sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  50            Default: 2.
  51        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  54            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  55            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  56            False: Disables function name normalization.
  57        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  58            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  59        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  60            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  61            Default: 3
  62        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  63            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  64            Default: False
  65        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  66            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  67            line length.
  68            Default: 80
  69        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  70            Default: True
  71    """
  72
  73    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  74        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  75        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  77        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  78        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  80        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  82        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  83        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  84        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  87        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  88            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  89        ),
  90        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  94        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  95        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  96        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
  97        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  99        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 100        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 101        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 102        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 103        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
 104        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 105        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 106        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 107        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 108        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self,
 109        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 110        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 111        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 112        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 113        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 114        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 115        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 116        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 117        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 118        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 119        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 120        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 121        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 122        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self,
 123        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 124        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 125        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: "TEMPORARY",
 126        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 128        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 129        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 130        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "UPPERCASE",
 131        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 132        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 133        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134    }
 135
 136    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 137    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 138    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 139
 140    # Whether or not ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 141    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 142    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 143
 144    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 145    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 146
 147    # Always do union distinct or union all
 148    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 149
 150    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 151    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 152
 153    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 154    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 155
 156    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 157    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 158
 159    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 160    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 161
 162    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 163    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 164
 165    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 166    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 167
 168    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 169    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 170
 171    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 172    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 173
 174    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 175    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 176
 177    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 178    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 179
 180    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 181    JOIN_HINTS = True
 182
 183    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 184    TABLE_HINTS = True
 185
 186    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 187    QUERY_HINTS = True
 188
 189    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 190    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 191
 192    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 193    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 194
 195    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 196    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 197
 198    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 199    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 200
 201    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 202    RETURNING_END = True
 203
 204    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 205    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 206
 207    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 208    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 209
 210    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 211    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 212
 213    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 214    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 215
 216    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 217    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 218
 219    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 220    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 221    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 222    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 223
 224    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 225    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 226
 227    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 228    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 229
 230    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 231    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 232
 233    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 234    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 235
 236    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 237    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 238
 239    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 240    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 241
 242    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 243    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 244
 245    # Whether or not a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 246    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 247
 248    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 249    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 250
 251    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 252    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 253
 254    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 255    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 256
 257    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 258    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 259
 260    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 261    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 262
 263    # Whether or not conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 264    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 265
 266    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 267    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 268
 269    # Whether or not CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 270    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 271
 272    # Whether or not LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 273    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 274
 275    # Whether or not named columns are allowed in table aliases
 276    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 277
 278    # Whether or not UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 279    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 280
 281    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 282    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 283
 284    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 285    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 286
 287    # Whether or not the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 288    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 289
 290    # Whether or not UNLOGGED tables can be created
 291    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 292
 293    # Whether or not the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 294    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 295
 296    # Whether or not the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 297    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 298
 299    # Whether or not DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 300    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 301    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 302
 303    # Whether or not the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 304    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 305
 306    # Whether or not bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 307    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 308
 309    # Whether or not to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 310    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 311
 312    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 313    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 314
 315    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 316        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 317        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 318        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 319        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 320        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 321        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 322        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 323        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 324        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 325    }
 326
 327    STAR_MAPPING = {
 328        "except": "EXCEPT",
 329        "replace": "REPLACE",
 330    }
 331
 332    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 333        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 334        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 335        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 336        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 337        "DAYS": "DAY",
 338        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 339        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 340        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 341        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 342    }
 343
 344    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 345
 346    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 347
 348    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 349
 350    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 351        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 352        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 353        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 354        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 355        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 356        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 357        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 358        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 359        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 360        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 361        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 362        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 363        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 364        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 365        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 366        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 367        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 368        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 369        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 370        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 371        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 372        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 373        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 374        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 375        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 376        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 377        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 378        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 379        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 380        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 381        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 382        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 383        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 384        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 385        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 386        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 387        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 388        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 389        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 390        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 391        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 392        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 393        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 394        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 395        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 396        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 397        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 398        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 399        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 400        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 401        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 402        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 403        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 404        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 405        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 406        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 407        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 408        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 409        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 410        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 411        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 412        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 413        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 414        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 415        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 416        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 417        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 418        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 419    }
 420
 421    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 422    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 423
 424    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 425    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 426        exp.Create,
 427        exp.Delete,
 428        exp.Drop,
 429        exp.From,
 430        exp.Insert,
 431        exp.Join,
 432        exp.Select,
 433        exp.Update,
 434        exp.Where,
 435        exp.With,
 436    )
 437
 438    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 439    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 440        exp.Binary,
 441        exp.Union,
 442    )
 443
 444    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 445    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 446        exp.Column,
 447        exp.Literal,
 448        exp.Neg,
 449        exp.Paren,
 450    )
 451
 452    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 453    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 454
 455    KEY_VALUE_DEFINITIONS = (exp.Bracket, exp.EQ, exp.PropertyEQ, exp.Slice)
 456
 457    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 458
 459    __slots__ = (
 460        "pretty",
 461        "identify",
 462        "normalize",
 463        "pad",
 464        "_indent",
 465        "normalize_functions",
 466        "unsupported_level",
 467        "max_unsupported",
 468        "leading_comma",
 469        "max_text_width",
 470        "comments",
 471        "dialect",
 472        "unsupported_messages",
 473        "_escaped_quote_end",
 474        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 475    )
 476
 477    def __init__(
 478        self,
 479        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 480        identify: str | bool = False,
 481        normalize: bool = False,
 482        pad: int = 2,
 483        indent: int = 2,
 484        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 485        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 486        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 487        leading_comma: bool = False,
 488        max_text_width: int = 80,
 489        comments: bool = True,
 490        dialect: DialectType = None,
 491    ):
 492        import sqlglot
 493        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 494
 495        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 496        self.identify = identify
 497        self.normalize = normalize
 498        self.pad = pad
 499        self._indent = indent
 500        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 501        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 502        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 503        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 504        self.comments = comments
 505        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 506
 507        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 508        self.normalize_functions = (
 509            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 510        )
 511
 512        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 513        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 514            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 515        )
 516        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 517            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 518        )
 519
 520    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 521        """
 522        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 523
 524        Args:
 525            expression: The syntax tree.
