep=" ",
1170                prefix=" ",
1171                wrapped=False,
1172            )
1173
1174        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1175        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1176        no_schema_binding = (
1177            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1178        )
1179
1180        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1181        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1182
1183        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
1184            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
1185        else:
1186            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"
1187
1188        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1189        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1190
1191    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1192        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1193        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1194        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1195        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1196        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1197        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1198        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1199        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1200        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1201        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1202
1203        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1204        if cache is None:
1205            cache_str = ""
1206        elif cache is True:
1207            cache_str = " CACHE"
1208        else:
1209            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1210
1211        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1212        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1213
1214        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1215
1216    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1217        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1218        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1219        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1220        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1221
1222    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1223        style = expression.args.get("style")
1224        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1225        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1226        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1227        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1228        format = f" {format}" if format else ""
1229
1230        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1231
1232    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1233        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1234        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1235
1236    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1237        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1238        if with_:
1239            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1240        return sql
1241
1242    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1243        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1244        recursive = (
1245            "RECURSIVE "
1246            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1247            else ""
1248        )
1249        search = self.sql(expression, "search")
1250        search = f" {search}" if search else ""
1251
1252        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}{search}"
1253
1254    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1255        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1256        if alias:
1257            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1258
1259        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1260
1261        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1262        if materialized is False:
1263            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1264        elif materialized:
1265            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1266
1267        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1268
1269    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1270        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1271        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1272        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1273
1274        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1275            columns = ""
1276            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1277
1278        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1279            alias = self._next_name()
1280
1281        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1282
1283    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1284        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1285        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1286            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1287        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1288
1289    def hexstring_sql(
1290        self, expression: exp.HexString, binary_function_repr: t.Optional[str] = None
1291    ) -> str:
1292        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1293        is_integer_type = expression.args.get("is_integer")
1294
1295        if (is_integer_type and not self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE) or (
1296            not self.dialect.HEX_START and not binary_function_repr
1297        ):
1298            # Integer representation will be returned if:
1299            # - The read dialect treats the hex value as integer literal but not the write
1300            # - The transpilation is not supported (write dialect hasn't set HEX_START or the param flag)
1301            return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1302
1303        if not is_integer_type:
1304            # Read dialect treats the hex value as BINARY/BLOB
1305            if binary_function_repr:
1306                # The write dialect supports the transpilation to its equivalent BINARY/BLOB
1307                return self.func(binary_function_repr, exp.Literal.string(this))
1308            if self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE:
1309                # The write dialect does not support the transpilation, it'll treat the hex value as INTEGER
1310                self.unsupported("Unsupported transpilation from BINARY/BLOB hex string")
1311
1312        return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1313
1314    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1315        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1316        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1317            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1318        return this
1319
1320    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1321        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1322        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1323
1324        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1325            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1326            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1327        else:
1328            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1329            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1330
1331        if escape:
1332            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1333            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1334        else:
1335            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1336            escape_sql = ""
1337
1338        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1339            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1340
1341        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1342
1343    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1344        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1345        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1346
1347    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1348        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1349        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1350        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1351        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1352
1353    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1354        nested = ""
1355        values = ""
1356        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1357
1358        type_value = expression.this
1359        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1360            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1361        else:
1362            type_sql = (
1363                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1364                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1365                else type_value
1366            )
1367
1368        if interior:
1369            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1370                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1371                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1372                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1373                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1374                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1375            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1376                nested = f" {interior}"
1377            else:
1378                nested = f"({interior})"
1379
1380        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1381        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1382            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1383            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1384        ):
1385            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1386
1387        return type_sql
1388
1389    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1390        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1391        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1392        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1393        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1394
1395    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1396        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1397        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1398        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1399        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1400        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1401        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1402        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1403        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1404        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1405        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1406        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1407        if self.RETURNING_END:
1408            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1409        else:
1410            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1411        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1412
1413    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1414        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1415        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1416        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1417        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1418        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1419        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1420        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1421        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1422        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1423        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1424        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1425        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1426        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1427        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1428        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1429
1430    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1431        op_type = type(expression)
1432        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1433
1434        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1435        if (
1436            distinct is False
1437            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1438            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1439        ):
1440            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1441
1442        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1443
1444        if distinct is None:
1445            distinct = default_distinct
1446            if distinct is None:
1447                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1448
1449        if distinct is default_distinct:
1450            distinct_or_all = ""
1451        else:
1452            distinct_or_all = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1453
1454        side_kind = " ".join(filter(None, [expression.side, expression.kind]))
1455        side_kind = f"{side_kind} " if side_kind else ""
1456
1457        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1458        on = self.expressions(expression, key="on", flat=True)
1459        on = f" ON ({on})" if on else ""
1460
1461        return f"{side_kind}{op_name}{distinct_or_all}{by_name}{on}"
1462
1463    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1464        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1465            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1466            order = expression.args.get("order")
1467
1468            if limit or order:
1469                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1470                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1471                )
1472
1473                if limit:
1474                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1475                if order:
1476                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1477                return self.sql(select)
1478
1479        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1480        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1481
1482        while stack:
1483            node = stack.pop()
1484
1485            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1486                stack.append(node.expression)
1487                stack.append(
1488                    self.maybe_comment(
1489                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1490                    )
1491                )
1492                stack.append(node.this)
1493            else:
1494                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1495
1496        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1497        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1498        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1499
1500    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1501        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1502        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1503        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1504        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1505        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
1506        limit_options = f"{limit_options}" if limit_options else " ROWS ONLY"
1507        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count}{limit_options}"
1508
1509    def limitoptions_sql(self, expression: exp.LimitOptions) -> str:
1510        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1511        rows = " ROWS" if expression.args.get("rows") else ""
1512        with_ties = " WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else ""
1513        if not with_ties and rows:
1514            with_ties = " ONLY"
1515        return f"{percent}{rows}{with_ties}"
1516
1517    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1518        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1519            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1520            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1521            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1522
1523        agg = expression.this
1524        agg_arg = agg.this
1525        cond = expression.expression.this
1526        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1527        return self.sql(agg)
1528
1529    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1530        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1531            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1532            return ""
1533
1534        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1535
1536    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1537        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1538        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1539        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1540        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1541        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1542        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1543        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1544        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1545        if include:
1546            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1547        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1548        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1549        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1550        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1551        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1552        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1553
1554        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1555
1556    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1557        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1558        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1559        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1560        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1561        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1562        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1563        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1564
1565        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1566
1567        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1568        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1569
1570    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1571        text = expression.name
1572        lower = text.lower()
1573        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1574        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1575        if (
1576            expression.quoted
1577            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1578            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1579            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1580        ):
1581            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1582        return text
1583
1584    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1585        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1586        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1587            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1588
1589        return text
1590
1591    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1592        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1593        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1594            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1595        return text
1596
1597    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1598        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1599        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1600        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1601        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1602        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1603
1604    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1605        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1606        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1607
1608    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1609        partition_keyword = "SUBPARTITION" if expression.args.get("subpartition") else "PARTITION"
1610        return f"{partition_keyword}({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1611
1612    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1613        root_properties = []
1614        with_properties = []
1615
1616        for p in expression.expressions:
1617            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1618            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1619                with_properties.append(p)
1620            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1621                root_properties.append(p)
1622
1623        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1624        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1625
1626        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1627            with_props = " " + with_props
1628
1629        return root_props + with_props
1630
1631    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1632        if properties.expressions:
