sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  78        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  79        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  82        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  83        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  85        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  87        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  91        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  95        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  96        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  97        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  98        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  99        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 100        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 101        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 102        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 103        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 104        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 105        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 106        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 107            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 108        ),
 109        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 110            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 111        ),
 112        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 113        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 114        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 115        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 116        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 117        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 118        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 119        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 120        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 121        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 122        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 127        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 129        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 131            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 132        ),
 133        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 135        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 136        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 137        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 139        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 140        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 141        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 142        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 143        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 144        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 145        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 146        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 147        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 149        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 150        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 151        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 152        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 153        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 154        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 155        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 156        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 157        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 158    }
 159
 160    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 161    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 162    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 163
 164    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 165    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 166    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 167
 168    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 169    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 170
 171    # Always do union distinct or union all
 172    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 173
 174    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 175    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 176
 177    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 178    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 179
 180    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 181    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 182
 183    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 184    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 185
 186    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 187    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 188
 189    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 190    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 191
 192    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 193    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 194
 195    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 196    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 197
 198    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 199    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 200
 201    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 202    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 203
 204    # Whether join hints should be generated
 205    JOIN_HINTS = True
 206
 207    # Whether table hints should be generated
 208    TABLE_HINTS = True
 209
 210    # Whether query hints should be generated
 211    QUERY_HINTS = True
 212
 213    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 214    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 215
 216    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 217    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 218
 219    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 220    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 221
 222    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 223    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 224
 225    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 226    RETURNING_END = True
 227
 228    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 229    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 230
 231    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 232    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 233
 234    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 235    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 236
 237    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 238    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 239
 240    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 241    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 242
 243    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 244    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 245    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 246    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 247
 248    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 249    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 250
 251    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 252    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 253
 254    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 255    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 256
 257    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 258    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 259
 260    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 261    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 262
 263    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 264    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 265
 266    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 267    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 268
 269    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 270    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 271
 272    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 273    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 274
 275    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 276    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 277
 278    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 279    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 280
 281    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 282    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 283
 284    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 285    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 286
 287    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 288    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 289
 290    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 291    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 292
 293    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 294    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 295
 296    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 297    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 298
 299    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 300    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 301
 302    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 303    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 304
 305    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 306    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 307
 308    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 309    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 310
 311    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 312    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 313
 314    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 315    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 316
 317    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 318    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 319
 320    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 321    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 322
 323    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 324    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 325    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 326
 327    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 328    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 329
 330    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 331    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 332
 333    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 334    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 335
 336    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 337    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 338
 339    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 340    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 341
 342    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 343    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 344
 345    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
 346    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 347    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
 348    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
 349
 350    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 351    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 352
 353    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 354    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 355
 356    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 357    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 358
 359    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 360    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 361
 362    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 363    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 364
 365    # The HEX function name
 366    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 367
 368    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 369    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 370
 371    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 372        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 373        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 374        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 375        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 376        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 377        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 378        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 379        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 380        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 381        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 382    }
 383
 384    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 385        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 386        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 387        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 388        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 389        "DAYS": "DAY",
 390        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 391        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 392        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 393        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 394    }
 395
 396    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 397        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 398        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 399        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 400        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 401        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 402            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 403            if e.args.get("windows")
 404            else ""
 405        ),
 406    }
 407
 408    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 409
 410    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 411
 412    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 413    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 414
 415    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 416        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 417        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 418        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 419        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 420        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 421        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 422        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 423        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 424        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 425        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 426        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 427        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 428        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 429        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 431        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 438        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 439        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 440        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 441        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 442        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 443        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 445        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 447        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 448        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 453        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 454        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 455        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 456        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 457        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 459        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 462        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 463        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 464        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 465        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 466        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 469        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 476        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 478        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 479        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 480        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 482        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 485        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 487        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 490        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 492        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 493        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 494        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495    }
 496
 497    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 498    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 499
 500    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 501    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 502        exp.Create,
 503        exp.Delete,
 504        exp.Drop,
 505        exp.From,
 506        exp.Insert,
 507        exp.Join,
 508        exp.Select,
 509        exp.Union,
 510        exp.Update,
 511        exp.Where,
 512        exp.With,
 513    )
 514
 515    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 516    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 517        exp.Binary,
 518        exp.Union,
 519    )
 520
 521    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 522    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 523        exp.Column,
 524        exp.Literal,
 525        exp.Neg,
 526        exp.Paren,
 527    )
 528
 529    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 530        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 531        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 532        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 533        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 534    }
 535
 536    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 537    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 538
 539    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 540
 541    __slots__ = (
 542        "pretty",
 543        "identify",
 544        "normalize",
 545        "pad",
 546        "_indent",
 547        "normalize_functions",
 548        "unsupported_level",
 549        "max_unsupported",
 550        "leading_comma",
 551        "max_text_width",
 552        "comments",
 553        "dialect",
 554        "unsupported_messages",
 555        "_escaped_quote_end",
 556        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 557        "_next_name",
 558    )
 559
 560    def __init__(
 561        self,
 562        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 563        identify: str | bool = False,
 564        normalize: bool = False,
 565        pad: int = 2,
 566        indent: int = 2,
 567        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 568        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 569        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 570        leading_comma: bool = False,
 571        max_text_width: int = 80,
 572        comments: bool = True,
 573        dialect: DialectType = None,
 574    ):
 575        import sqlglot
 576        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 577
 578        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 579        self.identify = identify
 580        self.normalize = normalize
 581        self.pad = pad
 582        self._indent = indent
 583        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 584        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 585        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 586        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 587        self.comments = comments
 588        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 589
 590        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 591        self.normalize_functions = (
 592            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 593        )
 594
 595        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 596        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 597            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 598        )
 599        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 600            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 601        )
 602
 603        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 604
 605    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 606        """
 607        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 608
 609        Args:
 610            expression: The syntax tree.
 611            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 612                it is safer to copy.
