sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  78        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  79        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  82        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  83        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  85        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  87        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  95        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  97        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  98        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  99        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 100        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 101        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 102        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 103        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 104        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 105        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 108        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 109            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 110        ),
 111        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 112            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 113        ),
 114        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 115        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 116        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 117        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 118        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 119        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 120        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 121        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 122        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 123        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 124        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 129        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 131        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 133            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 134        ),
 135        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 136        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 137        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 138        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 139        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 140        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 141        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 142        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 143        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 144        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 145        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 146        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 147        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 148        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.args.get("zone")),
 150        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 151        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 152        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 153        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 154        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 155        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 156        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 157        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 158        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 159        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 160        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 161        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 162    }
 163
 164    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 165    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 166    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 167
 168    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 169    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 170    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 171
 172    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 173    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 174
 175    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 176    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 177
 178    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 179    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 180
 181    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 182    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 183
 184    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 185    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 186
 187    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 188    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 189
 190    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 191    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 192
 193    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 194    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 195
 196    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 197    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 198
 199    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 200    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 201
 202    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 203    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 204
 205    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 206    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 207
 208    # Whether join hints should be generated
 209    JOIN_HINTS = True
 210
 211    # Whether table hints should be generated
 212    TABLE_HINTS = True
 213
 214    # Whether query hints should be generated
 215    QUERY_HINTS = True
 216
 217    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 218    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 219
 220    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 221    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 222
 223    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 224    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 225
 226    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 227    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 228
 229    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 230    RETURNING_END = True
 231
 232    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 233    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 234
 235    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 236    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 237
 238    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 239    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 240
 241    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 242    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 243
 244    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 245    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 246    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 247    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 248
 249    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 250    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 251
 252    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 253    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 254
 255    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 256    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 257
 258    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 259    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 260
 261    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 262    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 263
 264    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 265    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 266
 267    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 268    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 269
 270    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 271    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 272
 273    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 274    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 275
 276    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 277    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 278
 279    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 280    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 281
 282    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 283    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 284
 285    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 286    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 287
 288    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 289    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 290
 291    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 292    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 293
 294    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 295    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 296
 297    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 298    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 299
 300    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 301    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 302
 303    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 304    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 305
 306    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 307    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 308
 309    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 310    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 311
 312    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 313    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 314
 315    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 316    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 317
 318    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 319    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 320
 321    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 322    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 323
 324    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 325    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 326    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 327
 328    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 329    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 330
 331    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 332    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 333
 334    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 335    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 336
 337    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 338    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 339
 340    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 341    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 342
 343    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 344    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 345
 346    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 347    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 348    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 349    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 350
 351    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 352    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 353
 354    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 355    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 356
 357    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 358    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 359
 360    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 361    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 362
 363    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 364    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 365
 366    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 367    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 368
 369    # The HEX function name
 370    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 371
 372    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 373    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 374
 375    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 376    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 377
 378    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 379    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 380
 381    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 382        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 383        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 384        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 385        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 386        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 387        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 388        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 389        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 390        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 391        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 392    }
 393
 394    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 395        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 396        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 397        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 398        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 399        "DAYS": "DAY",
 400        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 401        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 402        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 403        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 404    }
 405
 406    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 407        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 408        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 409        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 410        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 411        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 412            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 413            if e.args.get("windows")
 414            else ""
 415        ),
 416    }
 417
 418    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 419
 420    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 421
 422    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 423    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 424
 425    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 426        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 427        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 428        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 429        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 431        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 432        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 434        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 439        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 441        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 444        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 449        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 450        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 451        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 452        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 453        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 454        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 456        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 458        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 459        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 463        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 464        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 465        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 466        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 467        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 468        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 469        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 470        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 473        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 476        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 478        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 479        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 480        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 484        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 488        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 490        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 491        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 494        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 497        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 498        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 499        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 502        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 504        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 505        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 506        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 508    }
 509
 510    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 511    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 512
 513    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 514    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 515        exp.Create,
 516        exp.Delete,
 517        exp.Drop,
 518        exp.From,
 519        exp.Insert,
 520        exp.Join,
 521        exp.Select,
 522        exp.SetOperation,
 523        exp.Update,
 524        exp.Where,
 525        exp.With,
 526    )
 527
 528    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 529    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 530        exp.Binary,
 531        exp.SetOperation,
 532    )
 533
 534    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 535    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 536        exp.Column,
 537        exp.Literal,
 538        exp.Neg,
 539        exp.Paren,
 540    )
 541
 542    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 543        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 544        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 545        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 546        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 547    }
 548
 549    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 550    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 551
 552    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 553
 554    __slots__ = (
 555        "pretty",
 556        "identify",
 557        "normalize",
 558        "pad",
 559        "_indent",
 560        "normalize_functions",
 561        "unsupported_level",
 562        "max_unsupported",
 563        "leading_comma",
 564        "max_text_width",
 565        "comments",
 566        "dialect",
 567        "unsupported_messages",
 568        "_escaped_quote_end",
 569        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 570        "_next_name",
 571    )
 572
 573    def __init__(
 574        self,
 575        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 576        identify: str | bool = False,
 577        normalize: bool = False,
 578        pad: int = 2,
 579        indent: int = 2,
 580        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 581        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 582        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 583        leading_comma: bool = False,
 584        max_text_width: int = 80,
 585        comments: bool = True,
 586        dialect: DialectType = None,
 587    ):
 588        import sqlglot
 589        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 590
 591        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 592        self.identify = identify
 593        self.normalize = normalize
 594        self.pad = pad
 595        self._indent = indent
 596        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 597        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 598        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 599        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 600        self.comments = comments
 601        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 602
 603        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 604        self.normalize_functions = (
 605            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 606        )
 607
 608        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 609        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 610            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 611        )
 612        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 613            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 614        )
 615
 616        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 617
 618    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 619        """
 620        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 621
 622        Args:
 623            expression: The syntax tree.