1633            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1634        return ""
1635
1636    def properties(
1637        self,
1638        properties: exp.Properties,
1639        prefix: str = "",
1640        sep: str = ", ",
1641        suffix: str = "",
1642        wrapped: bool = True,
1643    ) -> str:
1644        if properties.expressions:
1645            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1646            if expressions:
1647                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1648                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1649        return ""
1650
1651    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1652        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1653
1654    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1655        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1656        for p in properties.expressions:
1657            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1658            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1659                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1660            else:
1661                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1662
1663        return properties_locs
1664
1665    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1666        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1667            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1668        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1669
1670    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1671        property_cls = expression.__class__
1672        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1673            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1674
1675        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1676        if not property_name:
1677            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1678
1679        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1680
1681    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1682        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1683            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1684            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1685
1686            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1687            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1688                like = f"({like})"
1689
1690            return like
1691
1692        if expression.expressions:
1693            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1694
1695        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1696        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1697
1698    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1699        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1700        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1701        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1702
1703    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1704        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1705        local = expression.args.get("local")
1706        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1707        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1708        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1709        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1710        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1711
1712    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1713        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1714        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1715        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1716
1717    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1718        if expression.args.get("default"):
1719            property = "DEFAULT"
1720        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1721            property = "ON"
1722        else:
1723            property = "OFF"
1724        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1725
1726    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1727        if expression.args.get("no"):
1728            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1729        if expression.args.get("default"):
1730            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1731
1732        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1733        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1734
1735    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1736        default = expression.args.get("default")
1737        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1738        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1739        if default or minimum or maximum:
1740            if default:
1741                prop = "DEFAULT"
1742            elif minimum:
1743                prop = "MINIMUM"
1744            else:
1745                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1746            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1747        units = expression.args.get("units")
1748        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1749        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1750
1751    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1752        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1753        always = expression.args.get("always")
1754        default = expression.args.get("default")
1755        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1756        never = expression.args.get("never")
1757
1758        if autotemp is not None:
1759            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1760        elif always:
1761            prop = "ALWAYS"
1762        elif default:
1763            prop = "DEFAULT"
1764        elif manual:
1765            prop = "MANUAL"
1766        elif never:
1767            prop = "NEVER"
1768        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1769
1770    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1771        no = expression.args.get("no")
1772        no = " NO" if no else ""
1773        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1774        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1775        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1776        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1777        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1778
1779    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1780        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1781            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1782        if expression.this:
1783            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1784            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1785            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1786
1787        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1788        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1789        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1790
1791    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1792        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1793
1794        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1795        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1796            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1797        else:
1798            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1799
1800        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1801
1802    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1803        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1804        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1805        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1806        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1807        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1808        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1809        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1810
1811    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1812        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1813        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1814        statistics_sql = ""
1815        if statistics is not None:
1816            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1817        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1818
1819    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1821        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1822        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1823        data_consistency = (
1824            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1825        )
1826        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1827        retention_period = (
1828            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1829        )
1830
1831        if this:
1832            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1833        else:
1834            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1835
1836        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1837
1838        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1839
1840    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1841        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1842        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1843
1844        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1845            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1846        else:
1847            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1848
1849        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1850        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1851        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1852        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1853        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1854        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1855        if is_function:
1856            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1857        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1858
1859        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1860        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1861        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1862        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1863        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1864        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1865        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1866        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1867
1868        if self.RETURNING_END:
1869            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1870        else:
1871            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1872
1873        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1874        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1875        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1876        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1877
1878        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1879        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1880
1881        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1882        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1883
1884    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1885        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1886
1887    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1888        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1889        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1890        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1891        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1892        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1893
1894    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1895        return expression.name
1896
1897    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1898        return expression.name
1899
1900    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1901        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1902
1903        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1904        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1905
1906        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1907        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1908        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1909
1910        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1911        if expressions:
1912            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1913            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1914
1915        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1916        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}{where}"
1917
1918    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1919        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1920
1921    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1922        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1923        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1924        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1925        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1926        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1927        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1928        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1929        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1930        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1931        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1932        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1933        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1934        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1935
1936    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1937        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1938
1939    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1940        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1941        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1942        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1943        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1944
1945    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1947        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1948        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1949        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1950
1951    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1952        return ".".join(
1953            self.sql(part)
1954            for part in (
1955                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1956                expression.args.get("db"),
1957                expression.args.get("this"),
1958            )
1959            if part is not None
1960        )
1961
1962    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1963        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1964        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1965        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1966        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1967        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1968        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1969        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1970        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1971
1972        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1973        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1974            sample_pre_alias = sample
1975            sample_post_alias = ""
1976        else:
1977            sample_pre_alias = ""
1978            sample_post_alias = sample
1979
1980        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1981        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1982        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1983        joins = self.indent(
1984            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1985        )
1986        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1987
1988        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1989        if file_format:
1990            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1991            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1992            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1993
1994        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1995        if ordinality:
1996            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1997            alias = ""
1998
1999        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
2000        if when:
2001            table = f"{table} {when}"
2002
2003        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
2004        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
2005
2006        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
2007        if rows_from:
2008            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
2009
2010        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
2011
2012    def tablefromrows_sql(self, expression: exp.TableFromRows) -> str:
2013        table = self.func("TABLE", expression.this)
2014        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2015        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2016        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2017        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2018        joins = self.indent(
2019            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
2020        )
2021        return f"{table}{alias}{pivots}{sample}{joins}"
2022
2023    def tablesample_sql(
2024        self,
2025        expression: exp.TableSample,
2026        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
2027    ) -> str:
2028        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
2029        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
2030        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
2031        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
2032        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
2033        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
2034        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
2035        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
2036        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
2037
2038        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
2039        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
2040            size = f"{size} ROWS"
2041
2042        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
2043        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
2044            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
2045
2046        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
2047        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
2048            expr = f"({expr})"
2049
2050        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
2051
2052    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
2053        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2054        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
2055
2056        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2057
2058        if expression.this:
2059            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2060            if not expressions:
2061                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
2062
2063            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
2064            into = self.sql(expression, "into")
2065            into = f"{self.seg('INTO')} {into}" if into else ""
2066            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
2067            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
2068            return f"{direction} {this}{on}{into}{using}{group}"
2069
2070        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2071        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2072
2073        fields = self.expressions(
2074            expression,
2075            "fields",
2076            sep=" ",
2077            dynamic=True,
2078            new_line=True,
2079            skip_first=True,
2080            skip_last=True,
2081        )
2082
2083        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
2084        if include_nulls is not None:
2085            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
2086        else:
2087            nulls = ""
2088
2089        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
2090        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
2091        return f"{self.seg(direction)}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {fields}{default_on_null}{group}){alias}"
2092
2093    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
2094        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
2095        kind = expression.text("kind")
2096        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2097        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
2098
2099    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
2100        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
2101
2102    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
2103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2104        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2105        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2106        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2107        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2108        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2109        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2110        if self.RETURNING_END:
2111            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2112        else:
2113            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2114        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2115        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2116
2117    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2118        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2119
2120        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2121        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2122            args = self.expressions(expression)
2123            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2124            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2125            values = (
2126                f"({values})"
2127                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2128                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2129                else values
2130            )
2131            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2132
2133        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2134        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2135        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2136
2137        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2138
2139        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2140            row = tup.expressions
2141
2142            if i == 0 and column_names:
2143                row = [
2144                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2145                ]
2146
2147            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2148
2149        if self.pretty:
2150            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2151            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2152            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2153            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2154            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2155
2156        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2157        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2158        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2159
2160    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2161        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2162
2163    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2164    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2165        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2166        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2167        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2168
2169    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2170        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2171
2172    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2173        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2174        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2175
2176    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2177        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2178        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2179
2180    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2181        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2182        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2183
2184    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2185        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2186        if group_by_all is True:
2187            modifier = " ALL"
2188        elif group_by_all is False:
2189            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2190        else:
2191            modifier = ""
2192
2193        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2194
2195        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2196        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2197        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2198
2199        groupings = csv(
2200            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2201            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2202            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2203            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2204            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2205        )
2206
2207        if (
2208            expression.expressions
2209            and groupings
2210            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2211        ):
2212            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2213
2214        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2215
2216    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2217        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2218        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2219
2220    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2221        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2222        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2223        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2224        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2225        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2226        return start + connect
2227
2228    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2229        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2230
2231    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2232        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2233            side = None
2234        else:
2235            side = expression.side
2236
2237        op_sql = " ".join(
2238            op
2239            for op in (
2240                expression.method,
2241                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2242                side,
2243                expression.kind,
2244                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2245            )
2246            if op
2247        )
2248        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2249        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2250        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2251        using = expression.args.get("using")
2252
2253        if not on_sql and using:
2254            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2255
2256        this = expression.this
2257        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2258
2259        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2260        if exprs:
2261            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2262
2263        if on_sql:
2264            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2265            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2266            if using:
2267                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2268            else:
2269                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2270        elif not op_sql:
2271            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2272                return f" {this_sql}"
2273
2274            return f", {this_sql}"
2275
2276        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2277            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2278
2279        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2280
2281    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2282        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2283        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2284        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2285
2286    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2287        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2288
2289        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2290        if cross_apply is True:
2291            op = "INNER JOIN "
2292        elif cross_apply is False:
2293            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2294        else:
2295            op = ""
2296
2297        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2298
2299    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2300        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2301
2302        if expression.args.get("view"):
2303            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2304            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2305            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2306            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2307            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2308            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2309
2310        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2311        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2312
2313        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
2314        if ordinality:
2315            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
2316            alias = ""
2317
2318        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}{ordinality}"
2319
2320    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2321        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2322
2323        args = [
2324            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2325            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2326            if e
2327        ]
2328
2329        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2330        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2331        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2332        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
2333        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2334
2335        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{limit_options}{expressions}"
2336
2337    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2338        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2339        value = expression.expression
2340        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2341        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2342        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2343        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2344
2345    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2346        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2347        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2348        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2349        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2350        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2351        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2352        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2353        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2354
2355    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2356        expressions = f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2357        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2358        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2359
2360    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2361        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2362
2363    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2364        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2365            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2366            return ""
2367
2368        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2369        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2370        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2371        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2372
2373        if wait is not None:
2374            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2375                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2376            else:
2377                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2378
2379        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2380
2381    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2382        text = expression.this or ""
2383        if expression.is_string:
2384            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2385        return text
2386
2387    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2388        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2389            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2390            text = "".join(
2391                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2392            )
2393
2394        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2395            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2396        )
2397
2398    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2399        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2400        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2401        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2402        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2403        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2404        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2405        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2406        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2407        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2408        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2409        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2410
2411    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2412        return "NULL"
2413
2414    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2415        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2416
2417    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2418        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2419        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2420        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2421        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2422
2423    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2424        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2425        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2426        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2427        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2428        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2429        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2430        interpolated_values = [
2431            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2432            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2433            else self.sql(e, "this")
2434            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2435        ]
2436        interpolate = (
2437            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2438        )
2439        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2440
2441    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2442        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2443
2444    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2445        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2446
2447    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2448        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2449
2450    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2451        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2452        asc = not desc
2453
2454        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2455        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2456        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2457        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2458        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2459
2460        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2461
2462        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2463        nulls_sort_change = ""
2464        if nulls_first and (
2465            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2466        ):
2467            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2468        elif (
2469            nulls_last
2470            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2471            and not nulls_are_last
2472        ):
2473            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2474
2475        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2476        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2477            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2478            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2479                self.unsupported(
2480                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2481                )
2482                nulls_sort_change = ""
2483            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False and (
2484                (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2485                or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2486            ):
2487                # BigQuery does not allow these ordering/nulls combinations when used under
2488                # an aggregation func or under a window containing one
2489                ancestor = expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Window, exp.Select)
2490
2491                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.Window):
2492                    ancestor = ancestor.this
2493                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.AggFunc):
2494                    self.unsupported(
2495                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2496                    )
2497                    nulls_sort_change = ""
2498            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2499                if expression.this.is_int:
2500                    self.unsupported(
2501                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2502                    )
2503                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2504                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2505                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2506                nulls_sort_change = ""
2507
2508        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2509        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2510
2511        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2512
2513    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2514        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2515        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2516
2517        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2518
2519        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2520
2521    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2522        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2523        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2524        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2525        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2526        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2527        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2528        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2529        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2530        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2531        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2532        definition_sqls = [
2533            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2534            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2535        ]
2536        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2537        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2538        body = "".join(
2539            (
2540                partition,
2541                order,
2542                measures,
2543                rows,
2544                after,
2545                pattern,
2546                define,
2547            )
2548        )
2549        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2550        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2551        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2552
2553    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2554        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2555
2556        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2557            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2558        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2559            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2560
2561        return csv(
2562            *sqls,
2563            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2564            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2565            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2566            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2567            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2568            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2569            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2570            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2571            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2572            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2573            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2574            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2575            self.options_modifier(expression),
2576            sep="",
2577        )
2578
2579    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2580        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2581        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2582
2583    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2584        self.unsupported("Unsupported query option.")