 613
 614        Returns:
 615            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 616        """
 617        if copy:
 618            expression = expression.copy()
 619
 620        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 621
 622        self.unsupported_messages = []
 623        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 624
 625        if self.pretty:
 626            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 627
 628        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 629            return sql
 630
 631        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 632            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 633                logger.warning(msg)
 634        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 635            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 636
 637        return sql
 638
 639    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 640        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 641        if (
 642            not expression.parent
 643            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 644            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 645        ):
 646            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 647
 648            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 649
 650        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 651            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 652
 653            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 654
 655        return expression
 656
 657    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 658        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 659            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 660        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 661
 662    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 663        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 664
 665    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 666        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 667
 668    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 669        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 670        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 671        return comment
 672
 673    def maybe_comment(
 674        self,
 675        sql: str,
 676        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 677        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 678        separated: bool = False,
 679    ) -> str:
 680        comments = (
 681            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 682            if self.comments
 683            else None
 684        )
 685
 686        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 687            return sql
 688
 689        comments_sql = " ".join(
 690            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 691        )
 692
 693        if not comments_sql:
 694            return sql
 695
 696        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 697
 698        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 699            return (
 700                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 701                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 702                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 703            )
 704
 705        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 706
 707    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 708        this_sql = (
 709            self.sql(expression)
 710            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 711            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 712        )
 713        if not this_sql:
 714            return "()"
 715
 716        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 717        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 718
 719    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 720        original = self.identify
 721        self.identify = False
 722        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 723        self.identify = original
 724        return result
 725
 726    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 727        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 728            return name.upper()
 729        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 730            return name.lower()
 731        return name
 732
 733    def indent(
 734        self,
 735        sql: str,
 736        level: int = 0,
 737        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 738        skip_first: bool = False,
 739        skip_last: bool = False,
 740    ) -> str:
 741        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 742            return sql
 743
 744        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 745        lines = sql.split("\n")
 746
 747        return "\n".join(
 748            (
 749                line
 750                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 751                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 752            )
 753            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 754        )
 755
 756    def sql(
 757        self,
 758        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 759        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 760        comment: bool = True,
 761    ) -> str:
 762        if not expression:
 763            return ""
 764
 765        if isinstance(expression, str):
 766            return expression
 767
 768        if key:
 769            value = expression.args.get(key)
 770            if value:
 771                return self.sql(value)
 772            return ""
 773
 774        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 775
 776        if callable(transform):
 777            sql = transform(self, expression)
 778        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 779            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 780
 781            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 782                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 783            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 784                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 785            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 786                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 787            else:
 788                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 789        else:
 790            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 791
 792        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 793
 794    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 795        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 796        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 797        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 798
 799    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 800        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 801        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 802        options = expression.args.get("options")
 803        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 804        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 805        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 806        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 807        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 808
 809    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 810        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 811            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 812        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 813        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 814
 815    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 816        return ".".join(
 817            self.sql(part)
 818            for part in (
 819                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 820                expression.args.get("db"),
 821                expression.args.get("table"),
 822                expression.args.get("this"),
 823            )
 824            if part
 825        )
 826
 827    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 828        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 829
 830        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 831            join_mark = ""
 832            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 833
 834        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 835
 836    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 838        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 839        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 840        return f"{position}{this}"
 841
 842    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 843        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 844        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 845        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 846        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 847        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 848        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 849        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 850        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 851
 852        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 853            kind = ""
 854
 855        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 856
 857    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 858        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 859        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 860        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 861
 862    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 864        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 865            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 866        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 867            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 868        else:
 869            persisted = ""
 870        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 871
 872    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 873        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 874
 875    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 876        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 877            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 878        else:
 879            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 880
 881        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 882
 883    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 884        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 885    ) -> str:
 886        this = ""
 887        if expression.this is not None:
 888            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 889            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 890
 891        start = expression.args.get("start")
 892        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 893        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 894        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 895        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 896        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 897        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 898        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 899        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 900        cycle_sql = ""
 901
 902        if cycle is not None:
 903            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 904            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 905
 906        sequence_opts = ""
 907        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 908            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 909            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 910
 911        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 912        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 913
 914        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 915
 916    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 917        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 918    ) -> str:
 919        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 920        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 921        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 922
 923    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 924        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 925    ) -> str:
 926        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 927
 928    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 929        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 930
 931    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 932        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 933
 934    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 935        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 936        if desc is not None:
 937            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 938        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 939
 940    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 941        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 942        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 943        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 944        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 945        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 946        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 947        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 948
 949    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 950        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 951
 952    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 953        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 954        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 955        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 956
 957        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 958
 959        properties_sql = ""
 960        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 961            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 962        ):
 963            properties_sql = self.sql(
 964                exp.Properties(
 965                    expressions=[
 966                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 967                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 968                    ]
 969                )
 970            )
 971
 972            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 973                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 974            elif not self.pretty:
 975                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 976                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 977
 978        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 979        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 980
 981        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 982        if expression_sql:
 983            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 984
 985            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 986                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 987                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 988                        exp.Properties(
 989                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 990                        ),
 991                        wrapped=False,
 992                    )
 993                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 994                else:
 995                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 996
 997        postindex_props_sql = ""
 998        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 999            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1000                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1001                wrapped=False,
1002                prefix=" ",
1003            )
1004
1005        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1006        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1007        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1008
1009        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1010        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1011
1012        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1013        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1014            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1015                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1016                sep=" ",
1017                prefix=" ",
1018                wrapped=False,
1019            )
1020
1021        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1022
1023        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1024        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1025            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1026                exp.Properties(
1027                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1028                ),
1029                sep=" ",
1030                prefix=" ",
1031                wrapped=False,
1032            )
1033
1034        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1035        no_schema_binding = (
1036            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1037        )
1038
1039        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1040        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1041
1042        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1043        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1044
1045    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1046        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1047        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1048        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1049        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1050        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1051        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1052        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1053        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1054        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1055        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1056
1057        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1058        if cache is None:
1059            cache_str = ""
1060        elif cache is True:
1061            cache_str = " CACHE"
1062        else:
1063            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1064
1065        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1066        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1067
1068        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1069
1070    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1071        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1072        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1073        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1074        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1075
1076    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1077        style = expression.args.get("style")
