sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  78        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  79        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  82        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  83        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  85        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  87        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  95        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
  96        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  98        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  99        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 100        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 101        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 102        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 103        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 104        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 105        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 106        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 107        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 108        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 109        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 110        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 111        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 113        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 114        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 115        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 116        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 117        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 118        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 119        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 120        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 121        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 124        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 128        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 130        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 132            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 133        ),
 134        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 135        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 136        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 138        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 139        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 140        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 141        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 142        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 143        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 144        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 145        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 146        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 147        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 148        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 149        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 150        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 151        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 152        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 153        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 154        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 155        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 156        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 157        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 158        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 159        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 160        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 161        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 162        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 163        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 164    }
 165
 166    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 167    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 168    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 169
 170    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 171    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 172    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 173
 174    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 175    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 176
 177    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 178    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 179
 180    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 181    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 182
 183    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 184    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 185
 186    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 187    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 188
 189    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 190    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 191
 192    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 193    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 194
 195    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 196    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 197
 198    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 199    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 200
 201    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 202    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 203
 204    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 205    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 206
 207    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 208    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 209
 210    # Whether join hints should be generated
 211    JOIN_HINTS = True
 212
 213    # Whether table hints should be generated
 214    TABLE_HINTS = True
 215
 216    # Whether query hints should be generated
 217    QUERY_HINTS = True
 218
 219    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 220    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 221
 222    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 223    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 224
 225    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 226    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 227
 228    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 229    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 230
 231    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 232    RETURNING_END = True
 233
 234    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 235    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 236
 237    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 238    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 239
 240    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 241    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 242
 243    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 244    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 245
 246    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 247    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 248    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 249    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 250
 251    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 252    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 253
 254    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 255    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 256
 257    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 258    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 259
 260    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 261    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 262
 263    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 264    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 265
 266    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 267    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 268
 269    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 270    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 271
 272    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 273    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 274
 275    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 276    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 277
 278    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 279    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 280
 281    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 282    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 283
 284    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 285    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 286
 287    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 288    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 289
 290    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 291    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 292
 293    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 294    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 295
 296    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 297    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 298
 299    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 300    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 301
 302    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 303    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 304
 305    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 306    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 307
 308    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 309    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 310
 311    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 312    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 313
 314    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 315    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 316
 317    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 318    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 319
 320    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 321    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 322
 323    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 324    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 325
 326    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 327    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 328    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 329
 330    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 331    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 332
 333    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 334    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 335
 336    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 337    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 338
 339    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 340    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 341
 342    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 343    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 344
 345    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 346    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 347
 348    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 349    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 350    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 351    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 352
 353    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 354    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 355
 356    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 357    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 358
 359    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 360    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 361
 362    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 363    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 364
 365    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 366    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 367
 368    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 369    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 370
 371    # The HEX function name
 372    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 373
 374    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 375    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 376
 377    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 378    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 379
 380    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 381    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 382
 383    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 384    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 385
 386    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 387    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 388
 389    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 390    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 391
 392    # Whether nullable types can be constructed, e.g. `Nullable(Int64)`
 393    SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES = True
 394
 395    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 396    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 397
 398    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 399        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 400        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 401        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 402        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 403        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 404        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 405        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 406        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 407        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 408        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 409    }
 410
 411    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 412        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 413        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 414        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 415        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 416        "DAYS": "DAY",
 417        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 418        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 419        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 420        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 421    }
 422
 423    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 424        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 425        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 426        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 427        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 428            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 429            if e.args.get("windows")
 430            else ""
 431        ),
 432        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 433    }
 434
 435    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 436
 437    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 438
 439    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 440    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 441
 442    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 443        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 445        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 449        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 451        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 458        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 460        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 463        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 464        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 465        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 466        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 469        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 470        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 471        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 472        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 473        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 474        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 476        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 478        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 479        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 480        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 484        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 485        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 486        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 487        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 488        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 490        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 493        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 496        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 498        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 504        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 508        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 509        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 510        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 511        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 512        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 513        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 514        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 515        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 517        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 519        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 521        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 524        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 525        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 526        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 527        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 528        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 529        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 530    }
 531
 532    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 533    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 534
 535    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 536    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 537        exp.Command,
 538        exp.Create,
 539        exp.Delete,
 540        exp.Drop,
 541        exp.From,
 542        exp.Insert,
 543        exp.Join,
 544        exp.MultitableInserts,
 545        exp.Select,
 546        exp.SetOperation,
 547        exp.Update,
 548        exp.Where,
 549        exp.With,
 550    )
 551
 552    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 553    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 554        exp.Binary,
 555        exp.SetOperation,
 556    )
 557
 558    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 559    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 560        exp.Column,
 561        exp.Literal,
 562        exp.Neg,
 563        exp.Paren,
 564    )
 565
 566    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 567        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 568        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 569        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 570        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 571    }
 572
 573    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 574    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 575
 576    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 577
 578    __slots__ = (
 579        "pretty",
 580        "identify",
 581        "normalize",
 582        "pad",
 583        "_indent",
 584        "normalize_functions",
 585        "unsupported_level",
 586        "max_unsupported",
 587        "leading_comma",
 588        "max_text_width",
 589        "comments",
 590        "dialect",
 591        "unsupported_messages",
 592        "_escaped_quote_end",
 593        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 594        "_next_name",
 595        "_identifier_start",
 596        "_identifier_end",
 597    )
 598
 599    def __init__(
 600        self,
 601        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 602        identify: str | bool = False,
 603        normalize: bool = False,
 604        pad: int = 2,
 605        indent: int = 2,
 606        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 607        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 608        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 609        leading_comma: bool = False,
 610        max_text_width: int = 80,
 611        comments: bool = True,
 612        dialect: DialectType = None,
 613    ):
 614        import sqlglot
 615        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 616
 617        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 618        self.identify = identify
 619        self.normalize = normalize
 620        self.pad = pad
 621        self._indent = indent
 622        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 623        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 624        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 625        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 626        self.comments = comments
 627        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 628
 629        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 630        self.normalize_functions = (
 631            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 632        )
 633
 634        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 635        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 636            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 637        )
 638        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 639            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 640        )
 641
 642        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 643
 644        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 645        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 646
 647    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 648        """
 649        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 650
 651        Args:
 652            expression: The syntax tree.
 653            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 654                it is safer to copy.