2585        return ""
2586
2587    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2588        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2589    ) -> t.List[str]:
2590        return [
2591            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2592            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2593        ]
2594
2595    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2596        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2597        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2598        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2599
2600    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2601        into = expression.args.get("into")
2602        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2603            into.pop()
2604
2605        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2606        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2607        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2608        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2609
2610        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2611        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2612            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2613            limit.pop()
2614        else:
2615            top = ""
2616
2617        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2618
2619        if kind:
2620            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2621                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2622            else:
2623                if kind == "STRUCT":
2624                    expressions = self.expressions(
2625                        sqls=[
2626                            self.sql(
2627                                exp.Struct(
2628                                    expressions=[
2629                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2630                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2631                                        else e
2632                                        for e in expression.expressions
2633                                    ]
2634                                )
2635                            )
2636                        ]
2637                    )
2638                kind = ""
2639
2640        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2641        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2642
2643        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2644        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2645        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2646        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2647        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2648            expression,
2649            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2650            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2651            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2652        )
2653
2654        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2655        if expression.args.get("with"):
2656            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2657            expression.pop_comments()
2658
2659        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2660
2661        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2662            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2663                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2664            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2665                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2666            else:
2667                table_kind = ""
2668            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2669
2670        return sql
2671
2672    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2673        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2674        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2675        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2676
2677    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2678        if expression.expressions:
2679            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2680        return ""
2681
2682    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2683        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2684        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2685        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2686        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2687        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2688        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2689        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2690
2691    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2692        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2693        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2694
2695    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2696        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2697        kind = expression.text("kind")
2698        if kind:
2699            kind = f"{kind}."
2700        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2701
2702    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2703        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2704
2705    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2706        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2707        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2708        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2709        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2710            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2711
2712            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2713            expression.set("sample", None)
2714
2715        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2716        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2717        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2718
2719    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2720        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2721        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2722
2723    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2724        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2725
2726        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2727        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2728
2729        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2730            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2731                alias.append("columns", offset)
2732
2733        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2734            columns = alias.columns
2735            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2736        else:
2737            alias = self.sql(alias)
2738
2739        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2740        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2741            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2742        else:
2743            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2744                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2745            elif offset:
2746                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2747            else:
2748                suffix = alias
2749
2750        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2751
2752    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2753        return ""
2754
2755    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2756        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2757        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2758
2759    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2760        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2761        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2762        order = expression.args.get("order")
2763        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2764        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2765        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2766        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2767
2768        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2769
2770        first = expression.args.get("first")
2771        if first is None:
2772            first = ""
2773        else:
2774            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2775
2776        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2777            return f"{this} {alias}"
2778
2779        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2780        return f"{this} ({args})"
2781
2782    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2783        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2784        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2785
2786    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2787        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2788        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2789        end = (
2790            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2791            or "CURRENT ROW"
2792        )
2793        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2794
2795    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2797        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2798        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2799
2800    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2802        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2803        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2804        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2805
2806    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2807        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2808    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2809        return apply_index_offset(
2810            expression.this,
2811            expression.expressions,
2812            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2813            dialect=self.dialect,
2814        )
2815
2816    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2817        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2818        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2819        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2820
2821    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2822        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2823
2824    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2826        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2827            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2828                this = self.wrap(this)
2829            return f"ANY{this}"
2830        return f"ANY {this}"
2831
2832    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2833        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2834
2835    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2836        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2837        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2838
2839        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2840            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2841            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2842
2843        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2844
2845        if default:
2846            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2847
2848        statements.append("END")
2849
2850        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2851            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2852
2853        return " ".join(statements)
2854
2855    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2856        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2857        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2858        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2859
2860    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2861        order = expression.args.get("order")
2862        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2863        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2864
2865    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2866        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2867        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2868        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2869
2870    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2871        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2872
2873        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2874            func_name = "LTRIM"
2875        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2876            func_name = "RTRIM"
2877        else:
2878            func_name = "TRIM"
2879
2880        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2881
2882    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2883        args = expression.expressions
2884        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2885            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2886
2887        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2888            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2889
2890        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2891            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2892
2893        return args
2894
2895    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2896        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2897
2898        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2899        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2900            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2901
2902        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2903
2904    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2905        return self.func(
2906            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2907        )
2908
2909    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2910        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2911        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2912
2913    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2914        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2915        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2916        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2917        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2918        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2919        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2920        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2921        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2922        return f"FOREIGN KEY{expressions}{reference}{delete}{update}"
2923
2924    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2925        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2926        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2927        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2928        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2929
2930    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2931        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2932
2933    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2934        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2935        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2936        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2937
2938    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2939        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2940
2941    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2942        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2943
2944        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2945            path = self.escape_str(path)
2946
2947        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2948            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2949
2950        return path
2951
2952    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2953        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2954            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2955            if not callable(transform):
2956                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2957                return ""
2958
2959            return transform(self, expression)
2960
2961        if isinstance(expression, int):
2962            return str(expression)
2963
2964        if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2965            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2966            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2967        else:
2968            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2969            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2970
2971        return escaped
2972
2973    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2974        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2975
2976    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2977        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2978        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2979
2980        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2981        if unique_keys is not None:
2982            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2983        else:
2984            unique_keys = ""
2985
2986        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2987        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2988        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2989        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2990
2991        return self.func(
2992            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2993            *expression.expressions,
2994            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2995        )
2996
2997    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2998        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2999
3000    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
3001        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
3002        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
3003        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
3004        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
3005        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
3006        return self.func(
3007            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
3008        )
3009
3010    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
3011        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3012        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3013        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
3014        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
3015        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
3016        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
3017        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
3018        return self.func(
3019            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
3020            this,
3021            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
3022        )
3023
3024    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
3025        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3026        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
3027        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
3028
3029        if nested_schema:
3030            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
3031
3032        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3033        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3034        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3035        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
3036
3037    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
3038        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
3039
3040    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
3041        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3042        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3043        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
3044        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
3045        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
3046        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
3047        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
3048        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3049        return self.func(
3050            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