 526            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 527                it is safer to copy.
 528
 529        Returns:
 530            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 531        """
 532        if copy:
 533            expression = expression.copy()
 534
 535        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 536
 537        self.unsupported_messages = []
 538        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 539
 540        if self.pretty:
 541            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 542
 543        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 544            return sql
 545
 546        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 547            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 548                logger.warning(msg)
 549        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 550            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 551
 552        return sql
 553
 554    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 555        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 556        if (
 557            not expression.parent
 558            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 559            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 560        ):
 561            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 562
 563            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 564
 565        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 566            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 567
 568            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 569
 570        return expression
 571
 572    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 573        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 574            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 575        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 576
 577    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 578        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 579
 580    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 581        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 582
 583    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 584        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 585        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 586        return comment
 587
 588    def maybe_comment(
 589        self,
 590        sql: str,
 591        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 592        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 593    ) -> str:
 594        comments = (
 595            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 596            if self.comments
 597            else None
 598        )
 599
 600        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 601            return sql
 602
 603        comments_sql = " ".join(
 604            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 605        )
 606
 607        if not comments_sql:
 608            return sql
 609
 610        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 611            return (
 612                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 613                if sql[0].isspace()
 614                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 615            )
 616
 617        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 618
 619    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 620        this_sql = self.indent(
 621            (
 622                self.sql(expression)
 623                if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 624                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 625            ),
 626            level=1,
 627            pad=0,
 628        )
 629        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 630
 631    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 632        original = self.identify
 633        self.identify = False
 634        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 635        self.identify = original
 636        return result
 637
 638    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 639        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 640            return name.upper()
 641        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 642            return name.lower()
 643        return name
 644
 645    def indent(
 646        self,
 647        sql: str,
 648        level: int = 0,
 649        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 650        skip_first: bool = False,
 651        skip_last: bool = False,
 652    ) -> str:
 653        if not self.pretty:
 654            return sql
 655
 656        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 657        lines = sql.split("\n")
 658
 659        return "\n".join(
 660            (
 661                line
 662                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 663                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 664            )
 665            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 666        )
 667
 668    def sql(
 669        self,
 670        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 671        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 672        comment: bool = True,
 673    ) -> str:
 674        if not expression:
 675            return ""
 676
 677        if isinstance(expression, str):
 678            return expression
 679
 680        if key:
 681            value = expression.args.get(key)
 682            if value:
 683                return self.sql(value)
 684            return ""
 685
 686        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 687
 688        if callable(transform):
 689            sql = transform(self, expression)
 690        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 691            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 692
 693            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 694                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 695            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 696                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 697            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 698                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 699            else:
 700                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 701        else:
 702            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 703
 704        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 705
 706    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 707        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 708        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 709        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 710
 711    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 712        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 713        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 714        options = expression.args.get("options")
 715        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 716        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 717        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 718        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 719        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 720
 721    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 722        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 723            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 724        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 725        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 726
 727    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 728        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 729
 730        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 731            join_mark = ""
 732            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 733
 734        column = ".".join(
 735            self.sql(part)
 736            for part in (
 737                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 738                expression.args.get("db"),
 739                expression.args.get("table"),
 740                expression.args.get("this"),
 741            )
 742            if part
 743        )
 744
 745        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 746
 747    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 749        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 750        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 751        return f"{position}{this}"
 752
 753    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 754        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 755        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 756        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 757        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 758        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 759        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 760        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 761        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 762
 763        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 764            kind = ""
 765
 766        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 767
 768    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 769        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 770        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 771        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 772
 773    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 774        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 775        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 776            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 777        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 778            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 779        else:
 780            persisted = ""
 781        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 782
 783    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 784        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 785
 786    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 787        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 788            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 789        else:
 790            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 791
 792        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 793
 794    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 795        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 796    ) -> str:
 797        this = ""
 798        if expression.this is not None:
 799            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 800            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 801
 802        start = expression.args.get("start")
 803        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 804        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 805        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 806        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 807        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 808        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 809        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 810        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 811        cycle_sql = ""
 812
 813        if cycle is not None:
 814            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 815            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 816
 817        sequence_opts = ""
 818        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 819            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 820            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 821
 822        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 823        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 824
 825        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 826
 827    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 828        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 829    ) -> str:
 830        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 831        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 832        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 833
 834    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 835        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 836    ) -> str:
 837        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 838
 839    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 840        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 841
 842    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 843        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 844
 845    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 846        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 847        if desc is not None:
 848            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 849        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 850
 851    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 852        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 853        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 854        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 855        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 856        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 857
 858    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 859        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 860
 861    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 862        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 863        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 864        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 865
 866        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 867
 868        properties_sql = ""
 869        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 870            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 871        ):
 872            properties_sql = self.sql(
 873                exp.Properties(
 874                    expressions=[
 875                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 876                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 877                    ]
 878                )
 879            )
 880
 881        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 882        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 883
 884        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 885        if expression_sql:
 886            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 887
 888            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 889                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 890                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 891                        exp.Properties(
 892                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 893                        ),
 894                        wrapped=False,
 895                    )
 896                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 897                else:
 898                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 899
 900        postindex_props_sql = ""
 901        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 902            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 903                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 904                wrapped=False,
 905                prefix=" ",
 906            )
 907
 908        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 909        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 910        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 911
 912        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 913        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 914
 915        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 916        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 917            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 918                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 919                sep=" ",
 920                prefix=" ",
 921                wrapped=False,
 922            )
 923
 924        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 925
 926        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 927        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 928            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 929                exp.Properties(
 930                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 931                ),
 932                sep=" ",
 933                prefix=" ",
 934                wrapped=False,
 935            )
 936
 937        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 938        no_schema_binding = (
 939            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 940        )
 941
 942        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 943        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 944
 945        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 946        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 947
 948    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 949        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 950        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 951        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 952        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 953
 954    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 955        extended = " EXTENDED" if expression.args.get("extended") else ""
 956        return f"DESCRIBE{extended} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 957
 958    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
 959        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
 960        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
 961
 962    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 963        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 964        if with_:
 965            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 966        return sql
 967
 968    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 969        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 970        recursive = (
 971            "RECURSIVE "