1078        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1079        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1080
1081    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1082        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1083        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1084
1085    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1086        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1087        if with_:
1088            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1089        return sql
1090
1091    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1092        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1093        recursive = (
1094            "RECURSIVE "
1095            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1096            else ""
1097        )
1098
1099        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1100
1101    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1102        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1103
1104        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1105        if materialized is False:
1106            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1107        elif materialized:
1108            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1109
1110        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1111
1112    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1113        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1114        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1115        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1116
1117        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1118            columns = ""
1119            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1120
1121        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1122            alias = self._next_name()
1123
1124        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1125
1126    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1127        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1128        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1129            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1130        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1131
1132    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1134        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1135            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1136        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1137
1138    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1139        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1140        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1141            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1142        return this
1143
1144    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1145        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1146        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1147
1148        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1149            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1150            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1151
1152        if escape:
1153            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1154        else:
1155            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1156
1157        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1158        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1159
1160    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1161        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1162        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1163
1164    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1165        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1166        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1167        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1168        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1169
1170    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1171        type_value = expression.this
1172
1173        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1174            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1175        else:
1176            type_sql = (
1177                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1178                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1179                else type_value
1180            )
1181
1182        nested = ""
1183        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1184        values = ""
1185
1186        if interior:
1187            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1188                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1189                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1190                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1191                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1192                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1193            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1194                nested = f" {interior}"
1195            else:
1196                nested = f"({interior})"
1197
1198        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1199        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1200            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1201            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1202        ):
1203            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1204
1205        return type_sql
1206
1207    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1208        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1209        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1210        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1211        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1212
1213    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1214        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1215        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1216        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1217        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1218        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1219        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1220        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1221        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1222        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1223        if self.RETURNING_END:
1224            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1225        else:
1226            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1227        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1228
1229    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1230        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1231        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1232        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1233        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1234        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1235        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1236        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1237        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1238        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1239        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1240        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1241        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1242        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1243
1244    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1245        return self.set_operations(expression)
1246
1247    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1248        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1249
1250    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1251        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1252        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1253        count = expression.args.get("count")
1254        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1255        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1256            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1257        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1258        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1259
1260    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1261        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1262            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1263            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1264            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1265
1266        agg = expression.this
1267        agg_arg = agg.this
1268        cond = expression.expression.this
1269        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1270        return self.sql(agg)
1271
1272    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1273        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1274            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1275            return ""
1276
1277        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1278
1279    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1280        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1281        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1282        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1283        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1284        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1285        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1286        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1287        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1288        if include:
1289            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1290        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1291        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1292        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1293        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1294
1295        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1296
1297    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1298        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1299        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1300        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1301        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1302        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1303        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1304        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1305
1306        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1307
1308        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1309        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1310
1311    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1312        text = expression.name
1313        lower = text.lower()
1314        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1315        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1316        if (
1317            expression.quoted
1318            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1319            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1320            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1321        ):
1322            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1323        return text
1324
1325    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1326        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1327        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1328            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1329
1330        return text
1331
1332    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1333        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1334        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1335            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1336        return text
1337
1338    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1339        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1340        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1341        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1342        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1343        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1344
1345    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1346        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1347        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1348
1349    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1350        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1351
1352    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1353        root_properties = []
1354        with_properties = []
1355
1356        for p in expression.expressions:
1357            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1358            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1359                with_properties.append(p)
1360            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1361                root_properties.append(p)
1362
1363        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1364        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1365
1366        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1367            with_props = " " + with_props
1368
1369        return root_props + with_props
1370
1371    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1372        if properties.expressions:
1373            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1374        return ""
1375
1376    def properties(
1377        self,
1378        properties: exp.Properties,
1379        prefix: str = "",
1380        sep: str = ", ",
1381        suffix: str = "",
1382        wrapped: bool = True,
1383    ) -> str:
1384        if properties.expressions:
1385            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1386            if expressions:
1387                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1388                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1389        return ""
1390
1391    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1392        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1393
1394    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1395        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1396        for p in properties.expressions:
1397            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1398            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1399                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1400            else:
1401                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1402
1403        return properties_locs
1404
1405    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1406        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1407            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1408        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1409
1410    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1411        property_cls = expression.__class__
1412        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1413            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1414
1415        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1416        if not property_name:
1417            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1418
1419        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1420
1421    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1422        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1423            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1424            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1425
1426            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1427            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1428                like = f"({like})"
1429
1430            return like
1431
1432        if expression.expressions:
1433            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1434
1435        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1436        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1437
1438    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1439        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1440        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1441        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1442
1443    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1444        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1445        local = expression.args.get("local")
1446        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1447        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1448        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1449        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1450        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1451
1452    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1453        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1454        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1455        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1456
1457    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1458        if expression.args.get("default"):
1459            property = "DEFAULT"
1460        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1461            property = "ON"
1462        else:
1463            property = "OFF"
1464        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1465
1466    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1467        if expression.args.get("no"):
1468            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1469        if expression.args.get("default"):
1470            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1471
1472        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1473        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1474
1475    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1476        default = expression.args.get("default")
1477        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1478        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1479        if default or minimum or maximum:
1480            if default:
1481                prop = "DEFAULT"
1482            elif minimum:
1483                prop = "MINIMUM"
1484            else:
1485                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1486            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1487        units = expression.args.get("units")
1488        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1489        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1490
1491    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1492        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1493        always = expression.args.get("always")
1494        default = expression.args.get("default")
1495        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1496        never = expression.args.get("never")
1497
1498        if autotemp is not None:
1499            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1500        elif always:
1501            prop = "ALWAYS"
1502        elif default:
1503            prop = "DEFAULT"
1504        elif manual:
1505            prop = "MANUAL"
1506        elif never:
1507            prop = "NEVER"
1508        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1509