 624            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 625                it is safer to copy.
 626
 627        Returns:
 628            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 629        """
 630        if copy:
 631            expression = expression.copy()
 632
 633        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 634
 635        self.unsupported_messages = []
 636        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 637
 638        if self.pretty:
 639            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 640
 641        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 642            return sql
 643
 644        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 645            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 646                logger.warning(msg)
 647        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 648            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 649
 650        return sql
 651
 652    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 653        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 654        if (
 655            not expression.parent
 656            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 657            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 658        ):
 659            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 660
 661            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 662
 663        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 664            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 665
 666            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 667
 668        return expression
 669
 670    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 671        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 672            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 673        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 674
 675    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 676        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 677
 678    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 679        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 680
 681    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 682        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 683        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 684        return comment
 685
 686    def maybe_comment(
 687        self,
 688        sql: str,
 689        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 690        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 691        separated: bool = False,
 692    ) -> str:
 693        comments = (
 694            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 695            if self.comments
 696            else None
 697        )
 698
 699        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 700            return sql
 701
 702        comments_sql = " ".join(
 703            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 704        )
 705
 706        if not comments_sql:
 707            return sql
 708
 709        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 710
 711        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 712            return (
 713                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 714                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 715                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 716            )
 717
 718        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 719
 720    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 721        this_sql = (
 722            self.sql(expression)
 723            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 724            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 725        )
 726        if not this_sql:
 727            return "()"
 728
 729        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 730        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 731
 732    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 733        original = self.identify
 734        self.identify = False
 735        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 736        self.identify = original
 737        return result
 738
 739    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 740        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 741            return name.upper()
 742        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 743            return name.lower()
 744        return name
 745
 746    def indent(
 747        self,
 748        sql: str,
 749        level: int = 0,
 750        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 751        skip_first: bool = False,
 752        skip_last: bool = False,
 753    ) -> str:
 754        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 755            return sql
 756
 757        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 758        lines = sql.split("\n")
 759
 760        return "\n".join(
 761            (
 762                line
 763                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 764                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 765            )
 766            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 767        )
 768
 769    def sql(
 770        self,
 771        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 772        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 773        comment: bool = True,
 774    ) -> str:
 775        if not expression:
 776            return ""
 777
 778        if isinstance(expression, str):
 779            return expression
 780
 781        if key:
 782            value = expression.args.get(key)
 783            if value:
 784                return self.sql(value)
 785            return ""
 786
 787        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 788
 789        if callable(transform):
 790            sql = transform(self, expression)
 791        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 792            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 793
 794            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 795                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 796            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 797                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 798            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 799                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 800            else:
 801                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 802        else:
 803            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 804
 805        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 806
 807    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 808        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 809        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 810        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 811
 812    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 813        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 814        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 815        options = expression.args.get("options")
 816        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 817        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 818        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 819        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 820        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 821
 822    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 823        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 824            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 825        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 826        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 827
 828    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 829        return ".".join(
 830            self.sql(part)
 831            for part in (
 832                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 833                expression.args.get("db"),
 834                expression.args.get("table"),
 835                expression.args.get("this"),
 836            )
 837            if part
 838        )
 839
 840    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 841        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 842
 843        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 844            join_mark = ""
 845            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 846
 847        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 848
 849    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 850        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 851        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 852        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 853        return f"{position}{this}"
 854
 855    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 856        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 857        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 858        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 859        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 860        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 861        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 862        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 863        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 864
 865        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 866            kind = ""
 867
 868        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 869
 870    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 872        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 873        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 874
 875    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 877        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 878            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 879        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 880            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 881        else:
 882            persisted = ""
 883        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 884
 885    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 886        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 887
 888    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 889        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 890            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 891        else:
 892            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 893
 894        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 895
 896    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 897        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 898    ) -> str:
 899        this = ""
 900        if expression.this is not None:
 901            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 902            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 903
 904        start = expression.args.get("start")
 905        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 906        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 907        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 908        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 909        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 910        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 911        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 912        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 913        cycle_sql = ""
 914
 915        if cycle is not None:
 916            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 917            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 918
 919        sequence_opts = ""
 920        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 921            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 922            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 923
 924        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 925        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 926
 927        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 928
 929    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 930        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 931    ) -> str:
 932        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 933        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 934        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 935
 936    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 937        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 938    ) -> str:
 939        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 940
 941    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 942        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 943
 944    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 945        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 946
 947    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 948        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 949        if desc is not None:
 950            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 951        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 952
 953    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 954        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 955        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 956        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 957        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 958        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 959        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 960        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 961
 962    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 963        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 964
 965    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 966        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 967        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 968        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 969
 970        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 971
 972        properties_sql = ""
 973        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 974            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 975        ):
 976            properties_sql = self.sql(
 977                exp.Properties(
 978                    expressions=[
 979                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 980                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 981                    ]
 982                )
 983            )
 984
 985            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 986                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 987            elif not self.pretty:
 988                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 989                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 990
 991        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 992        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 993
 994        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 995        if expression_sql:
 996            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 997
 998            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 999                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1000                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1001                        exp.Properties(
1002                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1003                        ),