 972            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 973            else ""
 974        )
 975
 976        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 977
 978    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 979        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 980        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 981
 982    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 983        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 984        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 985        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 986
 987        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
 988            columns = ""
 989            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
 990
 991        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 992            alias = "_t"
 993
 994        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 995
 996    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 997        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 998        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
 999            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1000        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1001
1002    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1003        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1004        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1005            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1006        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1007
1008    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1009        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1010        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1011            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1012        return this
1013
1014    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1015        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1016        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1017
1018        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1019            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1020            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1021
1022        if escape:
1023            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1024        else:
1025            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1026
1027        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1028        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1029
1030    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1031        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
1032        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1033
1034    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1035        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1036        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1037        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1038        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1039
1040    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1041        type_value = expression.this
1042
1043        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1044            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1045        else:
1046            type_sql = (
1047                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1048                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1049                else type_value
1050            )
1051
1052        nested = ""
1053        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1054        values = ""
1055
1056        if interior:
1057            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1058                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1059                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1060                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1061                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1062                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1063            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1064                nested = f" {interior}"
1065            else:
1066                nested = f"({interior})"
1067
1068        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1069        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1070            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1071            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1072        ):
1073            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1074
1075        return type_sql
1076
1077    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1078        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1079        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1080        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1081        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1082
1083    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1084        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1085        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1086        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1087        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1088        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1089        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1090        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1091        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1092        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1093        if self.RETURNING_END:
1094            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1095        else:
1096            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1097        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1098
1099    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1100        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1101        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1102        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1103        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1104        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1105        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1106        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1107        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1108        return (
1109            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1110        )
1111
1112    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1113        return self.prepend_ctes(
1114            expression,
1115            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1116        )
1117
1118    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1119        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1120
1121    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1122        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1123        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1124        count = expression.args.get("count")
1125        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1126        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1127            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1128        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1129        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1130
1131    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1132        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1133            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1134            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1135            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1136
1137        agg = expression.this
1138        agg_arg = agg.this
1139        cond = expression.expression.this
1140        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1141        return self.sql(agg)
1142
1143    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1144        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1145            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1146            return ""
1147
1148        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1149
1150    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1151        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1152        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1153        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1154        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1155        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1156        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1157        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1158        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1159        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1160        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1161        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1162        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1163        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1164        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1165        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1166        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1167        if include:
1168            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1169        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{include}{partition_by}{where}"
1170
1171    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1172        text = expression.name
1173        lower = text.lower()
1174        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1175        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1176        if (
1177            expression.quoted
1178            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1179            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1180            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1181        ):
1182            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1183        return text
1184
1185    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1186        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1187        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1188        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1189        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1190        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1191
1192    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1193        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1194        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1195
1196    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1197        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1198
1199    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1200        root_properties = []
1201        with_properties = []
1202
1203        for p in expression.expressions:
1204            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1205            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1206                with_properties.append(p)
1207            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1208                root_properties.append(p)
1209
1210        return self.root_properties(
1211            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1212        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1213
1214    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1215        if properties.expressions:
1216            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1217        return ""
1218
1219    def properties(
1220        self,
1221        properties: exp.Properties,
1222        prefix: str = "",
1223        sep: str = ", ",
1224        suffix: str = "",
1225        wrapped: bool = True,
1226    ) -> str:
1227        if properties.expressions:
1228            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1229            if expressions:
1230                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1231                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1232        return ""
1233
1234    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1235        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1236
1237    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1238        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1239        for p in properties.expressions:
1240            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1241            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1242                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1243            else:
1244                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1245
1246        return properties_locs
1247
1248    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1249        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1250            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1251        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1252
1253    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1254        property_cls = expression.__class__
1255        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1256            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1257
1258        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1259        if not property_name:
1260            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1261
1262        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1263
1264    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1265        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1266            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1267            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1268
1269            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1270            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1271                like = f"({like})"
1272
1273            return like
1274
1275        if expression.expressions:
1276            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1277
1278        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1279        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1280
1281    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1282        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1283        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1284        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1285
1286    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1287        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1288        local = expression.args.get("local")
1289        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1290        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1291        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1292        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1293        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1294
1295    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1296        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1297        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1298        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1299
1300    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1301        if expression.args.get("default"):
1302            property = "DEFAULT"
1303        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1304            property = "ON"
1305        else:
1306            property = "OFF"
1307        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1308
1309    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1310        if expression.args.get("no"):
1311            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1312        if expression.args.get("default"):
1313            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1314
1315        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1316        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1317
1318    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1319        default = expression.args.get("default")
1320        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1321        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1322        if default or minimum or maximum:
1323            if default:
1324                prop = "DEFAULT"
1325            elif minimum:
1326                prop = "MINIMUM"
1327            else:
1328                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1329            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1330        units = expression.args.get("units")
1331        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1332        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1333
1334    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1335        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1336        always = expression.args.get("always")
1337        default = expression.args.get("default")
1338        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1339        never = expression.args.get("never")
1340
1341        if autotemp is not None:
1342            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1343        elif always:
1344            prop = "ALWAYS"
1345        elif default:
1346            prop = "DEFAULT"
1347        elif manual:
1348            prop = "MANUAL"
1349        elif never:
1350            prop = "NEVER"
1351        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1352
1353    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1354        no = expression.args.get("no")
1355        no = " NO" if no else ""
1356        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1357        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1358
1359        for_ = ""
1360        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1361            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1362        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1363            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1364        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1365            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1366        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1367
1368    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1369        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1370            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1371        if expression.this:
1372            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1373            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1374            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1375