 655
 656        Returns:
 657            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 658        """
 659        if copy:
 660            expression = expression.copy()
 661
 662        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 663
 664        self.unsupported_messages = []
 665        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 666
 667        if self.pretty:
 668            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 669
 670        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 671            return sql
 672
 673        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 674            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 675                logger.warning(msg)
 676        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 677            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 678
 679        return sql
 680
 681    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 682        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 683        if (
 684            not expression.parent
 685            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 686            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 687        ):
 688            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 689
 690            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 691
 692        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 693            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 694
 695            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 696
 697        return expression
 698
 699    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 700        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 701            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 702        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 703
 704    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 705        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 706
 707    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 708        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 709
 710    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 711        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 712        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 713        return comment
 714
 715    def maybe_comment(
 716        self,
 717        sql: str,
 718        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 719        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 720        separated: bool = False,
 721    ) -> str:
 722        comments = (
 723            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 724            if self.comments
 725            else None
 726        )
 727
 728        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 729            return sql
 730
 731        comments_sql = " ".join(
 732            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 733        )
 734
 735        if not comments_sql:
 736            return sql
 737
 738        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 739
 740        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 741            return (
 742                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 743                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 744                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 745            )
 746
 747        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 748
 749    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 750        this_sql = (
 751            self.sql(expression)
 752            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 753            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 754        )
 755        if not this_sql:
 756            return "()"
 757
 758        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 759        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 760
 761    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 762        original = self.identify
 763        self.identify = False
 764        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 765        self.identify = original
 766        return result
 767
 768    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 769        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 770            return name.upper()
 771        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 772            return name.lower()
 773        return name
 774
 775    def indent(
 776        self,
 777        sql: str,
 778        level: int = 0,
 779        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 780        skip_first: bool = False,
 781        skip_last: bool = False,
 782    ) -> str:
 783        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 784            return sql
 785
 786        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 787        lines = sql.split("\n")
 788
 789        return "\n".join(
 790            (
 791                line
 792                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 793                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 794            )
 795            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 796        )
 797
 798    def sql(
 799        self,
 800        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 801        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 802        comment: bool = True,
 803    ) -> str:
 804        if not expression:
 805            return ""
 806
 807        if isinstance(expression, str):
 808            return expression
 809
 810        if key:
 811            value = expression.args.get(key)
 812            if value:
 813                return self.sql(value)
 814            return ""
 815
 816        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 817
 818        if callable(transform):
 819            sql = transform(self, expression)
 820        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 821            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 822
 823            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 824                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 825            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 826                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 827            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 828                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 829            else:
 830                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 831        else:
 832            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 833
 834        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 835
 836    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 837        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 838        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 839        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 840
 841    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 842        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 843        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 844        options = expression.args.get("options")
 845        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 846        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 847        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 848        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 849        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 850
 851    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 852        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 853            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 854        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 855        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 856
 857    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 858        return ".".join(
 859            self.sql(part)
 860            for part in (
 861                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 862                expression.args.get("db"),
 863                expression.args.get("table"),
 864                expression.args.get("this"),
 865            )
 866            if part
 867        )
 868
 869    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 870        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 871
 872        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 873            join_mark = ""
 874            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 875
 876        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 877
 878    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 880        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 881        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 882        return f"{position}{this}"
 883
 884    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 885        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 886        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 887        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 888        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 889        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 890        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 891        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 892        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 893
 894        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 895            kind = ""
 896
 897        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 898
 899    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 901        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 902        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 903
 904    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 905        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 906        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 907            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 908        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 909            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 910        else:
 911            persisted = ""
 912        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 913
 914    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 915        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 916
 917    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 918        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 919            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 920        else:
 921            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 922
 923        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 924
 925    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 926        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 927    ) -> str:
 928        this = ""
 929        if expression.this is not None:
 930            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 931            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 932
 933        start = expression.args.get("start")
 934        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 935        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 936        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 937        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 938        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 939        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 940        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 941        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 942        cycle_sql = ""
 943
 944        if cycle is not None:
 945            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 946            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 947
 948        sequence_opts = ""
 949        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 950            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 951            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 952
 953        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 954        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 955
 956        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 957
 958    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 959        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 960    ) -> str:
 961        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 962        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 963        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 964
 965    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 966        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 967    ) -> str:
 968        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 969
 970    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 971        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 972
 973    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 974        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 975
 976    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 977        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 978        if desc is not None:
 979            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 980        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 981
 982    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 983        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 984        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 985        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 986        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 987        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 988        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 989        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
 990        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 991
 992    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 993        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 994
 995    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 996        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 997        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
 998        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 999        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1000
1001        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1002
1003        properties_sql = ""
1004        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1005            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1006        ):
1007            properties_sql = self.sql(
1008                exp.Properties(
1009                    expressions=[
1010                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1011                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1012                    ]
1013                )
1014            )
1015
1016            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1017                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1018            elif not self.pretty:
1019                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1020                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1021
1022        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1023        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1024
1025        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1026        if expression_sql:
1027            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1028
1029            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1030                postalias_props_sql = ""
1031                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1032                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1033                        exp.Properties(
1034                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1035                        ),
1036                        wrapped=False,
1037                    )
1038                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1039                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1040
1041        postindex_props_sql = ""
1042        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1043            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1044                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1045                wrapped=False,
1046                prefix=" ",
1047            )
1048
1049        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1050        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1051        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1052
1053        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1054        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1055        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1056
1057        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1058        if clustered is None:
1059            clustered_sql = ""
1060        elif clustered:
1061            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1062        else:
1063            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1064
1065        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1066        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1067            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1068                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1069                sep=" ",
1070                prefix=" ",
1071                wrapped=False,
1072            )
1073
1074        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1075
1076        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1077        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1078            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1079                exp.Properties(
1080                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1081                ),
1082                sep=" ",
1083                prefix=" ",
1084                wrapped=False,
1085            )
1086
1087        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1088        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1089        no_schema_binding = (
1090            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1091        )
1092
1093        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1094        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1095
1096        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1097        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1098
1099    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1100        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1101        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1102        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1103        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1104        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1105        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1106        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1107        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1108        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1109        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1110
1111        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1112        if cache is None:
1113            cache_str = ""
1114        elif cache is True:
1115            cache_str = " CACHE"
1116        else:
1117            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1118
1119        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1120        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1121
1122        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1123
1124    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1125        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1126        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1127        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1128        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1129
1130    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1131        style = expression.args.get("style")
1132        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1133        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1134        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1135        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1136
1137    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1138        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1139        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1140
1141    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1142        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1143        if with_:
1144            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1145        return sql
1146
1147    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1148        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1149        recursive = (
1150            "RECURSIVE "
1151            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1152            else ""
1153        )
1154
1155        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1156
1157    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1158        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1159
1160        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1161        if materialized is False:
1162            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1163        elif materialized:
1164            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1165
1166        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1167
1168    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1169        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1170        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1171        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1172
1173        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1174            columns = ""
1175            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1176
1177        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1178            alias = self._next_name()
1179
1180        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1181
1182    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1183        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1184        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1185            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1186        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1187
1188    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1189        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1190        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1191            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1192        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1193
1194    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1195        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1196        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1197            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1198        return this