3051        )
3052
3053    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
3054        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3055        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3056        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3057        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
3058        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
3059        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
3060
3061    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
3062        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3063        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3064        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
3065        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3066        with_ = (
3067            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3068            if expressions
3069            else ""
3070        )
3071        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
3072
3073    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
3074        query = expression.args.get("query")
3075        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
3076        field = expression.args.get("field")
3077        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
3078
3079        if query:
3080            in_sql = self.sql(query)
3081        elif unnest:
3082            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
3083        elif field:
3084            in_sql = self.sql(field)
3085        else:
3086            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
3087
3088        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
3089
3090    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
3091        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
3092
3093    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
3094        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
3095        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
3096            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
3097        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
3098
3099        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
3100            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
3101            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
3102
3103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3104        if this:
3105            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
3106            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
3107
3108        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
3109
3110    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
3111        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3112
3113    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
3114        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3115        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3116        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3117        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3118        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3119        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
3120
3121    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3122        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3123        parent = expression.parent
3124        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3125        return self.func(
3126            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3127        )
3128
3129    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3130        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3131        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3132
3133    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3134        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3135        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3136        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3137        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3138
3139    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3140        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3141
3142    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3143        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3144        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3145        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3146
3147    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3148        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3149
3150        parent = expression.parent
3151        pivot = parent and parent.parent
3152
3153        if isinstance(pivot, exp.Pivot) and pivot.unpivot:
3154            identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3155            literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3156
3157            if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3158                alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3159            elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3160                alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3161
3162        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3163
3164    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3165        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3166
3167    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3169        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3170        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3171
3172    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3174        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3175        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3176
3177    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3179        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3180        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3181
3182    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3183        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3184
3185    def and_sql(
3186        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3187    ) -> str:
3188        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3189
3190    def or_sql(
3191        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3192    ) -> str:
3193        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3194
3195    def xor_sql(
3196        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3197    ) -> str:
3198        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3199
3200    def connector_sql(
3201        self,
3202        expression: exp.Connector,
3203        op: str,
3204        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3205    ) -> str:
3206        if stack is not None:
3207            if expression.expressions:
3208                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3209            else:
3210                stack.append(expression.right)
3211                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3212                    for comment in expression.comments:
3213                        if comment:
3214                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3215                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3216            return op
3217
3218        stack = [expression]
3219        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3220        ops = set()
3221
3222        while stack:
3223            node = stack.pop()
3224            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3225                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3226            else:
3227                sql = self.sql(node)
3228                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3229                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3230                else:
3231                    sqls.append(sql)
3232
3233        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3234        return sep.join(sqls)
3235
3236    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3237        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3238
3239    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3240        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3241
3242    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3243        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3244
3245    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3246        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3247
3248    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3249        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3250
3251    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3252        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3253
3254    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3255        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3256        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3257        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3258        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3259        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3260        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3261        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3262        default = f" DEFAULT {default} ON CONVERSION ERROR" if default else ""
3263        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{default}{format_sql}{action})"
3264
3265    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3266        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3267        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3268
3269    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3270        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3271            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3272        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3273
3274    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3275        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3276
3277    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3278        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3279        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3280        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3281        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3282        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3283        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3284
3285    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3286        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3287        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3288        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3289        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3290        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3291        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3292        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3293        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3294        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3295
3296    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3297        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3298        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3299        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3300        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3301
3302        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3303            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3304
3305        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3306
3307    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3308        return "BEGIN"
3309
3310    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3311        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3312        if chain is not None:
3313            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3314
3315        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3316
3317    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3318        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3319        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3320        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3321
3322    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3323        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3324
3325        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3326        if dtype:
3327            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3328            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3329            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3330            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3331            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {self.ALTER_SET_TYPE} {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3332
3333        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3334        if default:
3335            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3336
3337        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3338        if comment:
3339            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3340
3341        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3342        if visible:
3343            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET {visible}"
3344
3345        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3346        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3347
3348        if not drop and not allow_null:
3349            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3350
3351        if allow_null is not None:
3352            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3353            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3354
3355        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3356
3357    def alterindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterIndex) -> str:
3358        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3359
3360        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3361        visible_sql = "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3362
3363        return f"ALTER INDEX {this} {visible_sql}"
3364
3365    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3366        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3367        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3368            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3369        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3370
3371    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3372        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3373        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3374        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3375        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3376        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3377
3378    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3379        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3380            # Remove db from tables
3381            expression = expression.transform(
3382                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3383            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3384        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3385        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3386
3387    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3388        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3389        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3390        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3391        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3392
3393    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3394        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3395        return f"SET {exprs}"
3396
3397    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3398        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3399
3400        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3401            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3402        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3403            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3404        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3405            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3406        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3407            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3408        else:
3409            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3410
3411        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3412        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3413        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3414        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3415        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3416        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3417        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3418        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3419
3420        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3421
3422    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3423        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3424            return self.expressions(
3425                expression,
3426                key="actions",
3427                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3428                skip_first=True,
3429            )
3430        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3431
3432    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3433        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3434        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3435        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3436
3437    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3438        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3439
3440    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3441        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3442
3443        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3444            case = exp.case()
3445            for arg in expression.expressions:
3446                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3447            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3448
3449        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3450
3451        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3452        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3453        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3454
3455    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3456        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3457
3458    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3459        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3460
3461    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3462        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3463        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3464        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3465        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3466
3467    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3468        return self.sql(
3469            exp.Cast(
3470                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3471                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3472            )
3473        )
3474
3475    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3476        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3477            return self.func(
3478                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3479            )
3480        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3481
3482    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3483        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3484
3485        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3486            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3487
3488        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3489            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3490                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3491
3492        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3493            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3494                return self.sql(
3495                    exp.cast(
3496                        l / r,
3497                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3498                    )
3499                )
3500
