sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 118        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 119        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 122        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 123        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 125        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 127        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 128        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 132        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 135        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 136        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 138        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 139        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 140        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 141        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 142        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 143        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 144        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 145        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 146        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 147        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 150        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 151        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 152        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 153        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 154        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 155        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 156        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 157        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 158        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 159        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 160        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 161        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 162        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 163        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 164        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 165        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 166        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 168        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 169        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 170        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 171        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 172            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 173        ),
 174        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 175        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 176        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 177        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 178        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 179        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 180        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 181        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 182        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 183        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 184        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 185        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 186        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 187        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 188        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 189        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 190        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 191        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 192        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 193        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 194        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 195        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 196        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 197        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 198        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 199        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 200        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 201        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 202        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 203        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 205        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 206        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 207    }
 208
 209    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 210    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 211    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 212    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 213
 214    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 215    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 216    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 217
 218    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 219    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 220
 221    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 222    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 223
 224    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 225    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 226
 227    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 228    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 229
 230    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 231    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 232
 233    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 234    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 235
 236    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 237    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 238
 239    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 240    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 241
 242    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 243    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 244
 245    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 246    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 247
 248    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 249    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 250
 251    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 252    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 253
 254    # Whether join hints should be generated
 255    JOIN_HINTS = True
 256
 257    # Whether table hints should be generated
 258    TABLE_HINTS = True
 259
 260    # Whether query hints should be generated
 261    QUERY_HINTS = True
 262
 263    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 264    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 265
 266    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 267    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 268
 269    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 270    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 271
 272    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 273    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 274
 275    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 276    RETURNING_END = True
 277
 278    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 279    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 280
 281    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 282    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 283
 284    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 285    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 286
 287    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 288    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 289
 290    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 291    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 292    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 293    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 294
 295    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 296    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 297
 298    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 299    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 300
 301    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 302    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 303
 304    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 305    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 306
 307    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 308    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 309
 310    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 311    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 312
 313    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 314    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 315
 316    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 317    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 318
 319    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 320    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 321
 322    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 323    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 324
 325    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 326    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 327
 328    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 329    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 330
 331    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 332    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 333
 334    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 335    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 336
 337    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 338    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 339
 340    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 341    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 342
 343    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 344    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 345
 346    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 347    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 348
 349    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 350    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 351
 352    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 353    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 354
 355    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 356    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 357
 358    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 359    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 360
 361    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 362    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 363
 364    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 365    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 366
 367    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 368    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 369
 370    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 371    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 372    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 373
 374    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 375    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 376
 377    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 378    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 379
 380    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 381    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 382
 383    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 384    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 385
 386    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 387    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 388
 389    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 390    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 391
 392    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 393    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 394    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 395    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 396
 397    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 398    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 399
 400    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 401    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 402
 403    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 404    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 405
 406    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 407    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 408
 409    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 410    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 411
 412    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 413    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 414
 415    # The HEX function name
 416    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 417
 418    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 419    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 420
 421    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 422    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 423
 424    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 425    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 426
 427    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 428    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 429
 430    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 431    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 432
 433    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 434    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 435
 436    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
 437    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
 438
 439    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 440    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 441
 442    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 443        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 444        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 445        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 446        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 447        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 448        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 449        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 450        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 451        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 452        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 453    }
 454
 455    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 456        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 457        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 458        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 459        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 460        "DAYS": "DAY",
 461        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 462        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 463        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 464        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 465    }
 466
 467    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 468        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 469        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 470        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 471        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 472            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 473            if e.args.get("windows")
 474            else ""
 475        ),
 476        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 477    }
 478
 479    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 480
 481    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 482
 483    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 484    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 485
 486    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 487        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 489        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 493        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 495        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 498        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 502        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 504        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 507        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 508        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 509        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 510        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 511        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 512        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 513        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 514        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 515        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 516        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 517        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 518        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 520        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 522        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 523        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 524        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 525        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 526        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 527        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 528        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 529        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 530        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 531        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 532        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 533        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 534        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 535        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 536        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 537        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 539        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 540        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 541        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 542        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 543        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 544        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 545        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 546        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 547        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 548        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 549        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 550        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 551        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 552        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 553        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 554        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 555        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 556        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 557        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 558        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 559        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 560        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 561        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 563        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 564        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 565        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 566        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 567        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 568        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 569        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 570        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 571        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 572        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 573        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 574        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 575    }
 576
 577    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 578    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 579
 580    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 581    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 582        exp.Command,
 583        exp.Create,
 584        exp.Delete,
 585        exp.Drop,
 586        exp.From,
 587        exp.Insert,
 588        exp.Join,
 589        exp.MultitableInserts,
 590        exp.Select,
 591        exp.SetOperation,
 592        exp.Update,
 593        exp.Where,
 594        exp.With,
 595    )
 596
 597    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 598    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 599        exp.Binary,
 600        exp.SetOperation,
 601    )
 602
 603    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 604    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 605        exp.Column,
 606        exp.Literal,
 607        exp.Neg,
 608        exp.Paren,
 609    )
 610
 611    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 612        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 613        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 614        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 615        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 616    }
 617
 618    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 619    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 620
 621    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 622
 623    __slots__ = (
 624        "pretty",
 625        "identify",
 626        "normalize",
 627        "pad",
 628        "_indent",
 629        "normalize_functions",
 630        "unsupported_level",
 631        "max_unsupported",
 632        "leading_comma",
 633        "max_text_width",
 634        "comments",
 635        "dialect",
 636        "unsupported_messages",
 637        "_escaped_quote_end",
 638        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 639        "_next_name",
 640        "_identifier_start",
 641        "_identifier_end",
 642    )
 643
 644    def __init__(
 645        self,
 646        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 647        identify: str | bool = False,
 648        normalize: bool = False,
 649        pad: int = 2,
 650        indent: int = 2,
 651        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 652        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 653        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 654        leading_comma: bool = False,
 655        max_text_width: int = 80,
 656        comments: bool = True,
 657        dialect: DialectType = None,
 658    ):
 659        import sqlglot
 660        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 661
 662        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 663        self.identify = identify
 664        self.normalize = normalize
 665        self.pad = pad
 666        self._indent = indent
 667        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 668        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 669        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 670        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 671        self.comments = comments
 672        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 673
 674        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 675        self.normalize_functions = (
 676            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 677        )
 678
 679        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 680        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 681            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 682        )
 683        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 684
 685        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 686
 687        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 688        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 689
 690    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 691        """
 692        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 693
 694        Args:
 695            expression: The syntax tree.
 696            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 697                it is safer to copy.