1004                        wrapped=False,
1005                    )
1006                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1007                else:
1008                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
1009
1010        postindex_props_sql = ""
1011        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1012            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1013                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1014                wrapped=False,
1015                prefix=" ",
1016            )
1017
1018        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1019        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1020        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1021
1022        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1023        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1024
1025        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1026        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1027            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1028                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1029                sep=" ",
1030                prefix=" ",
1031                wrapped=False,
1032            )
1033
1034        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1035
1036        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1037        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1038            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1039                exp.Properties(
1040                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1041                ),
1042                sep=" ",
1043                prefix=" ",
1044                wrapped=False,
1045            )
1046
1047        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1048        no_schema_binding = (
1049            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1050        )
1051
1052        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1053        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1054
1055        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1056        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1057
1058    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1059        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1060        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1061        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1062        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1063        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1064        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1065        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1066        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1067        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1068        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1069
1070        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1071        if cache is None:
1072            cache_str = ""
1073        elif cache is True:
1074            cache_str = " CACHE"
1075        else:
1076            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1077
1078        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1079        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1080
1081        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1082
1083    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1084        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1085        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1086        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1087        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1088
1089    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1090        style = expression.args.get("style")
1091        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1092        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1093
1094    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1095        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1096        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1097
1098    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1099        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1100        if with_:
1101            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1102        return sql
1103
1104    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1105        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1106        recursive = (
1107            "RECURSIVE "
1108            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1109            else ""
1110        )
1111
1112        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1113
1114    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1115        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1116
1117        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1118        if materialized is False:
1119            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1120        elif materialized:
1121            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1122
1123        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1124
1125    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1126        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1127        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1128        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1129
1130        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1131            columns = ""
1132            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1133
1134        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1135            alias = self._next_name()
1136
1137        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1138
1139    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1140        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1141        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1142            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1143        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1144
1145    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1146        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1147        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1148            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1149        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1150
1151    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1152        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1153        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1154            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1155        return this
1156
1157    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1158        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1159        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1160
1161        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1162            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1163            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1164        else:
1165            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1166            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1167
1168        if escape:
1169            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1170            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1171        else:
1172            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1173            escape_sql = ""
1174
1175        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1176            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1177
1178        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1179
1180    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1181        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1182        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1183
1184    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1185        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1186        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1187        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1188        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1189
1190    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1191        type_value = expression.this
1192
1193        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1194            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1195        else:
1196            type_sql = (
1197                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1198                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1199                else type_value
1200            )
1201
1202        nested = ""
1203        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1204        values = ""
1205
1206        if interior:
1207            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1208                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1209                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1210                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1211                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1212                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1213            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1214                nested = f" {interior}"
1215            else:
1216                nested = f"({interior})"
1217
1218        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1219        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1220            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1221            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1222        ):
1223            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1224
1225        return type_sql
1226
1227    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1228        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1229        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1230        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1231        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1232
1233    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1234        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1235        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1236        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1237        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1238        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1239        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1240        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1241        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1242        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1243        if self.RETURNING_END:
1244            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1245        else:
1246            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1247        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1248
1249    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1250        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1251        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1252        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1253        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1254        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1255        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1256        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1257        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1258        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1259        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1260        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1261        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1262        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1263
1264    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1265        return self.set_operations(expression)
1266
1267    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1268        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1269
1270    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1271        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1272        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1273        count = expression.args.get("count")
1274        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1275        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1276            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1277        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1278        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1279
1280    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1281        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1282            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1283            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1284            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1285
1286        agg = expression.this
1287        agg_arg = agg.this
1288        cond = expression.expression.this
1289        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1290        return self.sql(agg)
1291
1292    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1293        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1294            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1295            return ""
1296
1297        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1298
1299    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1300        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1301        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1302        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1303        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1304        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1305        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1306        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1307        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1308        if include:
1309            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1310        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1311        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1312        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1313        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1314        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1315        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1316
1317        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1318
1319    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1320        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1321        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1322        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1323        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1324        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1325        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1326        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1327
1328        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1329
1330        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1331        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1332
1333    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1334        text = expression.name
1335        lower = text.lower()
1336        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1337        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1338        if (
1339            expression.quoted
1340            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1341            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1342            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1343        ):