1510    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1511        no = expression.args.get("no")
1512        no = " NO" if no else ""
1513        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1514        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1515        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1516        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1517        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1518
1519    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1520        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1521            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1522        if expression.this:
1523            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1524            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1525            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1526
1527        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1528        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1529        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1530
1531    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1532        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1533
1534        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1535        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1536            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1537        else:
1538            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1539
1540        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1541
1542    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1543        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1544        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1545        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1546        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1547        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1548        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1549        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1550
1551    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1552        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1553        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1554        statistics_sql = ""
1555        if statistics is not None:
1556            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1557        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1558
1559    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1560        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1561        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1562        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1563        data_consistency = (
1564            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1565        )
1566        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1567        retention_period = (
1568            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1569        )
1570
1571        if this:
1572            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1573        else:
1574            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1575
1576        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1577
1578        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1579
1580    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1581        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1582        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1583
1584        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1585            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1586        else:
1587            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1588
1589        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1590        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1591        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1592        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1593        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1594        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1595        if is_function:
1596            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1597        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1598
1599        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1600        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1601        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1602        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1603        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1604        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1605        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1606        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1607
1608        if self.RETURNING_END:
1609            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1610        else:
1611            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1612
1613        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1614        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1615
1616    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1617        return self.set_operations(expression)
1618
1619    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1620        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1621
1622    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1623        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1624
1625    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1626        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1627        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1628        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1629        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1630        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1631
1632    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1633        return expression.name
1634
1635    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1636        return expression.name
1637
1638    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1639        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1640
1641        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1642        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1643
1644        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1645        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1646        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1647
1648        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1649        if expressions:
1650            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1651            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1652
1653        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1654
1655    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1656        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1657
1658    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1659        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1660        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1661        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1662        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1663        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1664        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1665        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1666        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1667        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1668        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1669        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1670        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1671        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1672
1673    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1674        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1675
1676    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1677        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1678        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1679        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1680        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1681
1682    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1683        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1684        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1685        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1686        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1687
1688    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1689        return ".".join(
1690            self.sql(part)
1691            for part in (
1692                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1693                expression.args.get("db"),
1694                expression.args.get("this"),
1695            )
1696            if part is not None
1697        )
1698
1699    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1700        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1701        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1702        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1703        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1704        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1705        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1706        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1707        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1708        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1709        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1710        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1711        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1712        joins = self.indent(
1713            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1714        )
1715        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1716
1717        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1718        if file_format:
1719            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1720            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1721            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1722
1723        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1724        if ordinality:
1725            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1726            alias = ""
1727
1728        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1729        if when:
1730            table = f"{table} {when}"
1731
1732        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1733
1734    def tablesample_sql(
1735        self,
1736        expression: exp.TableSample,
1737        sep: str = " AS ",
1738        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1739    ) -> str:
1740        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1741            table = expression.this.copy()
1742            table.set("alias", None)
1743            this = self.sql(table)
1744            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1745        else:
1746            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1747            alias = ""
1748
1749        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1750        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1751        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1752        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1753        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1754        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1755        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1756        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1757        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1758
1759        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1760        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1761            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1762
1763        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1764        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1765            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1766
1767        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1768        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1769            expr = f"({expr})"
1770
1771        return (
1772            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1773        )
1774
1775    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1776        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1777
1778        if expression.this:
1779            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1780            if not expressions:
1781                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1782
1783            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1784            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1785            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1786            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1787            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1788
1789        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1790        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1791        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1792        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1793        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1794        if include_nulls is not None:
1795            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1796        else:
1797            nulls = ""
1798        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1799
1800    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1801        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1802        kind = expression.text("kind")
1803        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1804        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1805
1806    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1807        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1808
1809    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1810        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1811        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1812        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1813        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1814        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1815        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1816        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1817        if self.RETURNING_END:
1818            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1819        else:
1820            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1821        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1822        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1823
1824    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1825        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1826
1827        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1828        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1829            args = self.expressions(expression)
1830            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1831            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1832            values = (
1833                f"({values})"
1834                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1835                else values
1836            )
1837            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1838
1839        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1840        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1841        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1842
1843        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1844
1845        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1846            row = tup.expressions
1847
1848            if i == 0 and column_names:
1849                row = [
1850                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1851                ]
1852
1853            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1854
1855        if self.pretty:
1856            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1857            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1858            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1859            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1860            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1861
1862        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1863        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1864        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1865
1866    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1867        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1868
1869    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1870        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1871        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1872        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1873
1874    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1875        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1876
1877    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1878        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1879        if group_by_all is True:
1880            modifier = " ALL"
1881        elif group_by_all is False:
1882            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1883        else:
1884            modifier = ""
1885
1886        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1887
1888        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1889        grouping_sets = (
1890            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1891        )
1892
1893        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1894        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1895            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1896        else:
1897            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1898            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1899
1900        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1901        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1902            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1903        else:
1904            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1905            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1906
1907        groupings = csv(
1908            grouping_sets,
1909            cube_sql,
1910            rollup_sql,
1911            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1912            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1913        )
1914
1915        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1916            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1917
1918        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1919
1920    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1921        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1922        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1923
1924    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1925        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1926        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1927        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1928        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1929        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1930        return start + connect
1931