3501        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3502
3503    def safedivide_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDivide) -> str:
3504        n = exp._wrap(expression.this, exp.Binary)
3505        d = exp._wrap(expression.expression, exp.Binary)
3506        return self.sql(exp.If(this=d.neq(0), true=n / d, false=exp.Null()))
3507
3508    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3509        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3510
3511    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3512        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3513
3514    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3515        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3516
3517    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3518        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3519
3520    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3521        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3522
3523    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3524        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3525
3526    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3527        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3528
3529    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3530        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3531
3532    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3533        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3534
3535    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3536        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3537
3538    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3539        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3540
3541    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3542        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3543            return self.sql(
3544                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3545            )
3546        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3547
3548    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3549        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3550
3551    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3552        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3553
3554    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3555        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3556
3557    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3558        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3559
3560    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3561        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3562
3563    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3564        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3565
3566    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3567        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3568
3569    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3570        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3571
3572    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3573        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3574
3575    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3576        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3577
3578    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3579        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3580
3581    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3582        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3583
3584    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3585        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3586
3587    def jsoncast_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONCast) -> str:
3588        return self.cast_sql(expression)
3589
3590    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3591        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3592            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3593            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3594
3595        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3596
3597    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3598        this = expression.this
3599        expr = expression.expression
3600
3601        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3602            this, expr = expr, this
3603        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3604            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3605                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3606
3607            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3608
3609        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3610
3611    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3612        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3613        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3614        this = self.sql(expression, "this") or self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3615        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3616        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3617
3618    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3619        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3620        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3621        binary_type = type(expression)
3622
3623        while stack:
3624            node = stack.pop()
3625
3626            if type(node) is binary_type:
3627                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3628                if op_func:
3629                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3630
3631                stack.append(node.right)
3632                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3633                stack.append(node.left)
3634            else:
3635                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3636
3637        return "".join(sqls)
3638
3639    def ceil_floor(self, expression: exp.Ceil | exp.Floor) -> str:
3640        to_clause = self.sql(expression, "to")
3641        if to_clause:
3642            return f"{expression.sql_name()}({self.sql(expression, 'this')} TO {to_clause})"
3643
3644        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3645
3646    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3647        args = []
3648
3649        for key in expression.arg_types:
3650            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3651
3652            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3653                for value in arg_value:
3654                    args.append(value)
3655            elif arg_value is not None:
3656                args.append(arg_value)
3657
3658        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
3659            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3660        else:
3661            name = expression.sql_name()
3662
3663        return self.func(name, *args)
3664
3665    def func(
3666        self,
3667        name: str,
3668        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3669        prefix: str = "(",
3670        suffix: str = ")",
3671        normalize: bool = True,
3672    ) -> str:
3673        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3674        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3675
3676    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3677        arg_sqls = tuple(
3678            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3679        )
3680        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3681            return self.indent(
3682                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3683            )
3684        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
3685
3686    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3687        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3688
3689    def format_time(
3690        self,
3691        expression: exp.Expression,
3692        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3693        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3694    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3695        return format_time(
3696            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3697            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3698            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3699        )
3700
3701    def expressions(
3702        self,
3703        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3704        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3705        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3706        flat: bool = False,
3707        indent: bool = True,
3708        skip_first: bool = False,
3709        skip_last: bool = False,
3710        sep: str = ", ",
3711        prefix: str = "",
3712        dynamic: bool = False,
3713        new_line: bool = False,
3714    ) -> str:
3715        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3716
3717        if not expressions:
3718            return ""
3719
3720        if flat:
3721            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3722
3723        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3724        result_sqls = []
3725
3726        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3727            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3728            if not sql:
3729                continue
3730
3731            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3732
3733            if self.pretty:
3734                if self.leading_comma:
3735                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3736                else:
3737                    result_sqls.append(
3738                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3739                    )
3740            else:
3741                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3742
3743        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3744            if new_line:
3745                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3746                result_sqls.append("")
3747            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3748        else:
3749            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3750
3751        return (
3752            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3753            if indent
3754            else result_sql
3755        )
3756
3757    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3758        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3759        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3760        if flat:
3761            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3762        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3763
3764    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3765        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3766        if not property_name:
3767            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3768        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3769
3770    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3771        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3772
3773    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3774        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3775
3776    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3777        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3778        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3779        expressions = (
3780            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3781        )
3782        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
3783
3784    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3786        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3787        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3788
3789    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3790        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3791
3792    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3793        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3794        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3795        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3796        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3797
3798        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3799        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3800            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3801            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3802            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3803            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3804        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3805            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3806                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3807            else:
3808                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3809        else:
3810            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3811        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3812
3813    def whens_sql(self, expression: exp.Whens) -> str:
3814        return self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3815
3816    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3817        table = expression.this
3818        table_alias = ""
3819
3820        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3821        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3822            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3823            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3824
3825        this = self.sql(table)
3826        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3827        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3828        whens = self.sql(expression, "whens")
3829
3830        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3831        if returning:
3832            whens = f"{whens}{returning}"
3833
3834        sep = self.sep()
3835
3836        return self.prepend_ctes(
3837            expression,
3838            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{whens}",
3839        )
3840
3841    @unsupported_args("format")
3842    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3843        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3844
3845    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3846        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3847            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3848            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3849
3850        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3851        if not fmt:
3852            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3853            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3854
3855        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3856
3857    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3858        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3859        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3860        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3861        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3862        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3863
3864    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3865        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3866        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3867        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3868        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3869
3870    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3871        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3872
3873    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3874        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3875
3876    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/table_bucket_part_index/CREATE_TABLE/
3877    def uniquekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueKeyProperty) -> str:
3878        return f"UNIQUE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3879
3880    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3881    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3882        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3883        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3884        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3885        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3886        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3887        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3888        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3889
3890    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3891        return ""
3892
3893    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3894        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3895        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3896        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3897        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3898        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3899
3900    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3902        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3903
3904        if having:
3905            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3906
3907        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3908
3909    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3910        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3911        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3912        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3913        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3914        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3915        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3916        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3917        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3918        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3919        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3920        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3921        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3922        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3923
3924    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3925        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3926        if key_block_size:
3927            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3928
3929        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3930        if using:
3931            return f"USING {using}"
3932
3933        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3934        if parser:
3935            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3936
3937        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3938        if comment:
3939            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3940
3941        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3942        if visible is not None:
3943            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3944
3945        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3946        if engine_attr:
3947            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3948
3949        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3950        if secondary_engine_attr:
3951            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3952
3953        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3954        return ""
3955
3956    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3957        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3958        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3959
3960    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3961        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3962        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3963        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3964        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3965        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3966        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3967        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3968        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3969        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3970        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3971        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3972
3973    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3974        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3975            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3976