1344            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1345        return text
1346
1347    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1348        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1349        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1350            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1351
1352        return text
1353
1354    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1355        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1356        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1357            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1358        return text
1359
1360    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1361        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1362        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1363        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1364        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1365        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1366
1367    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1368        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1369        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1370
1371    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1372        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1373
1374    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1375        root_properties = []
1376        with_properties = []
1377
1378        for p in expression.expressions:
1379            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1380            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1381                with_properties.append(p)
1382            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1383                root_properties.append(p)
1384
1385        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1386        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1387
1388        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1389            with_props = " " + with_props
1390
1391        return root_props + with_props
1392
1393    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1394        if properties.expressions:
1395            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1396        return ""
1397
1398    def properties(
1399        self,
1400        properties: exp.Properties,
1401        prefix: str = "",
1402        sep: str = ", ",
1403        suffix: str = "",
1404        wrapped: bool = True,
1405    ) -> str:
1406        if properties.expressions:
1407            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1408            if expressions:
1409                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1410                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1411        return ""
1412
1413    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1414        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1415
1416    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1417        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1418        for p in properties.expressions:
1419            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1420            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1421                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1422            else:
1423                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1424
1425        return properties_locs
1426
1427    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1428        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1429            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1430        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1431
1432    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1433        property_cls = expression.__class__
1434        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1435            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1436
1437        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1438        if not property_name:
1439            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1440
1441        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1442
1443    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1444        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1445            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1446            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1447
1448            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1449            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1450                like = f"({like})"
1451
1452            return like
1453
1454        if expression.expressions:
1455            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1456
1457        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1458        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1459
1460    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1461        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1462        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1463        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1464
1465    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1466        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1467        local = expression.args.get("local")
1468        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1469        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1470        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1471        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1472        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1473
1474    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1475        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1476        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1477        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1478
1479    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1480        if expression.args.get("default"):
1481            property = "DEFAULT"
1482        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1483            property = "ON"
1484        else:
1485            property = "OFF"
1486        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1487
1488    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1489        if expression.args.get("no"):
1490            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1491        if expression.args.get("default"):
1492            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1493
1494        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1495        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1496
1497    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1498        default = expression.args.get("default")
1499        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1500        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1501        if default or minimum or maximum:
1502            if default:
1503                prop = "DEFAULT"
1504            elif minimum:
1505                prop = "MINIMUM"
1506            else:
1507                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1508            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1509        units = expression.args.get("units")
1510        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1511        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1512
1513    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1514        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1515        always = expression.args.get("always")
1516        default = expression.args.get("default")
1517        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1518        never = expression.args.get("never")
1519
1520        if autotemp is not None:
1521            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1522        elif always:
1523            prop = "ALWAYS"
1524        elif default:
1525            prop = "DEFAULT"
1526        elif manual:
1527            prop = "MANUAL"
1528        elif never:
1529            prop = "NEVER"
1530        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1531
1532    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1533        no = expression.args.get("no")
1534        no = " NO" if no else ""
1535        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1536        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1537        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1538        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1539        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1540
1541    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1542        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1543            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1544        if expression.this:
1545            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1546            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1547            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1548
1549        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1550        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1551        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1552
1553    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1554        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1555
1556        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1557        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1558            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1559        else:
1560            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1561
1562        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1563
1564    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1565        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1566        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1567        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1568        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1569        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1570        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1571        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1572
1573    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1574        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1575        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1576        statistics_sql = ""
1577        if statistics is not None:
1578            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1579        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1580
1581    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1582        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1583        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1584        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1585        data_consistency = (
1586            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1587        )
1588        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1589        retention_period = (
1590            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1591        )
1592
1593        if this:
1594            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1595        else:
1596            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1597
1598        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1599
1600        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1601
1602    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1603        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1604        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1605
1606        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1607            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1608        else:
1609            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1610
1611        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1612        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1613        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1614        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1615        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1616        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1617        if is_function:
1618            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1619        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1620
1621        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1622        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1623        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1624        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1625        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1626        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1627        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1628        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1629
1630        if self.RETURNING_END:
1631            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1632        else:
1633            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1634
1635        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1636        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1637
1638    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1639        return self.set_operations(expression)
1640
1641    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1642        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1643
1644    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1645        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1646
1647    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1648        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1649        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1650        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1651        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1652        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1653
1654    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1655        return expression.name
1656
1657    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1658        return expression.name
1659
1660    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1661        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1662
1663        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1664        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1665
1666        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1667        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1668        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1669
1670        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1671        if expressions:
1672            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1673            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1674
1675        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1676
1677    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1678        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1679
1680    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1681        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1682        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1683        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1684        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1685        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1686        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1687        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1688        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1689        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1690        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1691        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1692        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1693        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1694