 698
 699        Returns:
 700            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 701        """
 702        if copy:
 703            expression = expression.copy()
 704
 705        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 706
 707        self.unsupported_messages = []
 708        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 709
 710        if self.pretty:
 711            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 712
 713        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 714            return sql
 715
 716        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 717            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 718                logger.warning(msg)
 719        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 720            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 721
 722        return sql
 723
 724    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 725        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 726        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 727
 728        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 729            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 730
 731            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 732
 733        return expression
 734
 735    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 736        if (
 737            not expression.parent
 738            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 739            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 740        ):
 741            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 742
 743            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 744        return expression
 745
 746    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 747        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 748            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 749        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 750
 751    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 752        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 753
 754    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 755        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 756
 757    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 758        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 759        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 760        return comment
 761
 762    def maybe_comment(
 763        self,
 764        sql: str,
 765        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 766        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 767        separated: bool = False,
 768    ) -> str:
 769        comments = (
 770            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 771            if self.comments
 772            else None
 773        )
 774
 775        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 776            return sql
 777
 778        comments_sql = " ".join(
 779            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 780        )
 781
 782        if not comments_sql:
 783            return sql
 784
 785        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 786
 787        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 788            return (
 789                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 790                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 791                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 792            )
 793
 794        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 795
 796    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 797        this_sql = (
 798            self.sql(expression)
 799            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 800            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 801        )
 802        if not this_sql:
 803            return "()"
 804
 805        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 806        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 807
 808    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 809        original = self.identify
 810        self.identify = False
 811        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 812        self.identify = original
 813        return result
 814
 815    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 816        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 817            return name.upper()
 818        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 819            return name.lower()
 820        return name
 821
 822    def indent(
 823        self,
 824        sql: str,
 825        level: int = 0,
 826        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 827        skip_first: bool = False,
 828        skip_last: bool = False,
 829    ) -> str:
 830        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 831            return sql
 832
 833        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 834        lines = sql.split("\n")
 835
 836        return "\n".join(
 837            (
 838                line
 839                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 840                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 841            )
 842            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 843        )
 844
 845    def sql(
 846        self,
 847        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 848        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 849        comment: bool = True,
 850    ) -> str:
 851        if not expression:
 852            return ""
 853
 854        if isinstance(expression, str):
 855            return expression
 856
 857        if key:
 858            value = expression.args.get(key)
 859            if value:
 860                return self.sql(value)
 861            return ""
 862
 863        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 864
 865        if callable(transform):
 866            sql = transform(self, expression)
 867        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 868            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 869
 870            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 871                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 872            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 873                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 874            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 875                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 876            else:
 877                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 878        else:
 879            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 880
 881        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 882
 883    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 884        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 885        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 886        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 887
 888    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 889        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 890        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 891        options = expression.args.get("options")
 892        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 893        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 894        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 895        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 896        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 897
 898    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 899        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 900            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 901        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 902        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 903
 904    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 905        return ".".join(
 906            self.sql(part)
 907            for part in (
 908                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 909                expression.args.get("db"),
 910                expression.args.get("table"),
 911                expression.args.get("this"),
 912            )
 913            if part
 914        )
 915
 916    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 917        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 918
 919        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 920            join_mark = ""
 921            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 922
 923        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 924
 925    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 926        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 927        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 928        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 929        return f"{position}{this}"
 930
 931    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 932        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 933        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 934        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 935        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 936        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 937        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 938        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 939        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 940
 941        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 942            kind = ""
 943
 944        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 945
 946    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 948        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 949        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 950
 951    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 952        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 953        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 954            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 955        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 956            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 957        else:
 958            persisted = ""
 959        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 960
 961    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 962        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 963
 964    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 965        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 966            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 967        else:
 968            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 969
 970        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 971
 972    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 973        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 974    ) -> str:
 975        this = ""
 976        if expression.this is not None:
 977            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 978            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 979
 980        start = expression.args.get("start")
 981        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 982        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 983        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 984        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 985        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 986        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 987        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 988        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 989        cycle_sql = ""
 990
 991        if cycle is not None:
 992            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 993            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 994
 995        sequence_opts = ""
 996        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 997            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 998            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 999
1000        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1001        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1002
1003        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
1004
1005    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1006        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1007    ) -> str:
1008        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1009        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1010        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1011
1012    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1013        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1014    ) -> str:
1015        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1016
1017    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1018        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1019
1020    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1021        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1022
1023    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1024        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1025        if desc is not None:
1026            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1027        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1028
1029    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1030        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1031        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1032        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1033        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1034        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1035        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1036        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1037        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1038
1039    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1040        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1041
1042    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1043        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1044        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1045        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1046        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1047
1048        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1049
1050        properties_sql = ""
1051        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1052            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1053        ):
1054            properties_sql = self.sql(
1055                exp.Properties(
1056                    expressions=[
1057                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1058                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1059                    ]
1060                )
1061            )
1062
1063            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1064                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1065            elif not self.pretty:
1066                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1067                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1068
1069        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1070        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1071
1072        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1073        if expression_sql:
1074            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1075
1076            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1077                postalias_props_sql = ""
1078                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1079                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1080                        exp.Properties(
1081                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1082                        ),
1083                        wrapped=False,
1084                    )
1085                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1086                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1087
1088        postindex_props_sql = ""
1089        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1090            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1091                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1092                wrapped=False,
1093                prefix=" ",
1094            )
1095
1096        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1097        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1098        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1099
1100        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1101        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1102        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1103
1104        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1105        if clustered is None:
1106            clustered_sql = ""
1107        elif clustered:
1108            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1109        else:
1110            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1111
1112        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1113        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1114            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1115                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1116                sep=" ",
1117                prefix=" ",
1118                wrapped=False,
1119            )
1120
1121        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1122
1123        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1124        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1125            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1126                exp.Properties(
1127                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1128                ),
1129                sep=" ",
1130                prefix=" ",
1131                wrapped=False,
1132            )
1133
1134        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1135        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1136        no_schema_binding = (
1137            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1138        )
1139
1140        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1141        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1142
1143        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1144        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1145
1146    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1147        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1148        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1149        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1150        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1151        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1152        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1153        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1154        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1155        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1156        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1157
1158        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1159        if cache is None:
1160            cache_str = ""
1161        elif cache is True:
1162            cache_str = " CACHE"
1163        else:
1164            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1165
1166        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1167        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1168
1169        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1170
1171    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1172        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1173        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1174        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1175        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1176
1177    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1178        style = expression.args.get("style")
1179        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1180        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1181        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1182        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1183
1184    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1185        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1186        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1187
1188    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1189        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1190        if with_:
1191            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1192        return sql
1193
1194    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1195        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1196        recursive = (
1197            "RECURSIVE "
1198            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1199            else ""
1200        )
1201
1202        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1203
1204    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1205        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1206        if alias:
1207            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1208
1209        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1210
1211        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1212        if materialized is False:
1213            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1214        elif materialized:
1215            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1216
1217        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1218
1219    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1220        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1221        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1222        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1223
1224        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1225            columns = ""
1226            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1227
1228        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1229            alias = self._next_name()
1230
1231        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1232
1233    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1234        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1235        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1236            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1237        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1238
1239    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1240        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1241        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1242            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1243        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1244
1245    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1246        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1247        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1248            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1249        return this
1250
1251    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1252        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1253        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1254
1255        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1256            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1257            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1258        else:
1259            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1260            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1261
1262        if escape:
1263            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1264            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1265        else:
1266            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1267            escape_sql = ""
1268
1269        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1270            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1271
1272        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1273
1274    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1275        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1276        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1277
1278    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1279        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1280        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1281        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1282        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1283
1284    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1285        nested = ""
1286        values = ""
1287        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1288
1289        type_value = expression.this
1290        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1291            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1292        else:
1293            type_sql = (
1294                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1295                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1296                else type_value
1297            )
1298
1299        if interior:
1300            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1301                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1302                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1303                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1304                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1305                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1306            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1307                nested = f" {interior}"
1308            else:
1309                nested = f"({interior})"
1310
1311        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1312        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1313            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1314            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1315        ):
1316            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1317
1318        return type_sql
1319
1320    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1321        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1322        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1323        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1324        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1325
1326    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1327        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1328        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1329        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1330        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1331        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1332        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1333        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1334        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1335        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1336        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1337        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1338        if self.RETURNING_END:
1339            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1340        else:
1341            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1342        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1343
1344    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1345        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1346        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1347        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1348        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1349        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1350        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1351        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1352        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1353        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1354        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1355        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1356        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1357        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1358        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1359        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1360
1361    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1362        op_type = type(expression)
1363        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1364
1365        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1366        if (
1367            distinct is False
1368            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1369            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1370        ):
1371            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1372
1373        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1374
1375        if distinct is None:
1376            distinct = default_distinct
1377            if distinct is None:
1378                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1379
1380        if distinct is default_distinct:
1381            kind = ""
1382        else:
1383            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1384
1385        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1386        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1387
1388    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1389        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1390            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1391            order = expression.args.get("order")
1392
1393            if limit or order:
1394                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1395                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1396                )
1397
1398                if limit:
1399                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1400                if order:
1401                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1402                return self.sql(select)
1403
1404        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1405        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1406
1407        while stack:
1408            node = stack.pop()
1409
1410            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1411                stack.append(node.expression)
1412                stack.append(
1413                    self.maybe_comment(
1414                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1415                    )
1416                )
1417                stack.append(node.this)
1418            else:
1419                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1420
1421        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1422        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1423        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1424
1425    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1426        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1427        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1428        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1429        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1430        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1431            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1432        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1433        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1434
1435    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1436        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1437            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1438            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1439            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1440
1441        agg = expression.this
1442        agg_arg = agg.this
1443        cond = expression.expression.this
1444        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1445        return self.sql(agg)
1446
1447    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1448        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1449            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1450            return ""
1451
1452        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1453
1454    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1455        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1456        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1457        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1458        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1459        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1460        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1461        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1462        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1463        if include:
1464            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1465        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1466        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1467        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1468        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1469        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1470        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1471
1472        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1473
1474    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1475        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1476        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1477        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1478        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1479        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1480        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1481        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1482
1483        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1484
1485        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1486        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1487
1488    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1489        text = expression.name
1490        lower = text.lower()
1491        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1492        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1493        if (
1494            expression.quoted
1495            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1496            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1497            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1498        ):
1499            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1500        return text
1501
1502    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1503        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1504        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1505            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1506
1507        return text
1508
1509    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1510        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1511        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1512            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1513        return text
1514
1515    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1516        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1517        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1518        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1519        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1520        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1521
1522    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1523        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1524        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1525
1526    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1527        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1528
1529    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1530        root_properties = []
1531        with_properties = []
1532
1533        for p in expression.expressions:
1534            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1535            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1536                with_properties.append(p)
1537            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1538                root_properties.append(p)
1539
1540        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1541        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1542
1543        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1544            with_props = " " + with_props
1545
1546        return root_props + with_props
1547
1548    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1549        if properties.expressions:
1550            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1551        return ""
1552
1553    def properties(
1554        self,
1555        properties: exp.Properties,
1556        prefix: str = "",
1557        sep: str = ", ",
1558        suffix: str = "",
1559        wrapped: bool = True,
1560    ) -> str:
1561        if properties.expressions:
1562            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1563            if expressions:
1564                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1565                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1566        return ""
1567
1568    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1569        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1570
1571    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1572        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1573        for p in properties.expressions:
1574            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1575            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1576                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1577            else:
1578                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1579
1580        return properties_locs
1581
1582    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1583        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1584            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1585        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1586
1587    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1588        property_cls = expression.__class__
1589        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1590            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1591
1592        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1593        if not property_name:
1594            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1595
1596        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1597
1598    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1599        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1600            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1601            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1602
1603            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1604            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1605                like = f"({like})"
1606
1607            return like
1608
1609        if expression.expressions:
1610            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1611
1612        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1613        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1614
1615    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1616        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1617        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1618        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1619
1620    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1621        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1622        local = expression.args.get("local")
1623        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1624        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1625        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1626        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1627        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1628
1629    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1630        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1631        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1632        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1633
1634    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1635        if expression.args.get("default"):
1636            property = "DEFAULT"
1637        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1638            property = "ON"
1639        else:
1640            property = "OFF"
1641        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1642
1643    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1644        if expression.args.get("no"):
1645            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1646        if expression.args.get("default"):
1647            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1648
1649        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1650        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1651
1652    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1653        default = expression.args.get("default")
1654        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1655        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1656        if default or minimum or maximum:
1657            if default:
1658                prop = "DEFAULT"
1659            elif minimum:
1660                prop = "MINIMUM"
1661            else:
1662                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1663            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1664        units = expression.args.get("units")
1665        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1666        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1667
1668    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1669        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1670        always = expression.args.get("always")
1671        default = expression.args.get("default")
1672        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1673        never = expression.args.get("never")
1674
1675        if autotemp is not None:
1676            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1677        elif always:
1678            prop = "ALWAYS"
1679        elif default:
1680            prop = "DEFAULT"
1681        elif manual:
1682            prop = "MANUAL"
1683        elif never:
1684            prop = "NEVER"
1685        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1686
1687    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1688        no = expression.args.get("no")
1689        no = " NO" if no else ""
1690        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1691        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1692        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1693        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1694        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1695
1696    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1697        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1698            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1699        if expression.this:
1700            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1701            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1702            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1703
1704        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1705        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1706        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1707
1708    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1709        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1710
1711        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1712        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1713            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1714        else:
1715            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1716
1717        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1718
1719    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1720        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1721        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1722        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1723        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1724        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1725        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1726        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1727
1728    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1729        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1730        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1731        statistics_sql = ""
1732        if statistics is not None:
1733            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1734        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1735
1736    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1738        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1739        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1740        data_consistency = (
1741            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1742        )
1743        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1744        retention_period = (
1745            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1746        )
1747
1748        if this:
1749            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1750        else:
1751            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1752
1753        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1754
1755        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1756
1757    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1758        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1759        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1760
1761        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1762            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1763        else:
1764            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1765
1766        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1767        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1768        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1769        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1770        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1771        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1772        if is_function:
1773            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1774        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1775