1199
1200    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1201        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1202        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1203
1204        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1205            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1206            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1207        else:
1208            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1209            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1210
1211        if escape:
1212            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1213            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1214        else:
1215            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1216            escape_sql = ""
1217
1218        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1219            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1220
1221        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1222
1223    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1224        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1225        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1226
1227    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1228        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1229        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1230        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1231        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1232
1233    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1234        nested = ""
1235        values = ""
1236        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1237
1238        type_value = expression.this
1239        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1240            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1241        elif type_value != exp.DataType.Type.NULLABLE or self.SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES:
1242            type_sql = (
1243                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1244                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1245                else type_value
1246            )
1247        else:
1248            return interior
1249
1250        if interior:
1251            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1252                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1253                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1254                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1255                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1256                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1257            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1258                nested = f" {interior}"
1259            else:
1260                nested = f"({interior})"
1261
1262        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1263        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1264            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1265            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1266        ):
1267            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1268
1269        return type_sql
1270
1271    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1272        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1273        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1274        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1275        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1276
1277    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1278        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1279        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1280        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1281        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1282        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1283        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1284        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1285        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1286        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1287        if self.RETURNING_END:
1288            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1289        else:
1290            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1291        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1292
1293    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1294        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1295        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1296        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1297        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1298        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1299        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1300        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1301        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1302        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1303        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1304        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1305        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1306        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1307        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1308        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1309
1310    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1311        op_type = type(expression)
1312        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1313
1314        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1315        if (
1316            distinct is False
1317            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1318            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1319        ):
1320            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1321
1322        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1323
1324        if distinct is None:
1325            distinct = default_distinct
1326            if distinct is None:
1327                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1328
1329        if distinct is default_distinct:
1330            kind = ""
1331        else:
1332            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1333
1334        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1335        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1336
1337    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1338        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1339            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1340            order = expression.args.get("order")
1341
1342            if limit or order:
1343                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1344
1345                if limit:
1346                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1347                if order:
1348                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1349                return self.sql(select)
1350
1351        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1352        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1353
1354        while stack:
1355            node = stack.pop()
1356
1357            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1358                stack.append(node.expression)
1359                stack.append(
1360                    self.maybe_comment(
1361                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1362                    )
1363                )
1364                stack.append(node.this)
1365            else:
1366                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1367
1368        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1369        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1370        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1371
1372    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1373        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1374        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1375        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1376        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1377        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1378            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1379        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1380        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1381
1382    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1383        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1384            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1385            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1386            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1387
1388        agg = expression.this
1389        agg_arg = agg.this
1390        cond = expression.expression.this
1391        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1392        return self.sql(agg)
1393
1394    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1395        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1396            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1397            return ""
1398
1399        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1400
1401    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1402        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1403        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1404        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1405        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1406        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1407        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1408        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1409        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1410        if include:
1411            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1412        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1413        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1414        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1415        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1416        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1417        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1418
1419        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1420
1421    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1422        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1423        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1424        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1425        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1426        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1427        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1428        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1429
1430        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1431
1432        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1433        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1434
1435    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1436        text = expression.name
1437        lower = text.lower()
1438        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1439        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1440        if (
1441            expression.quoted
1442            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1443            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1444            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1445        ):
1446            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1447        return text
1448
1449    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1450        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1451        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1452            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1453
1454        return text
1455
1456    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1457        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1458        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1459            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1460        return text
1461
1462    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1463        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1464        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1465        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1466        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1467        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1468
1469    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1470        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1471        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1472
1473    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1474        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1475
1476    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1477        root_properties = []
1478        with_properties = []
1479
1480        for p in expression.expressions:
1481            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1482            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1483                with_properties.append(p)
1484            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1485                root_properties.append(p)
1486
1487        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1488        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1489
1490        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1491            with_props = " " + with_props
1492
1493        return root_props + with_props
1494
1495    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1496        if properties.expressions:
1497            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1498        return ""
1499
1500    def properties(
1501        self,
1502        properties: exp.Properties,
1503        prefix: str = "",
1504        sep: str = ", ",
1505        suffix: str = "",
1506        wrapped: bool = True,
1507    ) -> str:
1508        if properties.expressions:
1509            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1510            if expressions:
1511                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1512                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1513        return ""
1514
1515    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1516        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1517
1518    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1519        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1520        for p in properties.expressions:
1521            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1522            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1523                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1524            else:
1525                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1526
1527        return properties_locs
1528
1529    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1530        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1531            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1532        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1533
1534    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1535        property_cls = expression.__class__
1536        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1537            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1538
1539        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1540        if not property_name:
1541            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1542
1543        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1544
1545    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1546        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1547            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1548            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1549
1550            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1551            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1552                like = f"({like})"
1553
1554            return like
1555
1556        if expression.expressions:
1557            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1558
1559        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1560        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1561
1562    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1563        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1564        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1565        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1566
1567    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1568        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1569        local = expression.args.get("local")
1570        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1571        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1572        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1573        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1574        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1575
1576    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1577        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1578        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1579        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1580
1581    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1582        if expression.args.get("default"):
1583            property = "DEFAULT"
1584        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1585            property = "ON"
1586        else:
1587            property = "OFF"
1588        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1589
1590    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1591        if expression.args.get("no"):
1592            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1593        if expression.args.get("default"):
1594            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1595
1596        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1597        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1598
1599    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1600        default = expression.args.get("default")
1601        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1602        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1603        if default or minimum or maximum:
1604            if default:
1605                prop = "DEFAULT"
1606            elif minimum:
1607                prop = "MINIMUM"
1608            else:
1609                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1610            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1611        units = expression.args.get("units")
1612        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1613        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1614
1615    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1616        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1617        always = expression.args.get("always")
1618        default = expression.args.get("default")
1619        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1620        never = expression.args.get("never")
1621
1622        if autotemp is not None:
1623            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1624        elif always:
1625            prop = "ALWAYS"
1626        elif default:
1627            prop = "DEFAULT"
1628        elif manual:
1629            prop = "MANUAL"
1630        elif never:
1631            prop = "NEVER"
1632        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1633
1634    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1635        no = expression.args.get("no")
1636        no = " NO" if no else ""
1637        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1638        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1639        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1640        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1641        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1642
1643    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1644        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1645            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1646        if expression.this:
1647            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1648            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1649            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1650
1651        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1652        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1653        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1654
1655    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1656        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1657
1658        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1659        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1660            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1661        else:
1662            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1663
1664        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1665
1666    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1667        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1668        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1669        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1670        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1671        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1672        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1673        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1674
1675    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1676        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1677        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1678        statistics_sql = ""
1679        if statistics is not None:
1680            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1681        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1682
1683    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1684        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1685        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1686        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1687        data_consistency = (
1688            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1689        )
1690        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1691        retention_period = (
1692            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1693        )
1694
1695        if this:
1696            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1697        else:
1698            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1699
1700        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1701
1702        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1703
1704    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1705        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1706        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1707
1708        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1709            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1710        else:
1711            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1712
1713        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1714        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1715        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1716        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1717        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1718        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1719        if is_function:
1720            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1721        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1722
1723        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1724        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1725        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1726        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1727        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1728        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1729        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1730        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1731
1732        if self.RETURNING_END:
1733            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1734        else:
1735            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1736
1737        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1738        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1739        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1740        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1741
1742        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1743        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1744
1745        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1746        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1747
1748    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1749        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1750
1751    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1752        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1753        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1754        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1755        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1756        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1757
1758    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1759        return expression.name
1760
1761    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1762        return expression.name
1763
1764    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1765        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1766
1767        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1768        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1769
1770        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1771        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1772        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1773
1774        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1775        if expressions:
1776            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1777            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1778
1779        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1780
1781    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1782        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1783
1784    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1785        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1786        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1787        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1788        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1789        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1790        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1791        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1792        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1793        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1794        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1795        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1796        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1797        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1798
1799    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1800        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1801
1802    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1803        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1804        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1805        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1806        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1807
1808    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1809        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1810        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1811        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1812        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1813
1814    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1815        return ".".join(
1816            self.sql(part)
1817            for part in (
1818                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1819                expression.args.get("db"),
1820                expression.args.get("this"),
1821            )
1822            if part is not None
1823        )
1824
1825    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1826        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1827        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1828        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1829        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1830        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1831        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1832        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1833        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1834
1835        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1836        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1837            sample_pre_alias = sample
1838            sample_post_alias = ""
1839        else:
1840            sample_pre_alias = ""
1841            sample_post_alias = sample
1842
1843        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1844        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1845        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1846        joins = self.indent(
1847            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1848        )
1849        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1850
1851        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1852        if file_format:
1853            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1854            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1855            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1856
1857        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1858        if ordinality:
1859            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1860            alias = ""
1861
1862        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1863        if when:
1864            table = f"{table} {when}"
1865
1866        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1867        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1868
1869        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1870        if rows_from:
1871            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1872
1873        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1874
1875    def tablesample_sql(
1876        self,
1877        expression: exp.TableSample,
1878        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1879    ) -> str:
1880        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1881        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1882        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1883        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1884        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1885        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1886        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1887        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1888        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1889
1890        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1891        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1892            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1893
1894        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1895        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1896            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1897
1898        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1899        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1900            expr = f"({expr})"
1901
1902        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1903
1904    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1905        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1906
1907        if expression.this:
1908            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1909            if not expressions:
1910                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1911
1912            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1913            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1914            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1915            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1916            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1917
1918        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1919        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1920        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1921
1922        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1923        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1924            field = f"IN ({field})"
1925
1926        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1927        if include_nulls is not None:
1928            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1929        else:
1930            nulls = ""
1931
1932        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1933        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1934        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1935
1936    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1937        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1938        kind = expression.text("kind")
1939        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1940        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1941
1942    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1943        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1944
1945    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1947        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1948        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1949        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1950        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1951        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1952        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1953        if self.RETURNING_END:
1954            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1955        else:
1956            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1957        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1958        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1959
1960    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1961        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1962
1963        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1964        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1965            args = self.expressions(expression)
1966            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1967            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1968            values = (
1969                f"({values})"
1970                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1971                else values
1972            )
1973            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1974
1975        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1976        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1977        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1978
1979        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1980
1981        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1982            row = tup.expressions
1983
1984            if i == 0 and column_names:
1985                row = [
1986                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1987                ]
1988
1989            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1990
1991        if self.pretty:
1992            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1993            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1994            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1995            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1996            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1997
1998        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1999        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2000        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2001
2002    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2003        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2004
2005    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2006        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2007        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2008        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2009
2010    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2011        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2012
2013    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2014        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2015        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2016
2017    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2018        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2019        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2020
2021    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2022        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2023        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2024
2025    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2026        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2027        if group_by_all is True:
2028            modifier = " ALL"
2029        elif group_by_all is False:
2030            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2031        else:
2032            modifier = ""
2033
2034        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2035
2036        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2037        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2038        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2039
2040        groupings = csv(
2041            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2042            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2043            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2044            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2045            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2046        )
2047
2048        if (
2049            expression.expressions
2050            and groupings
2051            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2052        ):
2053            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2054
2055        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2056
2057    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2058        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2059        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2060
2061    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2062        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2063        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2064        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2065        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2066        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2067        return start + connect
2068
2069    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2070        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2071
2072    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2073        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2074            side = None
2075        else:
2076            side = expression.side
2077
2078        op_sql = " ".join(
2079            op
2080            for op in (
2081                expression.method,
2082                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2083                side,
2084                expression.kind,
2085                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2086            )
2087            if op
2088        )
2089        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2090        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2091        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2092        using = expression.args.get("using")
2093
2094        if not on_sql and using:
2095            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2096
2097        this = expression.this
2098        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2099
2100        if on_sql:
2101            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2102            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2103            if using:
2104                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2105            else:
2106                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2107        elif not op_sql:
2108            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2109                return f" {this_sql}"
2110
2111            return f", {this_sql}"
2112
2113        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2114            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2115
2116        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2117
2118    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2119        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2120        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2121        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2122
2123    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2124        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2125
2126        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2127        if cross_apply is True:
2128            op = "INNER JOIN "
2129        elif cross_apply is False:
2130            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2131        else:
2132            op = ""
2133
2134        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2135
2136    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2137        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2138
2139        if expression.args.get("view"):
2140            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2141            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2142            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2143            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2144            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2145            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2146
2147        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2148        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2149        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2150
2151    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2152        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2153
2154        args = [
2155            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2156            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2157            if e
2158        ]
2159
2160        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2161        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2162        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2163        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2164
2165        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2166
2167    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2169        value = expression.expression
2170        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2171        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2172        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2173        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2174
2175    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2176        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2177        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2179        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2180        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2181        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2182        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2183        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2184
2185    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2186        expressions = (
2187            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2188        )
2189        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2190        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2191
2192    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2193        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2194
2195    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2196        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2197            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2198            return ""
2199
2200        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2201        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2202        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2203        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2204
2205        if wait is not None:
2206            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2207                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2208            else:
2209                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2210
2211        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2212
2213    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2214        text = expression.this or ""
2215        if expression.is_string:
2216            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2217        return text
2218
2219    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2220        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2221            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2222            text = "".join(
2223                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2224            )
2225
2226        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2227            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2228        )
2229
2230    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2231        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2232        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2233        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2234        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2235        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2236        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2237        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2238        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2239        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2240        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2241        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2242
2243    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2244        return "NULL"
2245
2246    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2247        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2248
2249    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2250        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2251        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2252        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2253        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2254
2255    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2256        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2257        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2258        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2259        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2260        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2261        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2262        interpolated_values = [
2263            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2264            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2265        ]
2266        interpolate = (
2267            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2268        )
2269        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2270
2271    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2272        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2273
2274    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2275        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2276
2277    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2278        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2279
2280    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2281        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2282        asc = not desc
2283
2284        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2285        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2286        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2287        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2288        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2289
2290        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2291
2292        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2293        nulls_sort_change = ""
2294        if nulls_first and (
2295            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2296        ):
2297            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2298        elif (
2299            nulls_last
2300            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2301            and not nulls_are_last
2302        ):
2303            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2304
2305        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2306        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2307            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2308            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2309                self.unsupported(
2310                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2311                )
2312                nulls_sort_change = ""
2313            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2314                if expression.this.is_int:
2315                    self.unsupported(
2316                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2317                    )
2318                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2319                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2320                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2321                nulls_sort_change = ""
2322
2323        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2324        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2325
2326        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2327
2328    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2329        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2330        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2331
2332        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2333
2334        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2335
2336    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2337        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2338        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2339        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2340        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2341        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2342        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2343        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2344        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2345        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2346        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2347        definition_sqls = [
2348            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2349            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2350        ]
2351        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2352        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2353        body = "".join(
2354            (
2355                partition,
2356                order,
2357                measures,
2358                rows,
2359                after,
2360                pattern,
2361                define,
2362            )
2363        )
2364        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2365        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2366        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2367
2368    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2369        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2370
2371        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2372            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2373        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2374            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2375
2376        return csv(
2377            *sqls,
2378            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2379            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2380            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2381            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2382            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2383            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2384            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2385            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2386            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2387            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2388            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2389            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2390            self.options_modifier(expression),
2391            sep="",
2392        )
2393
2394    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2395        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2396        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2397
2398    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2399        return ""
2400
2401    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2402        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2403    ) -> t.List[str]:
2404        return [
2405            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2406            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2407        ]
2408
2409    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2410        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2411        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2412        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2413
2414    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2415        into = expression.args.get("into")
2416        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2417            into.pop()
2418
2419        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2420        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2421        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2422        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2423
2424        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2425        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2426            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2427            limit.pop()
2428        else:
2429            top = ""
2430
2431        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2432
2433        if kind:
2434            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2435                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2436            else:
2437                if kind == "STRUCT":
2438                    expressions = self.expressions(
2439                        sqls=[
2440                            self.sql(
2441                                exp.Struct(
2442                                    expressions=[
2443                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2444                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2445                                        else e
2446                                        for e in expression.expressions
2447                                    ]
2448                                )
2449                            )
2450                        ]
2451                    )
2452                kind = ""
2453
2454        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2455        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2456        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2457        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2458        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2459            expression,
2460            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2461            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2462            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2463        )
2464
2465        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2466
2467        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2468            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2469                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2470            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2471                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2472            else:
2473                table_kind = ""
2474            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2475
2476        return sql
2477
2478    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2479        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2480        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2481        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2482
2483    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2484        if expression.expressions:
2485            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2486        return ""
2487
2488    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2489        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2490        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2491        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2492        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2493        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2494        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2495        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2496
2497    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2498        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2499        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2500
2501    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2502        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2503        kind = expression.text("kind")
2504        if kind:
2505            kind = f"{kind}."
2506        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2507
2508    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2509        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2510
2511    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2512        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2513        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2514        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2515        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2516            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2517
2518            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2519            expression.set("sample", None)
2520
2521        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2522        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2523        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2524
2525    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2526        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2527        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2528
2529    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2530        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2531
2532        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2533        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2534
2535        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2536            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2537                alias.append("columns", offset)
2538
2539        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2540            columns = alias.columns
2541            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2542        else:
2543            alias = self.sql(alias)
2544
2545        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2546        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2547            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2548        else:
2549            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2550                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2551            elif offset:
2552                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2553            else:
2554                suffix = alias
2555
2556        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2557
2558    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2559        return ""
2560
2561    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2562        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2563        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2564
2565    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2566        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2567        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2568        order = expression.args.get("order")
2569        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2570        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2571        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2572        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2573
2574        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2575
2576        first = expression.args.get("first")
2577        if first is None:
2578            first = ""
2579        else:
2580            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2581
2582        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2583            return f"{this} {alias}"
2584
2585        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2586        return f"{this} ({args})"
2587
2588    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2589        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2590        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2591
2592    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2593        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2594        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2595        end = (
2596            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2597            or "CURRENT ROW"
2598        )
2599        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2600
2601    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2602        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2603        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2604        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2605
2606    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2607        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2608        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2609        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2610        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2611
2612    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2613        return apply_index_offset(
2614            expression.this,
2615            expression.expressions,
2616            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2617        )
2618
2619    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2620        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2621        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2622        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2623
2624    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2625        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2626
2627    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2628        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2629        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2630            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2631                this = self.wrap(this)
2632            return f"ANY{this}"
2633        return f"ANY {this}"
2634
2635    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2636        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2637
2638    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2639        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2640        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2641
2642        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2643            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2644            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2645
2646        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2647
2648        if default:
2649            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2650
2651        statements.append("END")
2652
2653        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2654            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2655
2656        return " ".join(statements)
2657
2658    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2659        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2660        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2661        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2662
2663    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2664        order = expression.args.get("order")
2665        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2666        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2667
2668    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2669        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2670        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2671        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2672
2673    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2674        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2675
2676        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2677            func_name = "LTRIM"
2678        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2679            func_name = "RTRIM"
2680        else:
2681            func_name = "TRIM"
2682
2683        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2684
2685    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2686        args = expression.expressions
2687        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2688            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2689
2690        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2691            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2692
2693        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2694            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2695
2696        return args
2697
2698    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2699        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2700
2701        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2702        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2703            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2704
2705        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2706
2707    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2708        return self.func(
2709            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2710        )
2711
2712    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2713        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2714        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2715
2716    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2717        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2718        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2719        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2720        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2721        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2722        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2723        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2724        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2725