1376        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1377        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1378        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1379
1380    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1381        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1382
1383        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1384        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1385            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1386        else:
1387            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1388
1389        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1390
1391    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1392        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1393        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1394        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1395        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1396        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1397        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1398        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1399
1400    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1401        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1402        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1403        statistics_sql = ""
1404        if statistics is not None:
1405            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1406        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1407
1408    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1409        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1410
1411        if expression.this:
1412            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1413            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1414
1415            if expression.expression:
1416                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1417                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1418
1419            sql = f"{sql})"
1420
1421        return f"{sql})"
1422
1423    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1424        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1425
1426        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1427            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1428        else:
1429            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1430
1431        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1432        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1433        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1434
1435        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1436
1437        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1438        partition_sql = (
1439            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1440        )
1441        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1442        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1443        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1444        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1445        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1446        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1447
1448        if self.RETURNING_END:
1449            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1450        else:
1451            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1452
1453        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1454        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1455
1456    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1457        return self.prepend_ctes(
1458            expression,
1459            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1460        )
1461
1462    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1463        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1464
1465    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1466        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1467
1468    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1469        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1470        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1471        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1472        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1473        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1474
1475    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1476        return expression.name
1477
1478    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1479        return expression.name
1480
1481    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1482        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1483        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1484        if constraint:
1485            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1486        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1487        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1488        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1489        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1490        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1491        if expressions:
1492            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1493        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1494
1495    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1496        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1497
1498    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1499        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1500        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1501        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1502        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1503        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1504        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1505        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1506        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1507        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1508        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1509        null = expression.args.get("null")
1510        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1511        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1512
1513    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1514        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1515
1516    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1517        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1518        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1519        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1520        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1521
1522    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1523        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1524        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1525        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1526        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1527
1528    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1529        table = ".".join(
1530            self.sql(part)
1531            for part in (
1532                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1533                expression.args.get("db"),
1534                expression.args.get("this"),
1535            )
1536            if part is not None
1537        )
1538
1539        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1540        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1541        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1542        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1543        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1544        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1545        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1546        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1547        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1548        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1549
1550        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1551        if file_format:
1552            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1553            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1554            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1555
1556        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1557        if ordinality:
1558            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1559            alias = ""
1560
1561        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1562        if when:
1563            table = f"{table} {when}"
1564
1565        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1566
1567    def tablesample_sql(
1568        self,
1569        expression: exp.TableSample,
1570        sep: str = " AS ",
1571        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1572    ) -> str:
1573        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1574            table = expression.this.copy()
1575            table.set("alias", None)
1576            this = self.sql(table)
1577            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1578        else:
1579            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1580            alias = ""
1581
1582        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1583        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1584        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1585        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1586        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1587        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1588        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1589        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1590        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1591
1592        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1593        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1594            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1595
1596        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1597        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1598            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1599
1600        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1601        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1602            expr = f"({expr})"
1603
1604        return (
1605            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1606        )
1607
1608    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1609        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1610
1611        if expression.this:
1612            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1613            if not expressions:
1614                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1615
1616            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1617            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1618            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1619            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1620            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1621
1622        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1623        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1624        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1625        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1626        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1627        if include_nulls is not None:
1628            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1629        else:
1630            nulls = ""
1631        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1632
1633    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1634        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1635        kind = expression.text("kind")
1636        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1637        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1638
1639    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1640        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1641
1642    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1643        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1644        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1645        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1646        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1647        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1648        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1649        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1650        if self.RETURNING_END:
1651            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1652        else:
1653            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1654        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1655        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1656
1657    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1658        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1659        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1660            args = self.expressions(expression)
1661            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1662            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1663            values = (
1664                f"({values})"
1665                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1666                else values
1667            )
1668            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1669
1670        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1671        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1672        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1673
1674        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1675
1676        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1677            row = tup.expressions
1678
1679            if i == 0 and column_names:
1680                row = [
1681                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1682                ]
1683
1684            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1685
1686        if self.pretty:
1687            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1688            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1689            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1690            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1691            return self.subquery_sql(
1692                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1693            )
1694
1695        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1696        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1697        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1698
1699    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1700        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1701
1702    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1703        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1704        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1705        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1706
1707    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1708        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1709
1710    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1711        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1712
1713        if expression.args.get("all"):
1714            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1715
1716        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1717        grouping_sets = (
1718            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1719        )
1720
1721        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1722        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1723            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1724        else:
1725            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1726            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1727
1728        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1729        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1730            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1731        else:
1732            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1733            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1734
1735        groupings = csv(
1736            grouping_sets,
1737            cube_sql,
1738            rollup_sql,
1739            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1740            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1741        )
1742
1743        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1744            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1745
1746        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1747
1748    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1749        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1750        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1751
1752    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1753        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1754        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1755        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1756        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1757        return start + connect
1758
1759    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1760        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1761
1762    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1763        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1764            side = None
1765        else:
1766            side = expression.side
1767
1768        op_sql = " ".join(
1769            op
1770            for op in (
1771                expression.method,
1772                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1773                side,
1774                expression.kind,
1775                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1776            )
1777            if op
1778        )
1779        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1780        using = expression.args.get("using")
1781
1782        if not on_sql and using:
1783            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1784