1932    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1933        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1934
1935    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1936        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1937            side = None
1938        else:
1939            side = expression.side
1940
1941        op_sql = " ".join(
1942            op
1943            for op in (
1944                expression.method,
1945                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1946                side,
1947                expression.kind,
1948                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1949            )
1950            if op
1951        )
1952        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1953        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1954        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1955        using = expression.args.get("using")
1956
1957        if not on_sql and using:
1958            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1959
1960        this = expression.this
1961        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1962
1963        if on_sql:
1964            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1965            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1966            if using:
1967                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1968            else:
1969                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1970        elif not op_sql:
1971            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1972                return f" {this_sql}"
1973
1974            return f", {this_sql}"
1975
1976        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1977        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1978
1979    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1980        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1981        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1982        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1983
1984    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1985        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1986
1987        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1988        if cross_apply is True:
1989            op = "INNER JOIN "
1990        elif cross_apply is False:
1991            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1992        else:
1993            op = ""
1994
1995        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1996
1997    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1998        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1999
2000        if expression.args.get("view"):
2001            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2002            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2003            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2004            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2005            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2006            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2007
2008        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2009        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2010        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2011
2012    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2013        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2014
2015        args = [
2016            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2017            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2018            if e
2019        ]
2020
2021        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2022        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2023        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2024        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2025
2026        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2027
2028    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2030        value = expression.expression
2031        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2032        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2033        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2034        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2035
2036    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2037        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2038        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2039        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2040        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2041        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2042        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2043        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2044        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2045
2046    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2047        expressions = (
2048            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2049        )
2050        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2051        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2052
2053    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2054        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2055
2056    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2057        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2058            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2059            return ""
2060
2061        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2062        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2063        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2064        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2065
2066        if wait is not None:
2067            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2068                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2069            else:
2070                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2071
2072        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2073
2074    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2075        text = expression.this or ""
2076        if expression.is_string:
2077            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2078        return text
2079
2080    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2081        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2082            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2083            text = "".join(
2084                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2085            )
2086
2087        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2088            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2089        )
2090
2091    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2092        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2093        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2094        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2095        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2096        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2097        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2098        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2099        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2100        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2101        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2102        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2103
2104    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2105        return "NULL"
2106
2107    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2108        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2109
2110    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2111        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2112        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2113        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2114        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2115        interpolated_values = [
2116            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2117            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2118        ]
2119        interpolate = (
2120            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2121        )
2122        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2123
2124    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2125        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2126        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2127        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2128        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2129        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2130        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2131        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2132
2133    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2134        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2135
2136    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2137        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2138
2139    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2140        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2141
2142    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2143        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2144        asc = not desc
2145
2146        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2147        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2148        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2149        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2150        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2151
2152        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2153
2154        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2155        nulls_sort_change = ""
2156        if nulls_first and (
2157            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2158        ):
2159            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2160        elif (
2161            nulls_last
2162            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2163            and not nulls_are_last
2164        ):
2165            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2166
2167        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2168        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2169            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2170            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2171                self.unsupported(
2172                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2173                )
2174                nulls_sort_change = ""
2175            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2176                if expression.this.is_int:
2177                    self.unsupported(
2178                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2179                    )
2180                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2181                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2182                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2183                nulls_sort_change = ""
2184
2185        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2186        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2187
2188        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2189
2190    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2191        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2192        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2193
2194        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2195
2196        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2197
2198    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2199        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2200        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2201        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2202        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2203        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2204        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2205        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2206        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2207        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2208        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2209        definition_sqls = [
2210            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2211            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2212        ]
2213        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2214        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2215        body = "".join(
2216            (
2217                partition,
2218                order,
2219                measures,
2220                rows,
2221                after,
2222                pattern,
2223                define,
2224            )
2225        )
2226        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2227        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2228        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2229
2230    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2231        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2232
2233        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2234            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2235        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2236            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2237
2238        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2239        if options:
2240            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2241
2242        return csv(
2243            *sqls,
2244            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2245            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2246            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2247            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2248            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2249            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2250            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2251            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2252            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2253            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2254            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2255            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2256            options,
2257            sep="",
2258        )
2259
2260    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2261        return ""
2262
2263    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2264        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2265    ) -> t.List[str]:
2266        return [
2267            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2268            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2269        ]
2270
2271    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2272        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2273        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2274        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2275
2276    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2277        into = expression.args.get("into")
2278        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2279            into.pop()
2280
2281        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2282        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2283        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2284        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2285
2286        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2287        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2288            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2289            limit.pop()
2290        else:
2291            top = ""
2292
2293        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2294
2295        if kind:
2296            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2297                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2298            else:
2299                if kind == "STRUCT":
2300                    expressions = self.expressions(
2301                        sqls=[
2302                            self.sql(
2303                                exp.Struct(
2304                                    expressions=[
2305                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2306                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2307                                        else e
2308                                        for e in expression.expressions
2309                                    ]
2310                                )
2311                            )
2312                        ]
2313                    )
2314                kind = ""
2315
2316        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2317        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2318        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2319        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2320        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2321            expression,
2322            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2323            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2324            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2325        )
2326
2327        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2328
2329        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2330            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2331                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2332            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2333                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2334            else:
2335                table_kind = ""
2336            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2337
2338        return sql
2339
2340    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2341        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2342        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2343        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2344
2345    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2346        if expression.expressions:
2347            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2348        return ""
2349
2350    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2351        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2352        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2353        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2354        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2355        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2356        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2357        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2358
2359    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2360        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2361        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2362
2363    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2364        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2365        kind = expression.text("kind")
2366        if kind:
2367            kind = f"{kind}."