3977        case = exp.Case().when(
3978            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3979            expression.args["true"],
3980            copy=False,
3981        )
3982        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3983        if else_cond:
3984            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3985
3986        return self.sql(case)
3987
3988    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3989        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3990        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3991        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3992        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3993        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3994        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3995
3996    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3997        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3998
3999    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
4000        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
4001
4002    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
4003        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
4004        model = f"MODEL {model}"
4005        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4006        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
4007        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
4008        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
4009
4010    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
4011        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4012        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4013        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
4014
4015    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
4016        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4017        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
4018        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
4019
4020    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
4021        arg = expression.this
4022        if not arg.type:
4023            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
4024
4025            arg = annotate_types(arg, dialect=self.dialect)
4026
4027        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
4028            return self.sql(arg)
4029
4030        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
4031        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
4032
4033    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
4034        this = expression.this
4035        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
4036
4037        if time_format:
4038            return self.sql(
4039                exp.cast(
4040                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
4041                    exp.DataType.Type.TIME,
4042                )
4043            )
4044
4045        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
4046            return self.sql(this)
4047
4048        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
4049
4050    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
4051        this = expression.this
4052        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
4053            return self.sql(this)
4054
4055        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
4056
4057    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
4058        this = expression.this
4059        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
4060            return self.sql(this)
4061
4062        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
4063
4064    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
4065        this = expression.this
4066        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
4067
4068        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
4069            return self.sql(
4070                exp.cast(
4071                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
4072                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
4073                )
4074            )
4075
4076        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
4077            return self.sql(this)
4078
4079        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
4080
4081    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
4082        return self.sql(
4083            exp.func(
4084                "DATEDIFF",
4085                expression.this,
4086                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
4087                "day",
4088            )
4089        )
4090
4091    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
4092        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
4093            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4094
4095        unit = expression.text("unit")
4096        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
4097            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
4098
4099        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
4100
4101    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
4102        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
4103
4104        return self.func(
4105            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
4106        )
4107
4108    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
4109        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
4110            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
4111            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
4112            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
4113            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
4114
4115        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
4116
4117        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
4118        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
4119            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
4120
4121        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4122
4123    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
4124        expression.set(
4125            "expressions",
4126            [
4127                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
4128                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
4129                else e
4130                for e in expression.expressions
4131            ],
4132        )
4133
4134        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4135
4136    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
4137        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
4138        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4139
4140        return f"{low} TO {high}"
4141
4142    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
4143        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
4144        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
4145
4146        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4147
4148        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
4149        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
4150
4151        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
4152        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
4153
4154        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4155        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4156
4157        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4158        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4159
4160        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
4161
4162    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
4163    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
4164    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
4165        to = expression.this
4166        value = expression.expression
4167        style = expression.args.get("style")
4168        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
4169        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
4170
4171        if not to or not value:
4172            return ""
4173
4174        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4175        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4176            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4177
4178        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4179        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4180
4181        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4182        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4183            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4184
4185            style_value = style.name
4186            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4187            if not converted_style:
4188                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4189
4190            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4191
4192            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4193                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4194            elif to.this in (exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2):
4195                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4196            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4197                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4198            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4199                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4200
4201        if not transformed:
4202            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4203
4204        return self.sql(transformed)
4205
4206    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4207        this = expression.this
4208        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4209            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4210            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4211
4212        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4213            return f".{this}"
4214
4215        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4216        return (
4217            f"[{this}]"
4218            if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED
4219            else f".{this}"
4220        )
4221
4222    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4223        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4224        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4225
4226    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4227        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4228            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4229
4230            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4231
4232        return expression
4233
4234    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4235        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4236            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4237            mods = sorted(
4238                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4239                key=lambda x: 0
4240                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4241                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4242            )
4243
4244            if mods:
4245                mod = mods[0]
4246                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4247                this.meta["inline"] = True
4248                mod.this.replace(this)
4249                return self.sql(expression.this)
4250
4251            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4252
4253            if agg_func:
4254                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4255
4256        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4257
4258    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4259        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4260        if self.pretty:
4261            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4262        return string
4263
4264    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4265        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4266
4267        if expression.expressions:
4268            upper = option.upper()
4269
4270            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4271            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4272
4273            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4274            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4275            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4276            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4277
4278        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4279
4280        if not value:
4281            return option
4282
4283        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4284
4285        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4286
4287    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4288        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4289        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4290            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4291            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4292            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4293        else:
4294            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4295            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4296            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4297
4298        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4299        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4300
4301        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4302        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4303
4304        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4305        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4306
4307        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4308        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4309
4310        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4311
4312    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4313        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4314        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4315
4316        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4317        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4318        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4319        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4320
4321        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4322        params = self.expressions(
4323            expression,
4324            key="params",
4325            sep=sep,
4326            new_line=True,
4327            skip_last=True,
4328            skip_first=True,
4329            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4330        )
4331
4332        if params:
4333            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4334                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4335            elif not self.pretty:
4336                params = f" {params}"
4337
4338        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4339
4340    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4341        return ""
4342
4343    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4344        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4345        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4346        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4347        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4348        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4349
4350        if filter_col or retention_period:
4351            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4352
4353        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4354
4355    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4356        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4357    ) -> str:
4358        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4359        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4360        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4361        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4362
4363    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4364        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4365        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4366        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4367
4368    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4369        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4370
4371    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4372        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4373        expr = expression.expression
4374
4375        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4376            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4377            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4378        else:
4379            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4380
4381        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4382
4383    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4384        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4385            return self.sql(expression.this)
4386
4387        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4388
4389    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4390        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4391        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4392
4393        if lower and upper:
4394            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4395        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4396
4397    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4398        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4399        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4400        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4401        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4402        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4403        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4404
4405        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4406
4407    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4408        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4409
4410        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4411        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4412            fill_pattern = "' '"
4413
4414        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4415
4416    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4417        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4418        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4419
4420    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4421        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4422
4423        parent = expression.parent
4424        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4425            parent = parent.parent
4426
4427        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4428            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4429
4430        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4431            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4432
4433        return self.sql(generate_series)
4434
4435    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4436        exprs = expression.expressions
4437        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4438            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4439        else:
4440            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4441
4442        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
4443
4444    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4445        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4446            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4447
4448        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4449        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4450        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4451
4452        if source_tz and timestamp:
4453            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4454                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4455            )
4456
4457        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4458
4459        return self.sql(expr)
4460
4461    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4462        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4463        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4464