1695    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1696        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1697
1698    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1699        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1700        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1701        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1702        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1703
1704    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1705        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1706        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1707        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1708        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1709
1710    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1711        return ".".join(
1712            self.sql(part)
1713            for part in (
1714                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1715                expression.args.get("db"),
1716                expression.args.get("this"),
1717            )
1718            if part is not None
1719        )
1720
1721    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1722        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1723        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1724        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1725        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1726        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1727        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1728        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1729        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1730        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1731        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1732        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1733        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1734        joins = self.indent(
1735            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1736        )
1737        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1738
1739        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1740        if file_format:
1741            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1742            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1743            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1744
1745        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1746        if ordinality:
1747            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1748            alias = ""
1749
1750        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1751        if when:
1752            table = f"{table} {when}"
1753
1754        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1755        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1756
1757        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1758
1759    def tablesample_sql(
1760        self,
1761        expression: exp.TableSample,
1762        sep: str = " AS ",
1763        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1764    ) -> str:
1765        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1766            table = expression.this.copy()
1767            table.set("alias", None)
1768            this = self.sql(table)
1769            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1770        else:
1771            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1772            alias = ""
1773
1774        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1775        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1776        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1777        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1778        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1779        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1780        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1781        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1782        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1783
1784        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1785        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1786            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1787
1788        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1789        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1790            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1791
1792        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1793        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1794            expr = f"({expr})"
1795
1796        return (
1797            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1798        )
1799
1800    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1801        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1802
1803        if expression.this:
1804            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1805            if not expressions:
1806                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1807
1808            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1809            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1810            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1811            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1812            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1813
1814        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1815        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1816        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1817        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1818        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1819        if include_nulls is not None:
1820            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1821        else:
1822            nulls = ""
1823        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1824
1825    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1826        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1827        kind = expression.text("kind")
1828        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1829        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1830
1831    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1832        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1833
1834    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1835        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1836        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1837        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1838        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1839        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1840        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1841        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1842        if self.RETURNING_END:
1843            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1844        else:
1845            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1846        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1847        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1848
1849    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1850        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1851
1852        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1853        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1854            args = self.expressions(expression)
1855            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1856            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1857            values = (
1858                f"({values})"
1859                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1860                else values
1861            )
1862            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1863
1864        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1865        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1866        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1867
1868        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1869
1870        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1871            row = tup.expressions
1872
1873            if i == 0 and column_names:
1874                row = [
1875                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1876                ]
1877
1878            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1879
1880        if self.pretty:
1881            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1882            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1883            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1884            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1885            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1886
1887        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1888        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1889        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1890
1891    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1892        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1893
1894    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1895        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1896        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1897        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1898
1899    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1900        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1901
1902    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1903        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1904        if group_by_all is True:
1905            modifier = " ALL"
1906        elif group_by_all is False:
1907            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1908        else:
1909            modifier = ""
1910
1911        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1912
1913        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1914        grouping_sets = (
1915            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1916        )
1917
1918        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1919        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1920            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1921        else:
1922            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1923            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1924
1925        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1926        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1927            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1928        else:
1929            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1930            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1931
1932        groupings = csv(
1933            grouping_sets,
1934            cube_sql,
1935            rollup_sql,
1936            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1937            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1938        )
1939
1940        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1941            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1942
1943        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1944
1945    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1946        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1947        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1948
1949    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1950        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1951        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1952        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1953        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1954        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1955        return start + connect
1956
1957    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1958        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1959
1960    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1961        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1962            side = None
1963        else:
1964            side = expression.side
1965
1966        op_sql = " ".join(
1967            op
1968            for op in (
1969                expression.method,
1970                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1971                side,
1972                expression.kind,
1973                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1974            )
1975            if op
1976        )
1977        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1978        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1979        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1980        using = expression.args.get("using")
1981
1982        if not on_sql and using:
1983            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1984
1985        this = expression.this
1986        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1987
1988        if on_sql:
1989            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1990            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1991            if using:
1992                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1993            else:
1994                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1995        elif not op_sql:
1996            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1997                return f" {this_sql}"
1998
1999            return f", {this_sql}"
2000
2001        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2002            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2003
2004        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2005
2006    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2007        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2008        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2009        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2010
2011    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2012        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2013
2014        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2015        if cross_apply is True:
2016            op = "INNER JOIN "
2017        elif cross_apply is False:
2018            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2019        else:
2020            op = ""
2021
2022        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2023
2024    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2026
2027        if expression.args.get("view"):
2028            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2029            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2030            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2031            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2032            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2033            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2034
2035        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2036        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2037        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2038
2039    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2040        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2041
2042        args = [
2043            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2044            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2045            if e
2046        ]
2047
2048        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2049        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2050        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2051        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2052