1785        this = expression.this
1786        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1787
1788        if on_sql:
1789            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1790            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1791            if using:
1792                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1793            else:
1794                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1795        elif not op_sql:
1796            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1797                return f" {this_sql}"
1798
1799            return f", {this_sql}"
1800
1801        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1802        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1803
1804    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1805        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1806        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1807        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1808
1809    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1810        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1811
1812        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1813        if cross_apply is True:
1814            op = "INNER JOIN "
1815        elif cross_apply is False:
1816            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1817        else:
1818            op = ""
1819
1820        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1821
1822    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1823        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1824
1825        if expression.args.get("view"):
1826            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1827            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1828            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1829            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1830            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1831            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1832
1833        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1834        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1835        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1836
1837    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1839
1840        args = [
1841            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1842            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1843            if e
1844        ]
1845
1846        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1847        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1848        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1849        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1850
1851        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1852
1853    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1854        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1855        value = expression.expression
1856        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1857        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1858        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1859        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1860
1861    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1862        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1863        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1865        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1866        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1867        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1868        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1869        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1870
1871    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1872        expressions = (
1873            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1874        )
1875        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1876        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1877
1878    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1879        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1880
1881    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1882        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1883            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1884            return ""
1885
1886        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1887        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1888        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1889        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1890
1891        if wait is not None:
1892            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1893                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1894            else:
1895                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1896
1897        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1898
1899    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1900        text = expression.this or ""
1901        if expression.is_string:
1902            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1903        return text
1904
1905    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1906        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1907        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1908            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1909        elif self.pretty:
1910            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1911        return text
1912
1913    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1914        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1915        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1916        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1917        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1918        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1919        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1920        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1921        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1922        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1923        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1924        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1925
1926    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1927        return "NULL"
1928
1929    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1930        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1931
1932    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1933        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1934        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1935        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
1936        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1937        interpolated_values = [
1938            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
1939            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
1940        ]
1941        interpolate = (
1942            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
1943        )
1944        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
1945
1946    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
1947        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1948        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
1949        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
1950        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
1951        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
1952        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
1953        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
1954
1955    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1956        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1957
1958    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1959        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1960
1961    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1962        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1963
1964    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1965        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1966        asc = not desc
1967
1968        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1969        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1970        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1971        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1972        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1973
1974        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1975
1976        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1977        nulls_sort_change = ""
1978        if nulls_first and (
1979            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1980        ):
1981            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1982        elif (
1983            nulls_last
1984            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1985            and not nulls_are_last
1986        ):
1987            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1988
1989        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1990        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1991            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
1992            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
1993                self.unsupported(
1994                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
1995                )
1996                nulls_sort_change = ""
1997            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
1998                if expression.this.is_int:
1999                    self.unsupported(
2000                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2001                    )
2002                else:
2003                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2004                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2005                nulls_sort_change = ""
2006
2007        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2008        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2009
2010        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2011
2012    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2013        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2014        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2015        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2016        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2017        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2018        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2019        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2020        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2021        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2022        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2023        definition_sqls = [
2024            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2025            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2026        ]
2027        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2028        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2029        body = "".join(
2030            (
2031                partition,
2032                order,
2033                measures,
2034                rows,
2035                after,
2036                pattern,
2037                define,
2038            )
2039        )
2040        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2041        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2042        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2043
2044    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2045        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
2046
2047        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
2048        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
2049
2050        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2051            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2052        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2053            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2054
2055        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
2056
2057        offset_limit_modifiers = (
2058            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
2059            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
2060            else []
2061        )
2062
2063        return csv(
2064            *sqls,
2065            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2066            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2067            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2068            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2069            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2070            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2071            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2072            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
2073            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2074            *offset_limit_modifiers,
2075            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2076            sep="",
2077        )
2078
2079    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2080        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2081    ) -> t.List[str]:
2082        return [
2083            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2084            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2085        ]
2086
2087    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2088        return [
2089            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
2090            (
2091                self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
2092                if expression.args.get("windows")
2093                else ""
2094            ),
2095            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
2096            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
2097            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
2098        ]
2099
2100    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2101        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2102        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2103        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2104
2105    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2106        into = expression.args.get("into")
2107        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2108            into.pop()
2109
2110        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2111        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2112        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2113        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2114        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2115        top = (
2116            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2117            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
2118            else ""
2119        )
2120
2121        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2122
2123        if kind:
2124            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2125                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2126            else:
2127                if kind == "STRUCT":
2128                    expressions = self.expressions(
2129                        sqls=[
2130                            self.sql(
2131                                exp.Struct(
2132                                    expressions=[
2133                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
2134                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
2135                                        )
2136                                        for e in expression.expressions
2137                                    ]
2138                                )
2139                            )
2140                        ]
2141                    )
2142                kind = ""
2143
2144        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2145        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2146        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2147        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2148        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2149            expression,
2150            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2151            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2152            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2153        )
2154
2155        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2156
2157        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2158            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2159                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2160            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2161                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2162            else:
2163                table_kind = ""
2164            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2165
2166        return sql
2167
2168    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2169        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2170        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2171        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2172
2173    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2174        if expression.expressions:
2175            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2176        return ""
2177
2178    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2179        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2180        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2181        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2182        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2183        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2184
2185    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2186        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2187        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2188
2189    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2190        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2191        kind = expression.text("kind")
2192        if kind:
2193            kind = f"{kind}."