2368        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2369
2370    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2371        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2372
2373    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2374        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2375        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2376
2377        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2378        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2379
2380        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2381        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2382
2383    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2384        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2385        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2386
2387    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2388        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2389            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2390            order = expression.args.get("order")
2391
2392            if limit or order:
2393                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2394
2395                if limit:
2396                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2397                if order:
2398                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2399                return self.sql(select)
2400
2401        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2402        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2403
2404        while stack:
2405            node = stack.pop()
2406
2407            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2408                stack.append(node.expression)
2409                stack.append(
2410                    self.maybe_comment(
2411                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2412                        comments=node.comments,
2413                        separated=True,
2414                    )
2415                )
2416                stack.append(node.this)
2417            else:
2418                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2419
2420        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2421        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2422        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2423
2424    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2425        return self.set_operations(expression)
2426
2427    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2428        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2429        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2430        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2431        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2432
2433    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2434        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2435
2436        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2437        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2438
2439        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2440            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2441                alias.append("columns", offset)
2442
2443        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2444            columns = alias.columns
2445            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2446        else:
2447            alias = self.sql(alias)
2448
2449        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2450        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2451            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2452        else:
2453            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2454                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2455            elif offset:
2456                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2457            else:
2458                suffix = alias
2459
2460        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2461
2462    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2463        return ""
2464
2465    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2466        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2467        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2468
2469    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2470        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2471        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2472        order = expression.args.get("order")
2473        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2474        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2475        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2476        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2477
2478        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2479
2480        first = expression.args.get("first")
2481        if first is None:
2482            first = ""
2483        else:
2484            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2485
2486        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2487            return f"{this} {alias}"
2488
2489        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2490        return f"{this} ({args})"
2491
2492    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2493        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2494        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2495
2496    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2497        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2498        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2499        end = (
2500            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2501            or "CURRENT ROW"
2502        )
2503        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2504
2505    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2506        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2507        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2508        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2509
2510    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2511        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2512        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2513        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2514        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2515
2516    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2517        return apply_index_offset(
2518            expression.this,
2519            expression.expressions,
2520            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2521        )
2522
2523    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2524        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2525        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2526        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2527
2528    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2529        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2530
2531    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2532        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2533        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2534            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2535                this = self.wrap(this)
2536            return f"ANY{this}"
2537        return f"ANY {this}"
2538
2539    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2540        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2541
2542    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2543        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2544        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2545
2546        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2547            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2548            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2549
2550        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2551
2552        if default:
2553            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2554
2555        statements.append("END")
2556
2557        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2558            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2559
2560        return " ".join(statements)
2561
2562    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2563        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2564        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2565        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2566
2567    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2568        order = expression.args.get("order")
2569        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2570        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2571
2572    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2573        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2574        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2575        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2576
2577    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2578        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2579
2580        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2581            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2582        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2583            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2584        else:
2585            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2586
2587    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2588        args = expression.expressions
2589        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2590            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2591
2592        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2593            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2594
2595        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2596            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2597
2598        return args
2599
2600    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2601        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2602
2603        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2604        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2605            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2606
2607        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2608
2609    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2610        return self.func(
2611            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2612        )
2613
2614    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2615        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2616        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2617
2618    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2619        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2620        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2621        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2622        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2623        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2624        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2625        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2626        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2627
2628    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2629        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2630        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2631        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2632        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2633
2634    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2635        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2636
2637    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2638        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2639        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2640        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2641
2642    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2643        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2644
2645    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2646        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2647        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2648
2649    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2650        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2651            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2652            if not callable(transform):
2653                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2654                return ""
2655
2656            return transform(self, expression)
2657
2658        if isinstance(expression, int):
2659            return str(expression)
2660
2661        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2662            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2663            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2664        else:
2665            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2666            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2667
2668        return escaped
2669
2670    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2671        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2672
2673    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2674        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2675        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2676
2677        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2678        if unique_keys is not None:
2679            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2680        else:
2681            unique_keys = ""
2682
2683        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2684        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2685        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2686        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2687
2688        return self.func(
2689            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2690            *expression.expressions,
2691            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2692        )
2693
2694    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2695        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2696
2697    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2698        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2699        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2700        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2701        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2702        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2703        return self.func(
2704            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2705        )
2706
2707    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2708        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2709        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2710        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2711        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2712        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2713        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2714        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2715        return self.func(
2716            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2717            this,
2718            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2719        )
2720
2721    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2722        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2723        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2724        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2725
2726        if nested_schema:
2727            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2728
2729        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2730        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2731        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2732        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2733
2734    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2735        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2736
2737    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2739        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2740        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2741        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2742        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2743        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2744        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2745        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2746        return self.func(
2747            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2748        )
2749
2750    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2751        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2752        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2753        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2754        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2755        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2756        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2757
2758    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2759        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2760        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2761        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2762        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2763        with_ = (
2764            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2765            if expressions
2766            else ""
2767        )
2768        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2769
2770    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2771        query = expression.args.get("query")
2772        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2773        field = expression.args.get("field")
2774        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2775
2776        if query:
2777            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2778        elif unnest:
2779            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2780        elif field:
2781            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2782        else:
2783            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2784
2785        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2786
2787    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2788        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2789
2790    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2791        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2792        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2793            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2794        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2795
2796        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2797            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2798            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2799
2800        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2801        if this:
2802            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2803            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2804
2805        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2806
2807    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2808        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2809
2810    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2811        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2812        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2813        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2814        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2815        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2816        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2817
2818    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2819        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2820
2821    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2822        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2823        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2824
2825    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2826        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2827        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2828        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2829        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2830
2831    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2832        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2833
2834    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2835        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2836        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2837        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2838
2839    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2840        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2841        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2842
2843        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2844            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2845        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2846            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2847
2848        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2849
2850    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2851        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2852
2853    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2854        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2855        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2856        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2857
2858    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2860        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2861        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2862
2863    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2865        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2866        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2867
2868    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2869        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2870
2871    def and_sql(
2872        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2873    ) -> str:
2874        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2875
2876    def or_sql(
2877        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2878    ) -> str:
2879        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2880
2881    def xor_sql(
2882        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2883    ) -> str:
2884        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2885
2886    def connector_sql(
2887        self,
2888        expression: exp.Connector,
2889        op: str,
2890        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2891    ) -> str:
2892        if stack is not None:
2893            if expression.expressions:
2894                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2895            else:
2896                stack.append(expression.right)