2053        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2054
2055    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2056        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2057        value = expression.expression
2058        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2059        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2060        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2061        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2062
2063    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2064        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2065        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2066        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2067        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2068        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2069        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2070        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2071        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2072
2073    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2074        expressions = (
2075            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2076        )
2077        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2078        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2079
2080    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2081        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2082
2083    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2084        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2085            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2086            return ""
2087
2088        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2089        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2090        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2091        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2092
2093        if wait is not None:
2094            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2095                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2096            else:
2097                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2098
2099        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2100
2101    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2102        text = expression.this or ""
2103        if expression.is_string:
2104            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2105        return text
2106
2107    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2108        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2109            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2110            text = "".join(
2111                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2112            )
2113
2114        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2115            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2116        )
2117
2118    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2119        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2120        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2121        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2122        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2123        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2124        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2125        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2126        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2127        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2128        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2129        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2130
2131    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2132        return "NULL"
2133
2134    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2135        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2136
2137    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2138        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2139        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2140        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2141        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2142        interpolated_values = [
2143            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2144            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2145        ]
2146        interpolate = (
2147            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2148        )
2149        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2150
2151    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2152        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2153        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2154        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2155        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2156        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2157        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2158        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2159
2160    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2161        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2162
2163    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2164        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2165
2166    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2167        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2168
2169    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2170        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2171        asc = not desc
2172
2173        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2174        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2175        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2176        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2177        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2178
2179        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2180
2181        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2182        nulls_sort_change = ""
2183        if nulls_first and (
2184            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2185        ):
2186            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2187        elif (
2188            nulls_last
2189            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2190            and not nulls_are_last
2191        ):
2192            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2193
2194        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2195        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2196            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2197            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2198                self.unsupported(
2199                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2200                )
2201                nulls_sort_change = ""
2202            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2203                if expression.this.is_int:
2204                    self.unsupported(
2205                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2206                    )
2207                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2208                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2209                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2210                nulls_sort_change = ""
2211
2212        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2213        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2214
2215        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2216
2217    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2218        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2219        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2220
2221        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2222
2223        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2224
2225    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2226        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2227        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2228        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2229        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2230        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2231        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2232        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2233        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2234        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2235        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2236        definition_sqls = [
2237            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2238            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2239        ]
2240        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2241        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2242        body = "".join(
2243            (
2244                partition,
2245                order,
2246                measures,
2247                rows,
2248                after,
2249                pattern,
2250                define,
2251            )
2252        )
2253        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2254        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2255        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2256
2257    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2258        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2259
2260        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2261            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2262        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2263            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2264
2265        return csv(
2266            *sqls,
2267            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2268            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2269            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2270            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2271            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2272            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2273            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2274            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2275            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2276            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2277            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2278            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2279            self.options_modifier(expression),
2280            sep="",
2281        )
2282
2283    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2284        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2285        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2286
2287    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2288        return ""
2289
2290    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2291        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2292    ) -> t.List[str]:
2293        return [
2294            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2295            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2296        ]
2297
2298    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2299        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2300        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2301        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2302
2303    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2304        into = expression.args.get("into")
2305        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2306            into.pop()
2307
2308        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2309        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2310        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2311        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2312
2313        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2314        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2315            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2316            limit.pop()
2317        else:
2318            top = ""
2319
2320        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2321
2322        if kind:
2323            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2324                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2325            else:
2326                if kind == "STRUCT":
2327                    expressions = self.expressions(
2328                        sqls=[
2329                            self.sql(
2330                                exp.Struct(
2331                                    expressions=[
2332                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2333                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2334                                        else e
2335                                        for e in expression.expressions
2336                                    ]
2337                                )
2338                            )
2339                        ]
2340                    )
2341                kind = ""
2342
2343        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2344        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2345        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2346        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2347        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2348            expression,
2349            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2350            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2351            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2352        )
2353
2354        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2355
2356        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2357            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2358                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2359            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2360                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2361            else:
2362                table_kind = ""
2363            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2364
2365        return sql
2366
2367    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2368        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2369        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2370        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2371
2372    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2373        if expression.expressions:
2374            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2375        return ""
2376
2377    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2378        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2379        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2380        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2381        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2382        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2383        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2384        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2385
2386    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2387        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2388        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2389
2390    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2391        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2392        kind = expression.text("kind")
2393        if kind:
2394            kind = f"{kind}."