1776        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1777        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1778        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1779        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1780        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1781        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1782        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1783        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1784
1785        if self.RETURNING_END:
1786            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1787        else:
1788            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1789
1790        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1791        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1792        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1793        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1794
1795        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1796        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1797
1798        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1799        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1800
1801    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1802        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1803
1804    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1805        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1806        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1807        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1808        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1809        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1810
1811    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1812        return expression.name
1813
1814    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1815        return expression.name
1816
1817    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1818        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1819
1820        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1821        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1822
1823        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1824        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1825        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1826
1827        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1828        if expressions:
1829            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1830            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1831
1832        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1833
1834    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1835        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1836
1837    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1838        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1839        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1840        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1841        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1842        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1843        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1844        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1845        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1846        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1847        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1848        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1849        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1850        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1851
1852    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1853        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1854
1855    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1856        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1857        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1858        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1859        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1860
1861    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1862        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1863        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1864        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1865        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1866
1867    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1868        return ".".join(
1869            self.sql(part)
1870            for part in (
1871                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1872                expression.args.get("db"),
1873                expression.args.get("this"),
1874            )
1875            if part is not None
1876        )
1877
1878    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1879        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1880        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1881        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1882        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1883        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1884        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1885        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1886        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1887
1888        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1889        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1890            sample_pre_alias = sample
1891            sample_post_alias = ""
1892        else:
1893            sample_pre_alias = ""
1894            sample_post_alias = sample
1895
1896        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1897        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1898        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1899        joins = self.indent(
1900            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1901        )
1902        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1903
1904        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1905        if file_format:
1906            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1907            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1908            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1909
1910        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1911        if ordinality:
1912            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1913            alias = ""
1914
1915        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1916        if when:
1917            table = f"{table} {when}"
1918
1919        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1920        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1921
1922        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1923        if rows_from:
1924            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1925
1926        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1927
1928    def tablesample_sql(
1929        self,
1930        expression: exp.TableSample,
1931        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1932    ) -> str:
1933        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1934        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1935        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1936        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1937        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1938        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1939        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1940        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1941        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1942
1943        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1944        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1945            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1946
1947        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1948        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1949            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1950
1951        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1952        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1953            expr = f"({expr})"
1954
1955        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1956
1957    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1958        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1959
1960        if expression.this:
1961            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1962            if not expressions:
1963                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1964
1965            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1966            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1967            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1968            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1969            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1970
1971        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1972        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1973        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1974
1975        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1976
1977        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1978        if include_nulls is not None:
1979            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1980        else:
1981            nulls = ""
1982
1983        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1984        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1985        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1986
1987    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1988        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1989        kind = expression.text("kind")
1990        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1991        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1992
1993    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1994        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1995
1996    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1997        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1998        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1999        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2000        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2001        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2002        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2003        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2004        if self.RETURNING_END:
2005            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2006        else:
2007            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2008        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2009        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2010
2011    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2012        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2013
2014        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2015        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2016            args = self.expressions(expression)
2017            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2018            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2019            values = (
2020                f"({values})"
2021                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2022                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2023                else values
2024            )
2025            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2026
2027        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2028        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2029        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2030
2031        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2032
2033        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2034            row = tup.expressions
2035
2036            if i == 0 and column_names:
2037                row = [
2038                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2039                ]
2040
2041            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2042
2043        if self.pretty:
2044            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2045            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2046            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2047            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2048            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2049
2050        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2051        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2052        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2053
2054    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2055        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2056
2057    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2058    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2059        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2060        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2061        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2062
2063    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2064        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2065
2066    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2067        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2068        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2069
2070    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2071        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2072        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2073
2074    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2075        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2076        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2077
2078    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2079        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2080        if group_by_all is True:
2081            modifier = " ALL"
2082        elif group_by_all is False:
2083            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2084        else:
2085            modifier = ""
2086
2087        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2088
2089        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2090        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2091        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2092
2093        groupings = csv(
2094            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2095            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2096            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2097            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2098            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2099        )
2100
2101        if (
2102            expression.expressions
2103            and groupings
2104            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2105        ):
2106            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2107
2108        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2109
2110    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2111        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2112        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2113
2114    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2115        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2116        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2117        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2118        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2119        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2120        return start + connect
2121
2122    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2123        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2124
2125    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2126        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2127            side = None
2128        else:
2129            side = expression.side
2130
2131        op_sql = " ".join(
2132            op
2133            for op in (
2134                expression.method,
2135                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2136                side,
2137                expression.kind,
2138                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2139            )
2140            if op
2141        )
2142        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2143        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2144        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2145        using = expression.args.get("using")
2146
2147        if not on_sql and using:
2148            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2149
2150        this = expression.this
2151        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2152
2153        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2154        if exprs:
2155            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2156
2157        if on_sql:
2158            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2159            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2160            if using:
2161                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2162            else:
2163                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2164        elif not op_sql:
2165            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2166                return f" {this_sql}"
2167
2168            return f", {this_sql}"
2169
2170        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2171            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2172
2173        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2174
2175    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2176        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2177        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2178        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2179
2180    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2181        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2182
2183        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2184        if cross_apply is True:
2185            op = "INNER JOIN "
2186        elif cross_apply is False:
2187            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2188        else:
2189            op = ""
2190
2191        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2192
2193    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2194        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2195
2196        if expression.args.get("view"):
2197            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2198            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2199            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2200            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2201            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2202            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2203
2204        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2205        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2206        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2207
2208    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2209        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2210
2211        args = [
2212            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2213            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2214            if e
2215        ]
2216
2217        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2218        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2219        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2220        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2221
2222        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2223
2224    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2225        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2226        value = expression.expression
2227        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2228        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2229        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2230        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2231
2232    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2233        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2234        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2235        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2236        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2237        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2238        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2239        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2240        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2241
2242    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2243        expressions = (
2244            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2245        )
2246        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2247        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2248
2249    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2250        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2251
2252    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2253        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2254            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2255            return ""
2256
2257        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2258        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2259        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2260        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2261
2262        if wait is not None:
2263            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2264                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2265            else:
2266                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2267
2268        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2269
2270    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2271        text = expression.this or ""
2272        if expression.is_string:
2273            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2274        return text
2275
2276    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2277        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2278            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2279            text = "".join(
2280                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2281            )
2282
2283        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2284            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2285        )
2286
2287    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2288        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2289        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2290        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2291        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2292        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2293        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2294        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2295        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2296        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2297        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2298        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2299
2300    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2301        return "NULL"
2302
2303    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2304        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2305