4465        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4466
4467        if _with is None:
4468            with_sql = ""
4469        elif not _with:
4470            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4471        else:
4472            with_sql = " WITH"
4473
4474        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4475
4476        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4477
4478    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4479        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4480            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4481
4482        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4483        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4484        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4485
4486        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4487        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4488
4489        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4490
4491    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4492        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4493        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4494        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4495        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4496        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4497
4498    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4499        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4500        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4501        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4502        return res
4503
4504    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4505        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4506        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4507        empty = (
4508            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4509            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4510            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4511        )
4512
4513        error = expression.args.get("error")
4514        error = (
4515            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4516            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4517            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4518        )
4519
4520        if error and empty:
4521            error = (
4522                f"{empty} {error}"
4523                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4524                else f"{error} {empty}"
4525            )
4526            empty = ""
4527
4528        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4529
4530        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4531
4532    def jsonextractquote_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExtractQuote) -> str:
4533        scalar = " ON SCALAR STRING" if expression.args.get("scalar") else ""
4534        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'option')} QUOTES{scalar}"
4535
4536    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4537        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4538        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4539
4540        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4541        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4542
4543        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4544        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4545
4546        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4547
4548        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4549
4550    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4551        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4552
4553        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4554        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4555        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4556            parent = expression.parent
4557            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4558                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4559                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4560            else:
4561                this = expression.this
4562                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4563                if this.find(exp.Column):
4564                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4565                    this_sql = (
4566                        self.expressions(this)
4567                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4568                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4569                    )
4570
4571                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4572
4573        return array_agg
4574
4575    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4577        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4578
4579        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4580
4581    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4582        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4583
4584        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4585        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4586
4587        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4588        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4589
4590        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4591
4592        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4593
4594        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4595
4596    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4597        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4598        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4599        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4600
4601        return f"{this}{columns}"
4602
4603    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4604        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4605
4606        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4607        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4608
4609        return f"{kind}{this}"
4610
4611    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4612        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4613        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4614            func = f"*{func}"
4615
4616        return func
4617
4618    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4619        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4620        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4621        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4622        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4623        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4624
4625        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
4626
4627    @unsupported_args("format")
4628    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4629        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
4630
4631    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4632        this = expression.this
4633        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4634
4635        if zone:
4636            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4637            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4638            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4639            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4640                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4641            )
4642
4643        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
4644
4645    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4646        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4647            return self.sql(
4648                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4649            )
4650
4651        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4652
4653    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4654        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4655        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4656        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4657        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
4658
4659    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4660        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
4661            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4662
4663        start_ts = exp.cast(
4664            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
4665        )
4666
4667        return self.sql(
4668            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
4669        )
4670
4671    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
4672        dim = expression.expression
4673
4674        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
4675        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
4676            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
4677                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
4678            dim = None
4679
4680        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
4681        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
4682            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
4683
4684        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)
4685
4686    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
4687        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4688        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4689        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
4690        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4691
4692        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"
4693
4694    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
4695        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4696        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4697
4698        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"
4699
4700    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
4701        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4702        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4703        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
4704        return f"{this}{value}"
4705
4706    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
4707        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
4708        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
4709            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"
4710
4711        return self.func(
4712            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
4713            this_sql,
4714            expression.args.get("time"),
4715            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
4716            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
4717        )
4718
4719    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
4720        return (
4721            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
4722        )
4723
4724    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
4725        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
4726        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4727
4728        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
4729        if properties:
4730            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"
4731
4732        return encode
4733
4734    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
4735        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4736        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"
4737
4738        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
4739        if column_def:
4740            include = f"{include} {column_def}"
4741
4742        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
4743        if alias:
4744            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"
4745
4746        return include
4747
4748    def xmlelement_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLElement) -> str:
4749        name = f"NAME {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4750        return self.func("XMLELEMENT", name, *expression.expressions)
4751
4752    def partitionbyrangeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangeProperty) -> str:
4753        partitions = self.expressions(expression, "partition_expressions")
4754        create = self.expressions(expression, "create_expressions")
4755        return f"PARTITION BY RANGE {self.wrap(partitions)} {self.wrap(create)}"
4756
4757    def partitionbyrangepropertydynamic_sql(
4758        self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangePropertyDynamic
4759    ) -> str:
4760        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
4761        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4762
4763        every = expression.args["every"]
4764        if isinstance(every, exp.Interval) and every.this.is_string:
4765            every.this.replace(exp.Literal.number(every.name))
4766
4767        return f"START {self.wrap(start)} END {self.wrap(end)} EVERY {self.wrap(self.sql(every))}"
4768
4769    def unpivotcolumns_sql(self, expression: exp.UnpivotColumns) -> str:
4770        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
4771        values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4772
4773        return f"NAME {name} VALUE {values}"
4774
4775    def analyzesample_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeSample) -> str:
4776        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4777        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
4778        return f"SAMPLE {sample} {kind}"
4779
4780    def analyzestatistics_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeStatistics) -> str:
4781        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4782        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4783        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4784        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4785        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4786        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4787        columns = f" {columns}" if columns else ""
4788        return f"{kind}{option} STATISTICS{this}{columns}"
4789
4790    def analyzehistogram_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeHistogram) -> str:
4791        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4792        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4793        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4794        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4795        update_options = self.sql(expression, "update_options")
4796        update_options = f" {update_options} UPDATE" if update_options else ""
4797        return f"{this} HISTOGRAM ON {columns}{inner_expression}{update_options}"
4798
4799    def analyzedelete_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeDelete) -> str:
4800        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4801        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4802        return f"DELETE{kind} STATISTICS"
4803
4804    def analyzelistchainedrows_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeListChainedRows) -> str:
4805        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4806        return f"LIST CHAINED ROWS{inner_expression}"
4807
4808    def analyzevalidate_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeValidate) -> str:
4809        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4810        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4811        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4812        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4813        return f"VALIDATE {kind}{this}{inner_expression}"
4814
4815    def analyze_sql(self, expression: exp.Analyze) -> str:
4816        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
4817        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
4818        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4819        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4821        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4822        mode = self.sql(expression, "mode")
4823        mode = f" {mode}" if mode else ""
4824        properties = self.sql(expression, "properties")
4825        properties = f" {properties}" if properties else ""
4826        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4827        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4828        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4829        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4830        return f"ANALYZE{options}{kind}{this}{partition}{mode}{inner_expression}{properties}"
4831
4832    def xmltable_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLTable) -> str:
4833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4834        namespaces = self.expressions(expression, key="namespaces")
4835        namespaces = f"XMLNAMESPACES({namespaces}), " if namespaces else ""
4836        passing = self.expressions(expression, key="passing")
4837        passing = f"{self.sep()}PASSING{self.seg(passing)}" if passing else ""
4838        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns")
4839        columns = f"{self.sep()}COLUMNS{self.seg(columns)}" if columns else ""
4840        by_ref = f"{self.sep()}RETURNING SEQUENCE BY REF" if expression.args.get("by_ref") else ""
4841        return f"XMLTABLE({self.sep('')}{self.indent(namespaces + this + passing + by_ref + columns)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
4842
4843    def xmlnamespace_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLNamespace) -> str:
4844        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4845        return this if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Alias) else f"DEFAULT {this}"
4846
4847    def export_sql(self, expression: exp.Export) -> str:
4848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4849        connection = self.sql(expression, "connection")
4850        connection = f"WITH CONNECTION {connection} " if connection else ""
4851        options = self.sql(expression, "options")
4852        return f"EXPORT DATA {connection}{options} AS {this}"
4853
4854    def declare_sql(self, expression: exp.Declare) -> str:
4855        return f"DECLARE {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
4856
4857    def declareitem_sql(self, expression: exp.DeclareItem) -> str:
4858        variable = self.sql(expression, "this")
4859        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
4860        default = f" = {default}" if default else ""
4861
4862        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4863        if isinstance(expression.args.get("kind"), exp.Schema):
4864            kind = f"TABLE {kind}"
4865
4866        return f"{variable} AS {kind}{default}"
4867
4868    def recursivewithsearch_sql(self, expression: exp.RecursiveWithSearch) -> str:
4869        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4871        set = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4872        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
4873        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
4874
4875        kind_sql = kind if kind == "CYCLE" else f"SEARCH {kind} FIRST BY"
4876
4877        return f"{kind_sql} {this} SET {set}{using}"
4878
4879    def parameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ParameterizedAgg) -> str:
4880        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True)
4881        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions) + f"({params})"
4882
4883    def anonymousaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.AnonymousAggFunc) -> str:
4884        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
4885
4886    def combinedaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedAggFunc) -> str:
4887        return self.anonymousaggfunc_sql(expression)
4888
4889    def combinedparameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedParameterizedAgg) -> str:
4890        return self.parameterizedagg_sql(expression)
4891
4892    def show_sql(self, expression: exp.Show) -> str:
4893        self.unsupported("Unsupported SHOW statement")
4894        return ""
4895
4896    def put_sql(self, expression: exp.Put) -> str:
4897        props = expression.args.get("properties")
4898        props_sql = self.properties(props, prefix=" ", sep=" ", wrapped=False) if props else ""
4899        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4900        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
4901        return f"PUT {this} {target}{props_sql}"