2726    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2727        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2728        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2729        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2730        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2731
2732    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2733        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2734
2735    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2736        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2737        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2738        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2739
2740    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2741        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2742
2743    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2744        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2745        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2746            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2747
2748        return path
2749
2750    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2751        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2752            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2753            if not callable(transform):
2754                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2755                return ""
2756
2757            return transform(self, expression)
2758
2759        if isinstance(expression, int):
2760            return str(expression)
2761
2762        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2763            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2764            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2765        else:
2766            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2767            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2768
2769        return escaped
2770
2771    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2772        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2773
2774    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2775        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2776        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2777
2778        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2779        if unique_keys is not None:
2780            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2781        else:
2782            unique_keys = ""
2783
2784        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2785        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2786        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2787        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2788
2789        return self.func(
2790            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2791            *expression.expressions,
2792            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2793        )
2794
2795    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2796        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2797
2798    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2799        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2800        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2801        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2802        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2803        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2804        return self.func(
2805            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2806        )
2807
2808    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2809        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2810        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2811        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2812        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2813        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2814        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2815        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2816        return self.func(
2817            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2818            this,
2819            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2820        )
2821
2822    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2823        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2824        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2825        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2826
2827        if nested_schema:
2828            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2829
2830        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2831        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2832        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2833        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2834
2835    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2836        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2837
2838    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2839        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2840        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2841        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2842        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2843        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2844        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2845        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2846        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2847        return self.func(
2848            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2849        )
2850
2851    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2852        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2853        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2854        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2855        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2856        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2857        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2858
2859    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2860        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2861        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2862        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2863        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2864        with_ = (
2865            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2866            if expressions
2867            else ""
2868        )
2869        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2870
2871    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2872        query = expression.args.get("query")
2873        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2874        field = expression.args.get("field")
2875        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2876
2877        if query:
2878            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2879        elif unnest:
2880            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2881        elif field:
2882            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2883        else:
2884            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2885
2886        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2887
2888    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2889        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2890
2891    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2892        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2893        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2894            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2895        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2896
2897        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2898            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2899            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2900
2901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2902        if this:
2903            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2904            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2905
2906        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2907
2908    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2909        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2910
2911    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2912        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2913        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2914        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2915        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2916        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2917        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2918
2919    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2920        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
2921        parent = expression.parent
2922        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
2923        return self.func(
2924            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
2925        )
2926
2927    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2928        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2929        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2930
2931    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2932        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2933        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2934        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2935        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2936
2937    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2938        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2939
2940    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2941        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2942        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2943        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2944
2945    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2946        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2947
2948        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2949        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
2950
2951        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2952            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2953        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2954            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2955
2956        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2957
2958    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2959        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2960
2961    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2962        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2963        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2964        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2965
2966    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2967        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2968        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2969        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2970
2971    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2972        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2973        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2974        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2975
2976    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2977        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2978
2979    def and_sql(
2980        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2981    ) -> str:
2982        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2983
2984    def or_sql(
2985        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2986    ) -> str:
2987        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2988
2989    def xor_sql(
2990        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2991    ) -> str:
2992        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2993
2994    def connector_sql(
2995        self,
2996        expression: exp.Connector,
2997        op: str,
2998        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2999    ) -> str:
3000        if stack is not None:
3001            if expression.expressions:
3002                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3003            else:
3004                stack.append(expression.right)
3005                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3006                    for comment in expression.comments:
3007                        if comment:
3008                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3009                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3010            return op
3011
3012        stack = [expression]
3013        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3014        ops = set()
3015
3016        while stack:
3017            node = stack.pop()
3018            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3019                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3020            else:
3021                sql = self.sql(node)
3022                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3023                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3024                else:
3025                    sqls.append(sql)
3026
3027        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3028        return sep.join(sqls)
3029
3030    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3031        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3032
3033    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3034        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3035
3036    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3037        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3038
3039    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3040        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3041
3042    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3043        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3044
3045    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3046        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3047
3048    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3049        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3050        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3051        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3052        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3053        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3054        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3055        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3056
3057    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3058        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3059        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3060
3061    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3062        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3063            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3064        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3065
3066    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3067        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3068
3069    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3070        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3071        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3072        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3073        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3074        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3075        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3076
3077    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3078        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3079        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3080        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3081        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3082        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3083        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3084        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3085        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3086        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3087
3088    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3089        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3090        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3091        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3092        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3093
3094        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3095            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3096
3097        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3098
3099    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3100        return "BEGIN"
3101
3102    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3103        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3104        if chain is not None:
3105            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3106
3107        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3108
3109    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3110        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3111        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3112        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3113
3114    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3115        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3116
3117        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3118        if dtype:
3119            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3120            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3121            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3122            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3123            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3124
3125        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3126        if default:
3127            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3128
3129        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3130        if comment:
3131            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3132
3133        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3134        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3135
3136        if not drop and not allow_null:
3137            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3138
3139        if allow_null is not None:
3140            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3141            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3142
3143        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3144
3145    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3146        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3147        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3148            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3149        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3150
3151    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3152        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3153        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3154        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3155        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3156        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3157
3158    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3159        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3160            # Remove db from tables
3161            expression = expression.transform(
3162                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3163            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3164        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3165        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3166
3167    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3168        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3169        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3170        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3171        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3172
3173    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3174        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3175        return f"SET {exprs}"
3176
3177    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3178        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3179
3180        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3181            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3182        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3183            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3184        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3185            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3186        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3187            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3188        else:
3189            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3190
3191        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3192        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3193        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3194        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3195        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3196        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3197        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3198        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3199
3200        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3201
3202    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3203        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3204            return self.expressions(
3205                expression,
3206                key="actions",
3207                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3208                skip_first=True,
3209            )
3210        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3211
3212    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3213        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3214        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3215        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3216