2897                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2898                    for comment in expression.comments:
2899                        if comment:
2900                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2901                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2902            return op
2903
2904        stack = [expression]
2905        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2906        ops = set()
2907
2908        while stack:
2909            node = stack.pop()
2910            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2911                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2912            else:
2913                sql = self.sql(node)
2914                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2915                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2916                else:
2917                    sqls.append(sql)
2918
2919        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2920        return sep.join(sqls)
2921
2922    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2923        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2924
2925    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2926        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2927
2928    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2929        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2930
2931    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2932        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2933
2934    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2935        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2936
2937    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2938        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2939
2940    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2941        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2942        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2943        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2944        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2945        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2946        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2947        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2948
2949    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2950        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2951        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2952
2953    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2954        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2955
2956    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2957        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2958            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2959        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2960
2961    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2962        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2963
2964    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2965        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2966        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2967        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2968        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2969        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2970        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2971
2972    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2973        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2974        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2975        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2976        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2977        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2978        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2979        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2980        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2981        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2982
2983    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2984        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2985        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2986        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2987        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2988
2989        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2990            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2991
2992        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2993
2994    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2995        return "BEGIN"
2996
2997    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2998        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2999        if chain is not None:
3000            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3001
3002        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3003
3004    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3005        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3006        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3007        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3008
3009    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3011
3012        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3013        if dtype:
3014            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3015            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3016            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3017            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3018            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3019
3020        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3021        if default:
3022            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3023
3024        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3025        if comment:
3026            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3027
3028        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3029        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3030
3031        if not drop and not allow_null:
3032            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3033
3034        if allow_null is not None:
3035            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3036            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3037
3038        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3039
3040    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3041        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3042        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3043            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3044        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3045
3046    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3047        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3048        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3049        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3050        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3051        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3052
3053    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3054        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3055            # Remove db from tables
3056            expression = expression.transform(
3057                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3058            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3059        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3060        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3061
3062    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3063        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3064        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3065        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3066        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3067
3068    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3069        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3070        return f"SET {exprs}"
3071
3072    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3073        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3074
3075        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3076            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3077        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3078            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3079        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3080            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3081        else:
3082            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3083
3084        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3085        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3086        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3087        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3088        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3089        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3090        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3091
3092    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3093        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3094            return self.expressions(
3095                expression,
3096                key="actions",
3097                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3098            )
3099        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3100
3101    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3102        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3103        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3104        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3105
3106    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3107        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3108
3109    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3110        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3111
3112        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3113            case = exp.case()
3114            for arg in expression.expressions:
3115                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3116            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3117
3118        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3119
3120        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3121        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3122        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3123
3124    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3125        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3126
3127    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3128        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3129
3130    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3131        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3132        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3133        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3134        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3135
3136    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3137        return self.sql(
3138            exp.Cast(
3139                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3140                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3141            )
3142        )
3143
3144    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3145        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3146            return self.func(
3147                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3148            )
3149        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3150
3151    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3152        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3153
3154        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3155            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3156
3157        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3158            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3159                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3160
3161        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3162            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3163                return self.sql(
3164                    exp.cast(
3165                        l / r,
3166                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3167                    )
3168                )
3169
3170        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3171
3172    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3173        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3174
3175    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3176        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3177
3178    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3179        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3180
3181    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3182        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3183
3184    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3185        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3186
3187    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3188        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3189
3190    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3191        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3192
3193    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3194        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3195
3196    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3197        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3198
3199    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3200        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3201
3202    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3203        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3204
3205    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3206        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3207            return self.sql(
3208                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3209            )
3210        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3211
3212    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3213        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3214
3215    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3216        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3217
3218    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3219        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3220
3221    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3222        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3223
3224    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3225        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3226
3227    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3228        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3229
3230    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3231        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3232
3233    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3234        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3235
3236    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3237        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3238
3239    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3240        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3241
3242    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3243        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3244
3245    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3246        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3247
3248    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3249        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3250
3251    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3252        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3253            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3254            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3255
3256        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3257
3258    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3259        this = expression.this
3260        expr = expression.expression
3261
3262        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3263            this, expr = expr, this
3264        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3265            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3266                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3267
3268            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3269
3270        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3271
3272    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3273        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3274        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3275        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3276        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3277        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3278
3279    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3280        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3281        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3282
3283    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3284        args = []
3285
3286        for key in expression.arg_types:
3287            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3288
3289            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3290                for value in arg_value:
3291                    args.append(value)
3292            elif arg_value is not None:
3293                args.append(arg_value)
3294
3295        if self.normalize_functions:
3296            name = expression.sql_name()
3297        else:
3298            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3299
3300        return self.func(name, *args)
3301
3302    def func(
3303        self,
3304        name: str,
3305        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3306        prefix: str = "(",
3307        suffix: str = ")",
3308    ) -> str:
3309        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3310
3311    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3312        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3313        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3314            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3315        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3316
3317    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3318        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3319
3320    def format_time(
3321        self,
3322        expression: exp.Expression,
3323        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3324        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3325    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3326        return format_time(
3327            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3328            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3329            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3330        )
3331
3332    def expressions(
3333        self,
3334        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3335        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3336        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3337        flat: bool = False,
3338        indent: bool = True,
3339        skip_first: bool = False,
3340        skip_last: bool = False,
3341        sep: str = ", ",
3342        prefix: str = "",
3343        dynamic: bool = False,
3344        new_line: bool = False,
3345    ) -> str:
3346        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3347
3348        if not expressions:
3349            return ""
3350
3351        if flat:
3352            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3353
3354        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3355
3356        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3357        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3358            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3359
3360        result_sqls = []
3361        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3362            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3363            if not sql:
3364                continue
3365
3366            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3367
3368            if self.pretty:
3369                if self.leading_comma:
3370                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3371                else:
3372                    result_sqls.append(
3373                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3374                    )
3375            else:
3376                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3377
3378        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3379            if new_line:
3380                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3381                result_sqls.append("")
3382            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3383        else:
3384            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3385        return (
3386            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3387            if indent
3388            else result_sql
3389        )
3390
3391    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3392        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3393        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3394        if flat:
3395            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3396        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3397
3398    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3399        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3400        if not property_name:
3401            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3402        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3403
3404    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3405        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3406
3407    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3408        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3409
3410    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3411        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3412        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3413        expressions = (
3414            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3415        )
3416        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3417
3418    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3419        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3420        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3421        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3422
3423    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3424        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3425
3426    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3427        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3428        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3429        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3430        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3431