2306    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2307        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2308        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2309        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2310        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2311
2312    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2313        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2314        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2315        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2316        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2317        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2318        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2319        interpolated_values = [
2320            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2321            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2322            else self.sql(e, "this")
2323            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2324        ]
2325        interpolate = (
2326            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2327        )
2328        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2329
2330    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2331        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2332
2333    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2334        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2335
2336    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2337        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2338
2339    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2340        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2341        asc = not desc
2342
2343        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2344        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2345        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2346        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2347        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2348
2349        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2350
2351        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2352        nulls_sort_change = ""
2353        if nulls_first and (
2354            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2355        ):
2356            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2357        elif (
2358            nulls_last
2359            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2360            and not nulls_are_last
2361        ):
2362            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2363
2364        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2365        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2366            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2367            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2368                self.unsupported(
2369                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2370                )
2371                nulls_sort_change = ""
2372            elif (
2373                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
2374                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
2375                and (
2376                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2377                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2378                )
2379            ):
2380                self.unsupported(
2381                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2382                )
2383                nulls_sort_change = ""
2384            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2385                if expression.this.is_int:
2386                    self.unsupported(
2387                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2388                    )
2389                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2390                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2391                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2392                nulls_sort_change = ""
2393
2394        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2395        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2396
2397        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2398
2399    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2400        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2401        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2402
2403        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2404
2405        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2406
2407    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2408        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2409        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2410        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2411        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2412        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2413        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2414        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2415        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2416        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2417        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2418        definition_sqls = [
2419            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2420            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2421        ]
2422        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2423        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2424        body = "".join(
2425            (
2426                partition,
2427                order,
2428                measures,
2429                rows,
2430                after,
2431                pattern,
2432                define,
2433            )
2434        )
2435        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2436        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2437        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2438
2439    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2440        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2441
2442        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2443            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2444        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2445            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2446
2447        return csv(
2448            *sqls,
2449            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2450            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2451            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2452            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2453            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2454            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2455            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2456            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2457            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2458            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2459            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2460            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2461            self.options_modifier(expression),
2462            sep="",
2463        )
2464
2465    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2466        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2467        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2468
2469    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2470        return ""
2471
2472    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2473        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2474    ) -> t.List[str]:
2475        return [
2476            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2477            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2478        ]
2479
2480    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2481        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2482        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2483        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2484
2485    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2486        into = expression.args.get("into")
2487        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2488            into.pop()
2489
2490        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2491        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2492        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2493        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2494
2495        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2496        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2497            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2498            limit.pop()
2499        else:
2500            top = ""
2501
2502        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2503
2504        if kind:
2505            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2506                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2507            else:
2508                if kind == "STRUCT":
2509                    expressions = self.expressions(
2510                        sqls=[
2511                            self.sql(
2512                                exp.Struct(
2513                                    expressions=[
2514                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2515                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2516                                        else e
2517                                        for e in expression.expressions
2518                                    ]
2519                                )
2520                            )
2521                        ]
2522                    )
2523                kind = ""
2524
2525        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2526        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2527
2528        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2529        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2530        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2531        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2532        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2533            expression,
2534            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2535            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2536            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2537        )
2538
2539        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2540        if expression.args.get("with"):
2541            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2542            expression.pop_comments()
2543
2544        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2545
2546        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2547            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2548                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2549            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2550                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2551            else:
2552                table_kind = ""
2553            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2554
2555        return sql
2556
2557    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2558        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2559        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2560        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2561
2562    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2563        if expression.expressions:
2564            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2565        return ""
2566
2567    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2568        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2569        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2570        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2571        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2572        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2573        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2574        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2575
2576    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2577        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2578        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2579
2580    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2581        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2582        kind = expression.text("kind")
2583        if kind:
2584            kind = f"{kind}."
2585        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2586
2587    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2588        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2589
2590    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2591        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2592        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2593        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2594        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2595            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2596
2597            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2598            expression.set("sample", None)
2599
2600        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2601        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2602        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2603
2604    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2605        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2606        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2607
2608    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2609        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2610
2611        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2612        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2613
2614        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2615            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2616                alias.append("columns", offset)
2617
2618        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2619            columns = alias.columns
2620            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2621        else:
2622            alias = self.sql(alias)
2623
2624        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2625        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2626            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2627        else:
2628            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2629                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2630            elif offset:
2631                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2632            else:
2633                suffix = alias
2634
2635        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2636
2637    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2638        return ""
2639
2640    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2641        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2642        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2643
2644    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2645        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2646        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2647        order = expression.args.get("order")
2648        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2649        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2650        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2651        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2652
2653        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2654
2655        first = expression.args.get("first")
2656        if first is None:
2657            first = ""
2658        else:
2659            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2660
2661        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2662            return f"{this} {alias}"
2663
2664        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2665        return f"{this} ({args})"
2666
2667    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2668        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2669        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2670
2671    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2672        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2673        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2674        end = (
2675            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2676            or "CURRENT ROW"
2677        )
2678        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2679
2680    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2681        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2682        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2683        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2684
2685    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2686        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2687        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2688        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2689        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2690
2691    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2692        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2693    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2694        return apply_index_offset(
2695            expression.this,
2696            expression.expressions,
2697            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2698        )
2699
2700    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2701        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2702        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2703        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2704
2705    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2706        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2707
2708    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2709        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2710        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2711            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2712                this = self.wrap(this)
2713            return f"ANY{this}"
2714        return f"ANY {this}"
2715
2716    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2717        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2718
2719    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2720        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2721        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2722
2723        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2724            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2725            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2726
2727        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2728
2729        if default:
2730            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2731
2732        statements.append("END")
2733
2734        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2735            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2736
2737        return " ".join(statements)
2738
2739    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2740        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2741        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2742        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2743
2744    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2745        order = expression.args.get("order")
2746        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2747        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2748
2749    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2750        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2751        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2752        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2753
2754    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2755        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2756
2757        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2758            func_name = "LTRIM"
2759        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2760            func_name = "RTRIM"
2761        else:
2762            func_name = "TRIM"
2763
2764        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2765
2766    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2767        args = expression.expressions
2768        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2769            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2770
2771        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2772            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2773
2774        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2775            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2776
2777        return args
2778
2779    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2780        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2781
2782        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2783        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2784            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2785
2786        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2787
2788    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2789        return self.func(
2790            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2791        )
2792
2793    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2794        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2795        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2796
2797    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2798        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2799        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2800        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2801        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2802        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2803        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2804        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2805        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2806
2807    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2808        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2809        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2810        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2811        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2812
2813    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2814        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2815
2816    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2817        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2818        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2819        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2820
2821    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2822        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2823
2824    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2825        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2826
2827        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2828            path = self.escape_str(path)
2829
2830        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2831            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2832
2833        return path
2834
2835    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2836        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2837            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2838            if not callable(transform):