2194        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2195
2196    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2197        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2198
2199    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2200        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2201        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2202
2203        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2204        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2205
2206        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2207        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2208
2209    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2210        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2211        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2212
2213    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2214        return self.prepend_ctes(
2215            expression,
2216            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2217        )
2218
2219    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2220        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2221        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2222        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2223        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2224
2225    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2226        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2227
2228        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2229        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2230
2231        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2232            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2233                alias.append("columns", offset)
2234
2235        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2236            columns = alias.columns
2237            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2238        else:
2239            alias = self.sql(alias)
2240
2241        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2242        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2243            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2244        else:
2245            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2246                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2247            elif offset:
2248                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2249            else:
2250                suffix = alias
2251
2252        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2253
2254    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2255        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2256        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2257
2258    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2259        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2260        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2261        order = expression.args.get("order")
2262        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2263        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2264        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2265        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2266
2267        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2268
2269        first = expression.args.get("first")
2270        if first is None:
2271            first = ""
2272        else:
2273            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2274
2275        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2276            return f"{this} {alias}"
2277
2278        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2279        return f"{this} ({args})"
2280
2281    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2282        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2283        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2284
2285    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2286        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2287        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2288        end = (
2289            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2290            or "CURRENT ROW"
2291        )
2292        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2293
2294    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2295        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2296        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2297        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2298
2299    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2300        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2301        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2302        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2303        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2304
2305    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2306        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2307            expression.this,
2308            expression.expressions,
2309            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2310        )
2311        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2312        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2313
2314    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2315        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2316
2317    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2318        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2319        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2320            this = self.wrap(this)
2321        return f"ANY {this}"
2322
2323    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2324        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2325
2326    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2327        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2328        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2329
2330        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2331            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2332            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2333
2334        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2335
2336        if default:
2337            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2338
2339        statements.append("END")
2340
2341        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2342            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2343
2344        return " ".join(statements)
2345
2346    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2347        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2348        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2349        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2350
2351    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2352        order = expression.args.get("order")
2353        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2354        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2355
2356    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2357        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2358        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2359        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2360
2361    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2362        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2363
2364        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2365            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2366        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2367            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2368        else:
2369            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2370
2371    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2372        args = expression.expressions
2373        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2374            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2375
2376        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2377            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2378
2379        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2380            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2381
2382        return args
2383
2384    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2385        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2386
2387        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2388        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2389            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2390
2391        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2392
2393    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2394        return self.func(
2395            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2396        )
2397
2398    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2399        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2400        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2401
2402    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2403        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2404        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2405        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2406        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2407        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2408        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2409        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2410        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2411
2412    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2413        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2414        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2415        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2416        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2417
2418    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2419        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2420
2421    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2422        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2423        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2424        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2425
2426    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2427        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2428
2429    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2430        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2431        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2432
2433    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2434        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2435            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2436            if not callable(transform):
2437                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2438                return ""
2439
2440            return transform(self, expression)
2441
2442        if isinstance(expression, int):
2443            return str(expression)
2444
2445        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2446            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2447            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2448        else:
2449            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2450            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2451
2452        return escaped
2453
2454    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2455        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2456
2457    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2458        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2459        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2460
2461        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2462        if unique_keys is not None:
2463            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2464        else:
2465            unique_keys = ""
2466
2467        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2468        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2469        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2470        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2471
2472        return self.func(
2473            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2474            *expression.expressions,
2475            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2476        )
2477
2478    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2479        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2480
2481    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2482        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2483        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2484        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2485        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2486        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2487        return self.func(
2488            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2489        )
2490
2491    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2492        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2493        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2494        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2495        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2496        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2497        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2498        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2499        return self.func(
2500            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2501            this,
2502            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2503        )
2504
2505    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2506        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2507        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2508        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2509
2510        if nested_schema:
2511            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2512
2513        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2514        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2515        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2516        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2517
2518    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2519        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2520
2521    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2522        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2523        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2524        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2525        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2526        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2527        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2528        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2529        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2530        return self.func(
2531            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2532        )
2533
2534    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2535        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2536        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2537        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2538        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2539        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2540        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2541
2542    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2543        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2544        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2545        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2546        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2547        with_ = (
2548            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2549            if expressions
2550            else ""
2551        )
2552        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2553
2554    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2555        query = expression.args.get("query")
2556        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2557        field = expression.args.get("field")
2558        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2559
2560        if query:
2561            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2562        elif unnest:
2563            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2564        elif field:
2565            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2566        else:
2567            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2568
2569        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2570
2571    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2572        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2573
2574    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2575        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2576        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2577            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2578        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2579
2580        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2581            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2582            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2583
2584        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2585        if this:
2586            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2587            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2588
2589        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2590
2591    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2592        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2593