3432        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3433        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3434            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3435            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3436            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3437            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3438        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3439            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3440                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3441            else:
3442                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3443        else:
3444            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3445        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3446
3447    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3448        table = expression.this
3449        table_alias = ""
3450
3451        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3452        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3453            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3454            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3455
3456        this = self.sql(table)
3457        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3458        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3459        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3460        sep = self.sep()
3461
3462        return self.prepend_ctes(
3463            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3464        )
3465
3466    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3467        if expression.args.get("format"):
3468            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3469
3470        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3471
3472    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3473        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3474            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3475            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3476
3477        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3478        if not fmt:
3479            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3480            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3481
3482        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3483
3484    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3485        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3486        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3487        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3488        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3489        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3490
3491    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3492        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3493        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3494        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3495        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3496
3497    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3498        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3499
3500    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3501        return ""
3502
3503    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3504        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3505        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3506        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3507        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3508        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3509
3510    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3511        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3512        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3513
3514        if having:
3515            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3516
3517        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3518
3519    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3520        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3521        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3522        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3523        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3524        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3525        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3526        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3527        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3528        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3529        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3530        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3531        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3532        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3533
3534    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3535        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3536        if key_block_size:
3537            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3538
3539        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3540        if using:
3541            return f"USING {using}"
3542
3543        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3544        if parser:
3545            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3546
3547        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3548        if comment:
3549            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3550
3551        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3552        if visible is not None:
3553            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3554
3555        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3556        if engine_attr:
3557            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3558
3559        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3560        if secondary_engine_attr:
3561            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3562
3563        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3564        return ""
3565
3566    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3567        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3568        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3569
3570    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3571        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3572        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3573        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3574        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3575        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3576        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3577        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3578        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3579        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3580        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3581        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3582
3583    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3584        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3585            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3586
3587        case = exp.Case().when(
3588            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3589            expression.args["true"],
3590            copy=False,
3591        )
3592        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3593        if else_cond:
3594            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3595
3596        return self.sql(case)
3597
3598    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3599        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3600        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3601        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3602        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3603        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3604        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3605
3606    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3607        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3608
3609    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3610        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3611
3612    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3613        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3614        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3615        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3616        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3617        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3618        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3619
3620    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3621        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3622        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3623        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3624
3625    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3626        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3627        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3628        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3629
3630    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3631        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3632
3633    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3634        arg = expression.this
3635        if not arg.type:
3636            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3637
3638            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3639
3640        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3641            return self.sql(arg)
3642
3643        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3644        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3645
3646    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3647        this = expression.this
3648        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3649            return self.sql(this)
3650
3651        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3652
3653    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3654        this = expression.this
3655        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3656            return self.sql(this)
3657
3658        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3659
3660    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3661        this = expression.this
3662        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3663
3664        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3665            return self.sql(
3666                exp.cast(
3667                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3668                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3669                )
3670            )
3671
3672        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3673            return self.sql(this)
3674
3675        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3676
3677    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3678        return self.sql(
3679            exp.func(
3680                "DATEDIFF",
3681                expression.this,
3682                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3683                "day",
3684            )
3685        )
3686
3687    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3688        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3689            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3690
3691        unit = expression.text("unit")
3692        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3693            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3694
3695        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3696
3697    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3698        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3699
3700        return self.func(
3701            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3702        )
3703
3704    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3705        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3706            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3707            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3708            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3709            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3710
3711        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3712
3713        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3714        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3715            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3716
3717        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3718
3719    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3720        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3721        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3722
3723    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3724        expression.set(
3725            "expressions",
3726            [
3727                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3728                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3729                else e
3730                for e in expression.expressions
3731            ],
3732        )
3733
3734        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3735
3736    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3737        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3738        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3739
3740        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3741
3742    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3743        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3744        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3745
3746        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3747
3748        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3749        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3750
3751        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3752        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3753
3754        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3755        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3756
3757        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3758        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3759
3760        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3761
3762    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3763    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3764    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3765        to = expression.this
3766        value = expression.expression
3767        style = expression.args.get("style")
3768        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3769        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3770
3771        if not to or not value:
3772            return ""
3773
3774        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3775        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3776            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3777
3778        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3779        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3780
3781        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3782        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3783            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3784
3785            style_value = style.name
3786            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3787            if not converted_style:
3788                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3789
3790            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3791
3792            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3793                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3794            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3795                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3796            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3797                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3798            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3799                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3800
3801        if not transformed:
3802            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3803
3804        return self.sql(transformed)
3805
3806    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3807        this = expression.this
3808        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3809            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3810            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3811
3812        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3813            return f".{this}"
3814
3815        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3816        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3817
3818    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3819        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3820        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3821
3822    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3823        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3824            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3825
3826            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3827
3828        return expression
3829
3830    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3831        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3832            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3833            mods = sorted(
3834                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3835                key=lambda x: 0
3836                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3837                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3838            )
3839
3840            if mods:
3841                mod = mods[0]
3842                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3843                this.meta["inline"] = True
3844                mod.this.replace(this)
3845                return self.sql(expression.this)
3846
3847            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3848
3849            if agg_func:
3850                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3851
3852        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3853
3854    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3855        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3856        if self.pretty:
3857            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3858        return string
3859
3860    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3861        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3862
3863        if expression.expressions:
3864            upper = option.upper()
3865
3866            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3867            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3868
3869            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3870            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3871            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3872            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3873
3874        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3875
3876        if not value:
3877            return option
3878
3879        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3880
3881        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3882
3883    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3884        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3885        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3886            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3887            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3888            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3889        else:
3890            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3891            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3892            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3893
3894        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3895        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3896
3897        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3898        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3899
3900        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3901        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3902
3903        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3904        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3905
3906        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3907
3908    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3909        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3910        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3911
3912        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3913        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3914        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3915        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3916
3917        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3918        params = self.expressions(
3919            expression,
3920            key="params",
3921            sep=sep,
3922            new_line=True,
3923            skip_last=True,
3924            skip_first=True,
3925            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3926        )
3927
3928        if params:
3929            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3930                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3931            elif not self.pretty:
3932                params = f" {params}"
3933
3934        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3935
3936    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3937        return ""
3938
3939    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3940        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3941        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3942        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3943        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3944        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3945
3946        if filter_col or retention_period:
3947            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3948
3949        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
3950
3951    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3952        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3953    ) -> str:
3954        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3955        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3956        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3957        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
3958
3959    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
3960        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3961        this = f"TABLE {this}"
3962        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])