2839                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2840                return ""
2841
2842            return transform(self, expression)
2843
2844        if isinstance(expression, int):
2845            return str(expression)
2846
2847        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2848            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2849            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2850        else:
2851            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2852            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2853
2854        return escaped
2855
2856    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2857        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2858
2859    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2860        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2861        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2862
2863        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2864        if unique_keys is not None:
2865            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2866        else:
2867            unique_keys = ""
2868
2869        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2870        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2871        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2872        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2873
2874        return self.func(
2875            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2876            *expression.expressions,
2877            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2878        )
2879
2880    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2881        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2882
2883    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2884        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2885        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2886        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2887        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2888        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2889        return self.func(
2890            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2891        )
2892
2893    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2894        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2895        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2896        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2897        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2898        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2899        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2900        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2901        return self.func(
2902            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2903            this,
2904            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2905        )
2906
2907    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2908        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2909        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2910        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2911
2912        if nested_schema:
2913            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2914
2915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2916        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2917        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2918        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2919
2920    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2921        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2922
2923    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2925        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2926        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2927        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2928        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2929        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2930        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2931        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2932        return self.func(
2933            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2934        )
2935
2936    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2937        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2938        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2939        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2940        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2941        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2942        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2943
2944    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2945        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2946        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2947        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2948        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2949        with_ = (
2950            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2951            if expressions
2952            else ""
2953        )
2954        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2955
2956    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2957        query = expression.args.get("query")
2958        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2959        field = expression.args.get("field")
2960        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2961
2962        if query:
2963            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2964        elif unnest:
2965            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2966        elif field:
2967            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2968        else:
2969            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2970
2971        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2972
2973    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2974        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2975
2976    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2977        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2978        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2979            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2980        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2981
2982        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2983            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2984            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2985
2986        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2987        if this:
2988            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2989            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2990
2991        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2992
2993    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2994        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2995
2996    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2997        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2998        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2999        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3000        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3001        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3002        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
3003
3004    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3005        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3006        parent = expression.parent
3007        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3008        return self.func(
3009            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3010        )
3011
3012    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3013        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3014        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3015
3016    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3017        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3018        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3019        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3020        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3021
3022    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3023        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3024
3025    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3026        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3027        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3028        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3029
3030    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3031        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3032
3033        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3034        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3035
3036        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3037            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3038        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3039            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3040
3041        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3042
3043    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3044        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3045
3046    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3047        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3048        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3049        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3050
3051    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3052        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3053        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3054        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3055
3056    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3057        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3058        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3059        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3060
3061    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3062        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3063
3064    def and_sql(
3065        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3066    ) -> str:
3067        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3068
3069    def or_sql(
3070        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3071    ) -> str:
3072        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3073
3074    def xor_sql(
3075        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3076    ) -> str:
3077        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3078
3079    def connector_sql(
3080        self,
3081        expression: exp.Connector,
3082        op: str,
3083        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3084    ) -> str:
3085        if stack is not None:
3086            if expression.expressions:
3087                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3088            else:
3089                stack.append(expression.right)
3090                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3091                    for comment in expression.comments:
3092                        if comment:
3093                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3094                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3095            return op
3096
3097        stack = [expression]
3098        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3099        ops = set()
3100
3101        while stack:
3102            node = stack.pop()
3103            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3104                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3105            else:
3106                sql = self.sql(node)
3107                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3108                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3109                else:
3110                    sqls.append(sql)
3111
3112        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3113        return sep.join(sqls)
3114
3115    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3116        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3117
3118    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3119        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3120
3121    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3122        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3123
3124    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3125        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3126
3127    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3128        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3129
3130    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3131        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3132
3133    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3134        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3135        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3136        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3137        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3138        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3139        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3140        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3141
3142    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3143        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3144        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3145
3146    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3147        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3148            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3149        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3150
3151    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3152        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3153
3154    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3155        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3156        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3157        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3158        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3159        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3160        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3161
3162    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3163        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3164        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3165        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3166        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3167        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3168        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3169        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3170        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3171        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3172
3173    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3174        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3175        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3176        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3177        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3178
3179        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3180            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3181
3182        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3183
3184    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3185        return "BEGIN"
3186
3187    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3188        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3189        if chain is not None:
3190            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3191
3192        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3193
3194    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3195        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3196        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3197        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3198
3199    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3200        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3201
3202        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3203        if dtype:
3204            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3205            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3206            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3207            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3208            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3209
3210        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3211        if default:
3212            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3213
3214        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3215        if comment:
3216            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3217
3218        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3219        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3220
3221        if not drop and not allow_null:
3222            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3223
3224        if allow_null is not None:
3225            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3226            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3227
3228        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3229
3230    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3231        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3232        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3233            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3234        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3235
3236    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3237        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3239        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3240        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3241        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3242
3243    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3244        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3245            # Remove db from tables
3246            expression = expression.transform(
3247                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3248            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3249        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3250        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3251
3252    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3253        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3254        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3255        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3256        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3257
3258    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3259        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3260        return f"SET {exprs}"
3261
3262    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3263        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3264
3265        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3266            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3267        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3268            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3269        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3270            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3271        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3272            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3273        else:
3274            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3275
3276        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3277        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3278        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3279        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3280        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3281        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3282        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3283        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3284
3285        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3286
3287    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3288        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3289            return self.expressions(
3290                expression,
3291                key="actions",
3292                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3293                skip_first=True,
3294            )
3295        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3296
3297    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3298        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3299        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3300        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3301
3302    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3303        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3304
3305    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3306        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3307
3308        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3309            case = exp.case()
3310            for arg in expression.expressions:
3311                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3312            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3313
3314        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3315
3316        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3317        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3318        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3319
3320    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3321        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3322
3323    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3324        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3325
3326    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3327        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3328        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3329        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3330        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3331
3332    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3333        return self.sql(
3334            exp.Cast(
3335                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3336                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3337            )
3338        )
3339
3340    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3341        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3342            return self.func(
3343                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3344            )
3345        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3346
3347    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3348        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3349
3350        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3351            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3352
3353        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3354            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3355                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3356
3357        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3358            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3359                return self.sql(