2594    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2595        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2596        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2597        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2598        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2599        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2600        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2601
2602    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2603        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2604
2605    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2606        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2607            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2608        else:
2609            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2610            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2611
2612        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2613
2614    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2615        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2616        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2617        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2618        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2619
2620    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2621        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2622
2623    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2624        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2625        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2626        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2627
2628    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2629        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2630        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2631
2632        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2633            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2634        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2635            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2636
2637        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2638
2639    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2640        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2641
2642    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2643        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2644        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2645        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2646
2647    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2648        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2649        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2650        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2651
2652    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2653        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2654        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2655        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2656
2657    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2658        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2659
2660    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2661        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2662
2663    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2664        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2665
2666    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2667        if not self.pretty:
2668            return self.binary(expression, op)
2669
2670        sqls = tuple(
2671            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2672            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2673        )
2674
2675        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2676        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2677
2678    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2679        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2680
2681    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2682        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2683
2684    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2685        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2686
2687    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2688        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2689
2690    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2691        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2692
2693    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2694        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2695
2696    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2697        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2698        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2699        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2700        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2701        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
2702
2703    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2704        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2705        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2706
2707    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2708        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2709
2710    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2711        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2712            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2713        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2714
2715    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2716        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2717
2718    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2719        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2720        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2721        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2722        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2723        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2724
2725    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2726        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2727        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2728        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2729        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2730        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2731        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2732        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2733        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2734        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2735
2736    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2737        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2738        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2739        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2740        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2741
2742        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2743            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2744
2745        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2746
2747    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2748        return "BEGIN"
2749
2750    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2751        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2752        if chain is not None:
2753            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2754
2755        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2756
2757    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2758        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2759        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2760        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2761
2762    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2763        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2764
2765        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2766        if dtype:
2767            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2768            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2769            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2770            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2771            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2772
2773        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2774        if default:
2775            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2776
2777        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2778        if comment:
2779            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2780
2781        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2782            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2783
2784        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2785
2786    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2787        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2788            # Remove db from tables
2789            expression = expression.transform(
2790                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2791            )
2792        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2793        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2794
2795    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2796        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2797        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2798        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2799        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2800
2801    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2802        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2803
2804        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2805            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2806        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2807            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2808        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2809            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2810        else:
2811            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2812
2813        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2814        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2815        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2816
2817    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2818        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2819            return self.expressions(
2820                expression,
2821                key="actions",
2822                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2823            )
2824        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2825
2826    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2827        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2828        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2829        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2830
2831    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2832        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2833        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2834        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2835
2836        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2837        if enforced is not None:
2838            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2839
2840        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2841
2842    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2843        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2844
2845        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
2846            case = exp.case()
2847            for arg in expression.expressions:
2848                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
2849            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
2850
2851        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2852
2853        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2854        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2855        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2856
2857    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2858        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
2859
2860    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2861        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
2862
2863    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
2864        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC:
2865            this = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
2866            if this:
2867                sql = self.sql(this)
2868                sql = sql[:-1] + f" {text})"
2869                return sql
2870
2871        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
2872
2873    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2874        return self.sql(
2875            exp.Cast(
2876                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2877                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2878            )
2879        )
2880
2881    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2882        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2883            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2884        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2885
2886    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2887        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2888
2889        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2890            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2891
2892        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2893            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2894                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2895            ):
2896                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2897
2898        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2899            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2900                return self.sql(
2901                    exp.cast(
2902                        l / r,
2903                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2904                    )
2905                )
2906
2907        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2908
2909    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2910        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2911
2912    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2913        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2914
2915    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2916        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2917
2918    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2919        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2920
2921    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2922        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
2923
2924    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2925        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2926
2927    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2928        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2929
2930    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2931        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2932
2933    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2934        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2935
2936    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2937        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2938
2939    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2940        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2941
2942    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2943        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2944            return self.sql(
2945                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2946            )
2947        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2948
2949    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2950        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2951
2952    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2953        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2954
2955    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2956        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2957
2958    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2959        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2960
2961    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2962        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2963
2964    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2965        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2966
2967    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2968        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2969
2970    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2971        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2972
2973    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2974        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2975
2976    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2977        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2978
2979    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2980        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2981
2982    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2983        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2984
2985    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2986        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2987
2988    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2989        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2990
2991    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2992        this = expression.this
2993        expr = expression.expression
2994
2995        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2996            this, expr = expr, this
2997
2998        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