3217    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3218        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3219
3220    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3221        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3222
3223        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3224            case = exp.case()
3225            for arg in expression.expressions:
3226                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3227            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3228
3229        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3230
3231        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3232        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3233        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3234
3235    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3236        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3237
3238    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3239        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3240
3241    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3242        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3243        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3244        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3245        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3246
3247    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3248        return self.sql(
3249            exp.Cast(
3250                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3251                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3252            )
3253        )
3254
3255    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3256        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3257            return self.func(
3258                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3259            )
3260        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3261
3262    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3263        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3264
3265        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3266            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3267
3268        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3269            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3270                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3271
3272        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3273            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3274                return self.sql(
3275                    exp.cast(
3276                        l / r,
3277                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3278                    )
3279                )
3280
3281        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3282
3283    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3284        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3285
3286    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3287        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3288
3289    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3290        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3291
3292    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3293        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3294
3295    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3296        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3297
3298    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3299        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3300
3301    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3302        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3303
3304    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3305        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3306
3307    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3308        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3309
3310    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3311        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3312
3313    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3314        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3315
3316    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3317        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3318            return self.sql(
3319                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3320            )
3321        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3322
3323    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3324        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3325
3326    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3327        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3328
3329    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3330        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3331
3332    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3333        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3334
3335    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3336        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3337
3338    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3339        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3340
3341    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3342        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3343
3344    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3345        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3346
3347    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3348        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3349
3350    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3351        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3352
3353    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3354        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3355
3356    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3357        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3358
3359    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3360        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3361
3362    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3363        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3364            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3365            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3366
3367        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3368
3369    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3370        this = expression.this
3371        expr = expression.expression
3372
3373        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3374            this, expr = expr, this
3375        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3376            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3377                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3378
3379            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3380
3381        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3382
3383    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3384        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3385        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3386        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3387        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3388        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3389
3390    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3391        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3392        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3393        binary_type = type(expression)
3394
3395        while stack:
3396            node = stack.pop()
3397
3398            if type(node) is binary_type:
3399                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3400                if op_func:
3401                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3402
3403                stack.append(node.right)
3404                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3405                stack.append(node.left)
3406            else:
3407                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3408
3409        return "".join(sqls)
3410
3411    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3412        args = []
3413
3414        for key in expression.arg_types:
3415            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3416
3417            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3418                for value in arg_value:
3419                    args.append(value)
3420            elif arg_value is not None:
3421                args.append(arg_value)
3422
3423        if self.normalize_functions:
3424            name = expression.sql_name()
3425        else:
3426            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3427
3428        return self.func(name, *args)
3429
3430    def func(
3431        self,
3432        name: str,
3433        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3434        prefix: str = "(",
3435        suffix: str = ")",
3436        normalize: bool = True,
3437    ) -> str:
3438        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3439        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3440
3441    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3442        arg_sqls = tuple(
3443            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3444        )
3445        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3446            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3447        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3448
3449    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3450        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3451
3452    def format_time(
3453        self,
3454        expression: exp.Expression,
3455        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3456        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3457    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3458        return format_time(
3459            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3460            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3461            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3462        )
3463
3464    def expressions(
3465        self,
3466        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3467        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3468        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3469        flat: bool = False,
3470        indent: bool = True,
3471        skip_first: bool = False,
3472        skip_last: bool = False,
3473        sep: str = ", ",
3474        prefix: str = "",
3475        dynamic: bool = False,
3476        new_line: bool = False,
3477    ) -> str:
3478        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3479
3480        if not expressions:
3481            return ""
3482
3483        if flat:
3484            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3485
3486        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3487        result_sqls = []
3488
3489        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3490            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3491            if not sql:
3492                continue
3493
3494            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3495
3496            if self.pretty:
3497                if self.leading_comma:
3498                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3499                else:
3500                    result_sqls.append(
3501                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3502                    )
3503            else:
3504                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3505
3506        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3507            if new_line:
3508                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3509                result_sqls.append("")
3510            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3511        else:
3512            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3513
3514        return (
3515            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3516            if indent
3517            else result_sql
3518        )
3519
3520    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3521        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3522        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3523        if flat:
3524            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3525        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3526
3527    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3528        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3529        if not property_name:
3530            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3531        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3532
3533    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3534        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3535
3536    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3537        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3538
3539    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3540        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3541        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3542        expressions = (
3543            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3544        )
3545        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3546
3547    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3548        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3549        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3550        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3551
3552    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3553        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3554
3555    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3556        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3557        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3558        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3559        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3560
3561        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3562        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3563            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3564            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3565            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3566            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3567        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3568            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3569                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3570            else:
3571                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3572        else:
3573            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3574        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3575
3576    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3577        table = expression.this
3578        table_alias = ""
3579
3580        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3581        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3582            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3583            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3584
3585        this = self.sql(table)
3586        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3587        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3588        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3589        sep = self.sep()
3590
3591        return self.prepend_ctes(
3592            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3593        )
3594
3595    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3596        if expression.args.get("format"):
3597            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3598
3599        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3600
3601    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3602        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3603            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3604            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3605
3606        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3607        if not fmt:
3608            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3609            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3610
3611        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3612
3613    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3614        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3615        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3616        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3617        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3618        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3619
3620    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3621        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3622        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3623        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3624        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3625
3626    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3627        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3628
3629    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3630        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3631
3632    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3633    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3634        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3635        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3636        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3637        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3638        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3639        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3640        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3641
3642    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3643        return ""
3644
3645    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3646        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3647        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3648        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3649        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3650        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3651
3652    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3653        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3654        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3655
3656        if having:
3657            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3658
3659        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3660
3661    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3662        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3663        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3664        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3665        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3666        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3667        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3668        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3669        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3670        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3671        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3672        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3673        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3674        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3675
3676    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3677        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3678        if key_block_size:
3679            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3680
3681        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3682        if using:
3683            return f"USING {using}"
3684
3685        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3686        if parser:
3687            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3688
3689        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3690        if comment:
3691            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3692
3693        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3694        if visible is not None:
3695            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3696
3697        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3698        if engine_attr:
3699            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3700
3701        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3702        if secondary_engine_attr:
3703            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3704
3705        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3706        return ""
3707
3708    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3709        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3710        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3711
3712    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3713        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3714        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3715        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3716        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3717        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3718        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3719        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3720        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3721        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3722        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3723        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3724
3725    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3726        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3727            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3728
3729        case = exp.Case().when(
3730            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3731            expression.args["true"],
3732            copy=False,
3733        )
3734        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3735        if else_cond:
3736            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3737
3738        return self.sql(case)
3739
3740    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3741        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3742        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3743        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3744        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3745        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3746        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3747