3360                    exp.cast(
3361                        l / r,
3362                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3363                    )
3364                )
3365
3366        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3367
3368    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3369        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3370
3371    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3372        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3373
3374    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3375        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3376
3377    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3378        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3379
3380    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3381        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3382
3383    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3384        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3385
3386    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3387        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3388
3389    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3390        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3391
3392    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3393        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3394
3395    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3396        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3397
3398    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3399        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3400
3401    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3402        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3403            return self.sql(
3404                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3405            )
3406        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3407
3408    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3409        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3410
3411    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3412        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3413
3414    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3415        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3416
3417    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3418        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3419
3420    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3421        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3422
3423    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3424        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3425
3426    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3427        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3428
3429    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3430        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3431
3432    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3433        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3434
3435    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3436        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3437
3438    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3439        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3440
3441    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3442        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3443
3444    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3445        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3446
3447    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3448        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3449            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3450            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3451
3452        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3453
3454    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3455        this = expression.this
3456        expr = expression.expression
3457
3458        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3459            this, expr = expr, this
3460        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3461            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3462                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3463
3464            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3465
3466        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3467
3468    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3469        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3470        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3471        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3472        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3473        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3474
3475    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3476        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3477        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3478        binary_type = type(expression)
3479
3480        while stack:
3481            node = stack.pop()
3482
3483            if type(node) is binary_type:
3484                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3485                if op_func:
3486                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3487
3488                stack.append(node.right)
3489                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3490                stack.append(node.left)
3491            else:
3492                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3493
3494        return "".join(sqls)
3495
3496    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3497        args = []
3498
3499        for key in expression.arg_types:
3500            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3501
3502            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3503                for value in arg_value:
3504                    args.append(value)
3505            elif arg_value is not None:
3506                args.append(arg_value)
3507
3508        if self.normalize_functions:
3509            name = expression.sql_name()
3510        else:
3511            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3512
3513        return self.func(name, *args)
3514
3515    def func(
3516        self,
3517        name: str,
3518        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3519        prefix: str = "(",
3520        suffix: str = ")",
3521        normalize: bool = True,
3522    ) -> str:
3523        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3524        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3525
3526    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3527        arg_sqls = tuple(
3528            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3529        )
3530        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3531            return self.indent(
3532                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3533            )
3534        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
3535
3536    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3537        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3538
3539    def format_time(
3540        self,
3541        expression: exp.Expression,
3542        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3543        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3544    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3545        return format_time(
3546            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3547            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3548            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3549        )
3550
3551    def expressions(
3552        self,
3553        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3554        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3555        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3556        flat: bool = False,
3557        indent: bool = True,
3558        skip_first: bool = False,
3559        skip_last: bool = False,
3560        sep: str = ", ",
3561        prefix: str = "",
3562        dynamic: bool = False,
3563        new_line: bool = False,
3564    ) -> str:
3565        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3566
3567        if not expressions:
3568            return ""
3569
3570        if flat:
3571            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3572
3573        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3574        result_sqls = []
3575
3576        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3577            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3578            if not sql:
3579                continue
3580
3581            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3582
3583            if self.pretty:
3584                if self.leading_comma:
3585                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3586                else:
3587                    result_sqls.append(
3588                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3589                    )
3590            else:
3591                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3592
3593        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3594            if new_line:
3595                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3596                result_sqls.append("")
3597            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3598        else:
3599            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3600
3601        return (
3602            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3603            if indent
3604            else result_sql
3605        )
3606
3607    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3608        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3609        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3610        if flat:
3611            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3612        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3613
3614    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3615        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3616        if not property_name:
3617            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3618        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3619
3620    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3621        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3622
3623    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3624        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3625
3626    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3627        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3628        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3629        expressions = (
3630            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3631        )
3632        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
3633
3634    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3635        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3636        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3637        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3638
3639    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3640        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3641
3642    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3643        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3644        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3645        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3646        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3647
3648        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3649        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3650            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3651            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3652            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3653            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3654        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3655            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3656                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3657            else:
3658                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3659        else:
3660            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3661        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3662
3663    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3664        table = expression.this
3665        table_alias = ""
3666
3667        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3668        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3669            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3670            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3671
3672        this = self.sql(table)
3673        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3674        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3675        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3676        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3677        if returning:
3678            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
3679
3680        sep = self.sep()
3681
3682        return self.prepend_ctes(
3683            expression,
3684            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
3685        )
3686
3687    @unsupported_args("format")
3688    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3689        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3690
3691    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3692        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3693            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3694            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3695
3696        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3697        if not fmt:
3698            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3699            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3700
3701        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3702
3703    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3704        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3705        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3706        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3707        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3708        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3709
3710    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3711        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3712        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3713        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3714        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3715
3716    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3717        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3718
3719    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3720        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3721
3722    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3723    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3724        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3725        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3726        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3727        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3728        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3729        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3730        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3731
3732    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3733        return ""
3734
3735    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3736        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3737        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3738        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3739        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3740        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3741
3742    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3743        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3744        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3745
3746        if having:
3747            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3748
3749        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3750
3751    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3752        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3753        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3754        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3755        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3756        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3757        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3758        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3759        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3760        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3761        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3762        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3763        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3764        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3765
3766    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3767        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3768        if key_block_size:
3769            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3770
3771        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3772        if using:
3773            return f"USING {using}"
3774
3775        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3776        if parser:
3777            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3778
3779        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3780        if comment:
3781            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3782
3783        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3784        if visible is not None:
3785            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3786
3787        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3788        if engine_attr:
3789            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3790
3791        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3792        if secondary_engine_attr:
3793            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3794
3795        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3796        return ""
3797
3798    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3799        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3800        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3801
3802    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3803        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3804        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3805        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3806        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3807        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3808        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3809        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3810        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3811        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3812        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3813        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3814
3815    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3816        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3817            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3818
3819        case = exp.Case().when(
3820            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3821            expression.args["true"],
3822            copy=False,
3823        )
3824        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3825        if else_cond:
3826            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3827
3828        return self.sql(case)
3829
3830    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3831        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3832        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3833        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3834        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3835        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3836        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3837
3838    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3839        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3840
3841    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3842        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3843
3844    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3845        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3846        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3847        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3848        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3849        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3850        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3851
3852    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3854        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3855        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3856
3857    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3858        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3859        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3860        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3861
3862    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3863        arg = expression.this
3864        if not arg.type:
3865            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3866
3867            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3868
3869        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3870            return self.sql(arg)
3871
3872        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3873        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3874
3875    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3876        this = expression.this
3877        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3878            return self.sql(this)
3879
3880        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3881
3882    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3883        this = expression.this
3884        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3885            return self.sql(this)
3886
3887        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3888
3889    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3890        this = expression.this
3891        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3892
3893        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3894            return self.sql(
3895                exp.cast(
3896                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3897                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3898                )
3899            )
3900
3901        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3902            return self.sql(this)
3903
3904        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3905
3906    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3907        return self.sql(
3908            exp.func(
3909                "DATEDIFF",
3910                expression.this,
3911                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3912                "day",
3913            )
3914        )
3915