2395        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2396
2397    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2398        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2399
2400    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2401        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2402        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2403
2404        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2405        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2406
2407        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2408        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2409
2410    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2411        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2412        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2413
2414    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2415        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2416            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2417            order = expression.args.get("order")
2418
2419            if limit or order:
2420                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2421
2422                if limit:
2423                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2424                if order:
2425                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2426                return self.sql(select)
2427
2428        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2429        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2430
2431        while stack:
2432            node = stack.pop()
2433
2434            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2435                stack.append(node.expression)
2436                stack.append(
2437                    self.maybe_comment(
2438                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2439                        comments=node.comments,
2440                        separated=True,
2441                    )
2442                )
2443                stack.append(node.this)
2444            else:
2445                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2446
2447        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2448        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2449        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2450
2451    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2452        return self.set_operations(expression)
2453
2454    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2455        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2456        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2457        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2458        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2459
2460    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2461        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2462
2463        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2464        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2465
2466        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2467            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2468                alias.append("columns", offset)
2469
2470        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2471            columns = alias.columns
2472            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2473        else:
2474            alias = self.sql(alias)
2475
2476        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2477        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2478            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2479        else:
2480            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2481                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2482            elif offset:
2483                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2484            else:
2485                suffix = alias
2486
2487        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2488
2489    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2490        return ""
2491
2492    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2493        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2494        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2495
2496    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2497        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2498        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2499        order = expression.args.get("order")
2500        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2501        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2502        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2503        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2504
2505        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2506
2507        first = expression.args.get("first")
2508        if first is None:
2509            first = ""
2510        else:
2511            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2512
2513        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2514            return f"{this} {alias}"
2515
2516        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2517        return f"{this} ({args})"
2518
2519    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2520        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2521        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2522
2523    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2524        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2525        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2526        end = (
2527            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2528            or "CURRENT ROW"
2529        )
2530        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2531
2532    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2533        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2534        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2535        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2536
2537    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2538        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2539        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2540        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2541        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2542
2543    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2544        return apply_index_offset(
2545            expression.this,
2546            expression.expressions,
2547            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2548        )
2549
2550    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2551        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2552        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2553        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2554
2555    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2556        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2557
2558    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2559        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2560        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2561            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2562                this = self.wrap(this)
2563            return f"ANY{this}"
2564        return f"ANY {this}"
2565
2566    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2567        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2568
2569    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2570        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2571        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2572
2573        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2574            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2575            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2576
2577        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2578
2579        if default:
2580            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2581
2582        statements.append("END")
2583
2584        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2585            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2586
2587        return " ".join(statements)
2588
2589    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2590        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2591        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2592        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2593
2594    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2595        order = expression.args.get("order")
2596        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2597        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2598
2599    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2600        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2601        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2602        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2603
2604    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2605        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2606
2607        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2608            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2609        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2610            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2611        else:
2612            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2613
2614    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2615        args = expression.expressions
2616        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2617            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2618
2619        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2620            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2621
2622        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2623            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2624
2625        return args
2626
2627    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2628        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2629
2630        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2631        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2632            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2633
2634        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2635
2636    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2637        return self.func(
2638            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2639        )
2640
2641    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2642        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2643        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2644
2645    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2646        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2647        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2648        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2649        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2650        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2651        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2652        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2653        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2654
2655    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2656        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2657        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2658        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2659        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2660
2661    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2662        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2663
2664    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2665        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2666        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2667        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2668
2669    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2670        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2671
2672    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2673        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2674        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2675            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2676
2677        return path
2678
2679    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2680        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2681            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2682            if not callable(transform):
2683                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2684                return ""
2685
2686            return transform(self, expression)
2687
2688        if isinstance(expression, int):
2689            return str(expression)
2690
2691        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2692            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2693            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2694        else:
2695            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2696            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2697
2698        return escaped
2699
2700    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2701        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2702
2703    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2704        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2705        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2706
2707        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2708        if unique_keys is not None:
2709            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2710        else:
2711            unique_keys = ""
2712
2713        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2714        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2715        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2716        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2717
2718        return self.func(
2719            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2720            *expression.expressions,
2721            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2722        )
2723
2724    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2725        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2726
2727    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2728        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2729        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2730        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2731        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2732        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2733        return self.func(
2734            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2735        )
2736
2737    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2739        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2740        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2741        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2742        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2743        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2744        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2745        return self.func(
2746            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2747            this,
2748            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2749        )
2750
2751    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2752        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2753        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2754        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2755
2756        if nested_schema:
2757            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2758
2759        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2760        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2761        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2762        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2763
2764    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2765        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2766
2767    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2769        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2770        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2771        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2772        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2773        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2774        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2775        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2776        return self.func(
2777            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2778        )
2779
2780    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2781        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2782        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2783        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2784        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2785        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2786        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2787
2788    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2789        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2790        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2791        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2792        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2793        with_ = (
2794            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2795            if expressions
2796            else ""
2797        )
2798        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2799
2800    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2801        query = expression.args.get("query")
2802        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2803        field = expression.args.get("field")
2804        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2805
2806        if query:
2807            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2808        elif unnest:
2809            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2810        elif field:
2811            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2812        else:
2813            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2814