3748    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3749        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3750
3751    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3752        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3753
3754    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3755        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3756        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3757        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3758        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3759        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3760        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3761
3762    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3763        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3764        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3765        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3766
3767    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3769        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3770        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3771
3772    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3773        arg = expression.this
3774        if not arg.type:
3775            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3776
3777            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3778
3779        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3780            return self.sql(arg)
3781
3782        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3783        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3784
3785    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3786        this = expression.this
3787        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3788            return self.sql(this)
3789
3790        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3791
3792    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3793        this = expression.this
3794        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3795            return self.sql(this)
3796
3797        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3798
3799    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3800        this = expression.this
3801        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3802
3803        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3804            return self.sql(
3805                exp.cast(
3806                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3807                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3808                )
3809            )
3810
3811        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3812            return self.sql(this)
3813
3814        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3815
3816    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3817        return self.sql(
3818            exp.func(
3819                "DATEDIFF",
3820                expression.this,
3821                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3822                "day",
3823            )
3824        )
3825
3826    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3827        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3828            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3829
3830        unit = expression.text("unit")
3831        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3832            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3833
3834        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3835
3836    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3837        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3838
3839        return self.func(
3840            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3841        )
3842
3843    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3844        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3845            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3846            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3847            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3848            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3849
3850        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3851
3852        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3853        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3854            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3855
3856        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3857
3858    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3859        expression.set(
3860            "expressions",
3861            [
3862                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3863                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3864                else e
3865                for e in expression.expressions
3866            ],
3867        )
3868
3869        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3870
3871    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3872        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3873        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3874
3875        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3876
3877    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3878        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3879        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3880
3881        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3882
3883        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3884        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3885
3886        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3887        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3888
3889        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3890        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3891
3892        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3893        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3894
3895        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3896
3897    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3898    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3899    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3900        to = expression.this
3901        value = expression.expression
3902        style = expression.args.get("style")
3903        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3904        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3905
3906        if not to or not value:
3907            return ""
3908
3909        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3910        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3911            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3912
3913        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3914        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3915
3916        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3917        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3918            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3919
3920            style_value = style.name
3921            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3922            if not converted_style:
3923                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3924
3925            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3926
3927            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3928                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3929            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3930                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3931            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3932                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3933            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3934                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3935
3936        if not transformed:
3937            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3938
3939        return self.sql(transformed)
3940
3941    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3942        this = expression.this
3943        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3944            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3945            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3946
3947        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3948            return f".{this}"
3949
3950        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3951        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3952
3953    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3954        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3955        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3956
3957    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3958        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3959            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3960
3961            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3962
3963        return expression
3964
3965    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3966        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3967            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3968            mods = sorted(
3969                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3970                key=lambda x: 0
3971                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3972                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3973            )
3974
3975            if mods:
3976                mod = mods[0]
3977                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3978                this.meta["inline"] = True
3979                mod.this.replace(this)
3980                return self.sql(expression.this)
3981
3982            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3983
3984            if agg_func:
3985                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3986
3987        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3988
3989    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3990        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3991        if self.pretty:
3992            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3993        return string
3994
3995    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3996        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3997
3998        if expression.expressions:
3999            upper = option.upper()
4000
4001            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4002            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4003
4004            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4005            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4006            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4007            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4008
4009        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4010
4011        if not value:
4012            return option
4013
4014        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4015
4016        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4017
4018    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4019        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4020        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4021            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4022            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4023            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4024        else:
4025            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4026            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4027            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4028
4029        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4030        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4031
4032        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4033        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4034
4035        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4036        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4037
4038        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4039        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4040
4041        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4042
4043    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4044        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4045        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4046
4047        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4048        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4049        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4050        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4051
4052        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4053        params = self.expressions(
4054            expression,
4055            key="params",
4056            sep=sep,
4057            new_line=True,
4058            skip_last=True,
4059            skip_first=True,
4060            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4061        )
4062
4063        if params:
4064            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4065                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4066            elif not self.pretty:
4067                params = f" {params}"
4068
4069        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4070
4071    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4072        return ""
4073
4074    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4075        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4076        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4077        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4078        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4079        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4080
4081        if filter_col or retention_period:
4082            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4083
4084        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4085
4086    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4087        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4088    ) -> str:
4089        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4090        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4091        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4092        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4093
4094    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4095        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4096        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4097        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4098
4099    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4100        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4101
4102    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4104        expr = expression.expression
4105
4106        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4107            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4108            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4109        else:
4110            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4111
4112        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4113
4114    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4115        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4116            return self.sql(expression.this)
4117
4118        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4119
4120    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4121        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4122        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4123
4124        if lower and upper:
4125            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4126        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4127
4128    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4129        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4130        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4131        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4132        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4133        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4134        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4135
4136        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4137
4138    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4139        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4140
4141        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4142        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4143            fill_pattern = "' '"
4144
4145        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4146
4147    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4148        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4149        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4150
4151    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4152        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4153
4154        parent = expression.parent
4155        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4156            parent = parent.parent
4157
4158        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4159            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4160
4161        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4162            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4163
4164        return self.sql(generate_series)
4165
4166    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4167        exprs = expression.expressions
4168        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4169            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4170        else:
4171            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4172
4173        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4174
4175    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4176        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4177            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4178
4179        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4180        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4181        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4182
4183        if source_tz and timestamp:
4184            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4185                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4186            )
4187
4188        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4189
4190        return self.sql(expr)
4191
4192    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4193        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4194        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4195
4196        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4197
4198        if _with is None:
4199            with_sql = ""
4200        elif not _with:
4201            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4202        else:
4203            with_sql = " WITH"
4204
4205        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4206
4207        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4208
4209    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4210        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4211            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4212
4213        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4214        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4215        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4216
4217        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4218        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4219
4220        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4221
4222    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4223        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4224        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4225        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4226        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4227        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4228
4229    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4230        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4231        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4232        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4233        return res
4234
4235    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4236        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4237        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4238        empty = (
4239            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4240            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4241            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4242        )
4243
4244        error = expression.args.get("error")
4245        error = (
4246            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4247            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4248            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4249        )
4250
4251        if error and empty:
4252            error = (
4253                f"{empty} {error}"
4254                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4255                else f"{error} {empty}"
4256            )
4257            empty = ""
4258
4259        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4260
4261        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4262
4263    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4264        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4265        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4266
4267        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4268        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4269
4270        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4271        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4272
4273        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4274
4275        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4276
4277    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4278        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4279
4280        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4281            parent = expression.parent
4282            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4283                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4284                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4285            else:
4286                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {self.sql(expression, 'this')} IS NOT NULL)"
4287
4288        return array_agg