2999
3000    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3001        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3002        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3003        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3004        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3005        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3006
3007    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3008        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3009        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3010
3011    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3012        args = []
3013
3014        for key in expression.arg_types:
3015            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3016
3017            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3018                for value in arg_value:
3019                    args.append(value)
3020            elif arg_value is not None:
3021                args.append(arg_value)
3022
3023        if self.normalize_functions:
3024            name = expression.sql_name()
3025        else:
3026            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3027
3028        return self.func(name, *args)
3029
3030    def func(
3031        self,
3032        name: str,
3033        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3034        prefix: str = "(",
3035        suffix: str = ")",
3036    ) -> str:
3037        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3038
3039    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3040        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3041        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
3042            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3043        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3044
3045    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
3046        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
3047
3048    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
3049        return format_time(
3050            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3051            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3052            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3053        )
3054
3055    def expressions(
3056        self,
3057        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3058        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3059        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3060        flat: bool = False,
3061        indent: bool = True,
3062        skip_first: bool = False,
3063        sep: str = ", ",
3064        prefix: str = "",
3065    ) -> str:
3066        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3067
3068        if not expressions:
3069            return ""
3070
3071        if flat:
3072            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3073
3074        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3075
3076        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3077        pad = " " * self.pad
3078        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3079
3080        result_sqls = []
3081        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3082            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3083            if not sql:
3084                continue
3085
3086            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3087
3088            if self.pretty:
3089                if self.leading_comma:
3090                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3091                else:
3092                    result_sqls.append(
3093                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3094                    )
3095            else:
3096                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3097
3098        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
3099        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
3100
3101    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3102        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3103        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3104        if flat:
3105            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3106        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3107
3108    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3109        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3110        if not property_name:
3111            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3112        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3113
3114    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
3115        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
3116        op = self.seg(op)
3117        return self.query_modifiers(
3118            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3119        )
3120
3121    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3122        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3123
3124    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3125        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3126
3127    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3128        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3129        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3130        expressions = (
3131            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3132        )
3133        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3134
3135    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3136        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3137        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3138        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3139
3140    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3141        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3142
3143    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3144        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3145        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3146        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3147        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3148
3149        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3150        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3151            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3152            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3153                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3154        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3155            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3156                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3157            else:
3158                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3159        else:
3160            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3161        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3162
3163    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3164        table = expression.this
3165        table_alias = ""
3166
3167        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3168        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3169            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3170            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3171
3172        this = self.sql(table)
3173        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3174        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3175        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3176
3177        return self.prepend_ctes(
3178            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3179        )
3180
3181    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3182        if expression.args.get("format"):
3183            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3184
3185        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
3186
3187    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3188        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3189        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3190        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3191        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3192        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3193
3194    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3195        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3196        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3197        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3198        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3199
3200    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3201        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3202
3203    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3204        return ""
3205
3206    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3207        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3208        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3209        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3210        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3211        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3212
3213    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3214        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3215        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3216
3217        if having:
3218            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3219
3220        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3221
3222    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3223        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3224        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3225        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3226        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3227        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3228        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3229        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3230        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3231        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3232        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3233        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3234        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3235        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3236
3237    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3238        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3239        if key_block_size:
3240            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3241
3242        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3243        if using:
3244            return f"USING {using}"
3245
3246        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3247        if parser:
3248            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3249
3250        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3251        if comment:
3252            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3253
3254        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3255        if visible is not None:
3256            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3257
3258        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3259        if engine_attr:
3260            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3261
3262        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3263        if secondary_engine_attr:
3264            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3265
3266        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3267        return ""
3268
3269    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3270        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3271        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3272        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3273        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3274        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3275        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3276        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3277        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3278        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3279        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3280        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
3281
3282    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3283        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3284            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3285
3286        case = exp.Case().when(
3287            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3288            expression.args["true"],
3289            copy=False,
3290        )
3291        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3292        if else_cond:
3293            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3294
3295        return self.sql(case)
3296
3297    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3298        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3299        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3300        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3301        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3302        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3303        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3304
3305    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3306        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3307
3308    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3309        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3310
3311    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3312        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3313        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3314        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3315        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3316        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3317        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3318
3319    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3320        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3321        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3322        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3323
3324    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3325        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3326        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3327        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3328
3329    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3330        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3331
3332    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3333        arg = expression.this
3334        if not arg.type:
3335            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3336
3337            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3338
3339        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3340            return self.sql(arg)
3341
3342        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3343        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.Array(expressions=[arg])))
3344
3345    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3346        this = expression.this
3347        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3348            return self.sql(this)
3349
3350        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
3351
3352    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3353        this = expression.this
3354        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3355
3356        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3357            return self.sql(
3358                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3359            )
3360
3361        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3362            return self.sql(this)
3363
3364        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
3365
3366    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3367        return self.sql(
3368            exp.func(
3369                "DATEDIFF",
3370                expression.this,
3371                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3372                "day",
3373            )
3374        )
3375
3376    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3377        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3378            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3379
3380        unit = expression.text("unit")
3381        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3382            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3383
3384        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3385
3386    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3387        this = expression.this
3388        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3389            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3390            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3391
3392        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3393            return f".{this}"
3394
3395        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3396        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3397
3398    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3399        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3400        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3401
3402    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3403        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3404            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3405
3406            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3407
3408        return expression
3409
3410    def _ensure_string_if_null(self, values: t.List[exp.Expression]) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
3411        return [
3412            exp.func("COALESCE", exp.cast(value, "text"), exp.Literal.string(""))
3413            for value in values
3414            if value
3415        ]