3916    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3917        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3918            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3919
3920        unit = expression.text("unit")
3921        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3922            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3923
3924        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3925
3926    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3927        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3928
3929        return self.func(
3930            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3931        )
3932
3933    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3934        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3935            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3936            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3937            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3938            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3939
3940        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3941
3942        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3943        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3944            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3945
3946        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3947
3948    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3949        expression.set(
3950            "expressions",
3951            [
3952                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3953                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3954                else e
3955                for e in expression.expressions
3956            ],
3957        )
3958
3959        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3960
3961    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3962        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3963        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3964
3965        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3966
3967    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3968        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3969        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3970
3971        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3972
3973        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3974        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3975
3976        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3977        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3978
3979        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3980        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3981
3982        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3983        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3984
3985        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3986
3987    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3988    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3989    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3990        to = expression.this
3991        value = expression.expression
3992        style = expression.args.get("style")
3993        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3994        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3995
3996        if not to or not value:
3997            return ""
3998
3999        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4000        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4001            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4002
4003        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4004        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4005
4006        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4007        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4008            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4009
4010            style_value = style.name
4011            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4012            if not converted_style:
4013                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4014
4015            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4016
4017            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4018                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4019            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
4020                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4021            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4022                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4023            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4024                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4025
4026        if not transformed:
4027            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4028
4029        return self.sql(transformed)
4030
4031    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4032        this = expression.this
4033        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4034            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4035            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4036
4037        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4038            return f".{this}"
4039
4040        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4041        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
4042
4043    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4044        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4045        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4046
4047    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4048        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4049            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4050
4051            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4052
4053        return expression
4054
4055    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4056        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4057            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4058            mods = sorted(
4059                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4060                key=lambda x: 0
4061                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4062                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4063            )
4064
4065            if mods:
4066                mod = mods[0]
4067                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4068                this.meta["inline"] = True
4069                mod.this.replace(this)
4070                return self.sql(expression.this)
4071
4072            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4073
4074            if agg_func:
4075                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4076
4077        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4078
4079    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4080        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4081        if self.pretty:
4082            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4083        return string
4084
4085    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4086        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4087
4088        if expression.expressions:
4089            upper = option.upper()
4090
4091            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4092            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4093
4094            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4095            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4096            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4097            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4098
4099        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4100
4101        if not value:
4102            return option
4103
4104        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4105
4106        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4107
4108    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4109        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4110        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4111            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4112            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4113            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4114        else:
4115            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4116            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4117            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4118
4119        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4120        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4121
4122        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4123        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4124
4125        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4126        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4127
4128        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4129        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4130
4131        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4132
4133    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4134        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4135        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4136
4137        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4138        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4139        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4140        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4141
4142        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4143        params = self.expressions(
4144            expression,
4145            key="params",
4146            sep=sep,
4147            new_line=True,
4148            skip_last=True,
4149            skip_first=True,
4150            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4151        )
4152
4153        if params:
4154            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4155                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4156            elif not self.pretty:
4157                params = f" {params}"
4158
4159        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4160
4161    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4162        return ""
4163
4164    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4165        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4166        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4167        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4168        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4169        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4170
4171        if filter_col or retention_period:
4172            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4173
4174        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4175
4176    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4177        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4178    ) -> str:
4179        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4180        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4181        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4182        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4183
4184    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4185        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4186        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4187        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4188
4189    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4190        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4191
4192    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4193        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4194        expr = expression.expression
4195
4196        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4197            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4198            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4199        else:
4200            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4201
4202        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4203
4204    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4205        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4206            return self.sql(expression.this)
4207
4208        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4209
4210    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4211        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4212        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4213
4214        if lower and upper:
4215            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4216        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4217
4218    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4219        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4220        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4221        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4222        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4223        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4224        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4225
4226        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4227
4228    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4229        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4230
4231        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4232        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4233            fill_pattern = "' '"
4234
4235        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4236
4237    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4238        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4239        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4240
4241    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4242        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4243
4244        parent = expression.parent
4245        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4246            parent = parent.parent
4247
4248        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4249            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4250
4251        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4252            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4253
4254        return self.sql(generate_series)
4255
4256    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4257        exprs = expression.expressions
4258        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4259            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4260        else:
4261            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4262
4263        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
4264
4265    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4266        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4267            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4268
4269        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4270        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4271        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4272
4273        if source_tz and timestamp:
4274            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4275                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4276            )
4277
4278        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4279
4280        return self.sql(expr)
4281
4282    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4283        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4284        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4285
4286        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4287
4288        if _with is None:
4289            with_sql = ""
4290        elif not _with:
4291            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4292        else:
4293            with_sql = " WITH"
4294
4295        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4296
4297        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4298
4299    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4300        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4301            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4302
4303        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4304        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4305        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4306
4307        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4308        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4309
4310        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4311
4312    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4313        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4314        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4315        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4316        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4317        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4318
4319    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4320        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4321        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4322        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4323        return res
4324
4325    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4326        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4327        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4328        empty = (
4329            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4330            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4331            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4332        )
4333
4334        error = expression.args.get("error")
4335        error = (
4336            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4337            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4338            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4339        )
4340
4341        if error and empty:
4342            error = (
4343                f"{empty} {error}"
4344                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4345                else f"{error} {empty}"
4346            )
4347            empty = ""
4348
4349        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4350
4351        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4352
4353    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4354        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4355        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4356
4357        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4358        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4359
4360        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4361        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4362
4363        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4364
4365        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4366
4367    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4368        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4369
4370        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4371        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4372        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4373            parent = expression.parent
4374            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4375                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4376                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4377            else:
4378                this = expression.this
4379                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4380                if this.find(exp.Column):
4381                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4382                    this_sql = (
4383                        self.expressions(this)
4384                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4385                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4386                    )
4387
4388                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4389
4390        return array_agg
4391
4392    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4393        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4394        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4395
4396        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4397
4398    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4399        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4400
4401        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4402        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4403
4404        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4405        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4406
4407        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4408
4409        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4410
4411        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4412
4413    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4414        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4415        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4416        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4417
4418        return f"{this}{columns}"
4419
4420    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4421        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4422
4423        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4424        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4425
4426        return f"{kind}{this}"
4427
4428    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4429        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4430        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4431            func = f"*{func}"
4432
4433        return func
4434
4435    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4436        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4437        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4438        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4439        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4440        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4441
4442        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
4443
4444    @unsupported_args("format")
4445    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4446        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
4447
4448    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4449        this = expression.this
4450        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4451
4452        if zone:
4453            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4454            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4455            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4456            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4457                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4458            )
4459
4460        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
4461
4462    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4463        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4464            return self.sql(
4465                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4466            )
4467
4468        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4469
4470    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4471        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4472        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4473        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4474        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"