2815        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2816
2817    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2818        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2819
2820    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2821        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2822        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2823            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2824        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2825
2826        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2827            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2828            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2829
2830        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2831        if this:
2832            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2833            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2834
2835        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2836
2837    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2838        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2839
2840    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2841        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2842        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2843        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2844        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2845        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2846        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2847
2848    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2849        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2850
2851    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2852        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2853        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2854
2855    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2856        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2857        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2858        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2859        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2860
2861    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2862        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2863
2864    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2865        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2866        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2867        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2868
2869    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2870        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2871        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2872
2873        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2874            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2875        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2876            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2877
2878        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2879
2880    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2881        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2882
2883    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2885        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2886        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2887
2888    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2889        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2890        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2891        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2892
2893    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2894        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2895        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2896        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2897
2898    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2899        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2900
2901    def and_sql(
2902        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2903    ) -> str:
2904        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2905
2906    def or_sql(
2907        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2908    ) -> str:
2909        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2910
2911    def xor_sql(
2912        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2913    ) -> str:
2914        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2915
2916    def connector_sql(
2917        self,
2918        expression: exp.Connector,
2919        op: str,
2920        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2921    ) -> str:
2922        if stack is not None:
2923            if expression.expressions:
2924                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2925            else:
2926                stack.append(expression.right)
2927                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2928                    for comment in expression.comments:
2929                        if comment:
2930                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2931                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2932            return op
2933
2934        stack = [expression]
2935        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2936        ops = set()
2937
2938        while stack:
2939            node = stack.pop()
2940            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2941                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2942            else:
2943                sql = self.sql(node)
2944                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2945                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2946                else:
2947                    sqls.append(sql)
2948
2949        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2950        return sep.join(sqls)
2951
2952    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2953        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2954
2955    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2956        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2957
2958    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2959        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2960
2961    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2962        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2963
2964    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2965        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2966
2967    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2968        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2969
2970    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2971        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2972        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2973        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2974        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2975        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2976        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2977        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2978
2979    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2980        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2981        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2982
2983    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2984        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2985
2986    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2987        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2988            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2989        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2990
2991    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2992        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2993
2994    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2995        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2996        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2997        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2998        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2999        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3000        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3001
3002    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3003        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3004        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3005        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3006        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3007        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3008        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3009        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3010        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3011        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3012
3013    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3014        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3015        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3016        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3017        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3018
3019        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3020            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3021
3022        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3023
3024    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3025        return "BEGIN"
3026
3027    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3028        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3029        if chain is not None:
3030            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3031
3032        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3033
3034    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3035        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3036        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3037        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3038
3039    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3040        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3041
3042        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3043        if dtype:
3044            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3045            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3046            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3047            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3048            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3049
3050        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3051        if default:
3052            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3053
3054        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3055        if comment:
3056            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3057
3058        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3059        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3060
3061        if not drop and not allow_null:
3062            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3063
3064        if allow_null is not None:
3065            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3066            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3067
3068        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3069
3070    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3071        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3072        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3073            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3074        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3075
3076    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3077        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3078        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3079        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3080        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3081        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3082
3083    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3084        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3085            # Remove db from tables
3086            expression = expression.transform(
3087                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3088            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3089        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3090        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3091
3092    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3093        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3094        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3095        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3096        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3097
3098    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3099        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3100        return f"SET {exprs}"
3101
3102    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3103        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3104
3105        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3106            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3107        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3108            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3109        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3110            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3111        else:
3112            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3113
3114        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3115        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3116        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3117        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3118        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3119        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3120        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3121
3122    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3123        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3124            return self.expressions(
3125                expression,
3126                key="actions",
3127                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3128            )
3129        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3130
3131    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3132        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3133        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3134        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3135
3136    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3137        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3138
3139    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3140        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3141
3142        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3143            case = exp.case()
3144            for arg in expression.expressions:
3145                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3146            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3147
3148        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3149
3150        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3151        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3152        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3153
3154    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3155        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3156
3157    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3158        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3159
3160    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3161        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3162        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3163        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3164        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3165
3166    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3167        return self.sql(
3168            exp.Cast(
3169                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3170                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3171            )
3172        )
3173
3174    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3175        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3176            return self.func(
3177                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3178            )
3179        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3180
3181    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3182        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3183
3184        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3185            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3186
3187        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3188            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3189                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3190
3191        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3192            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3193                return self.sql(
3194                    exp.cast(
3195                        l / r,
3196                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3197                    )
3198                )
3199
3200        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3201
3202    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3203        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3204
3205    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3206        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3207
3208    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3209        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3210
3211    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3212        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3213
3214    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3215        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3216
3217    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3218        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3219
3220    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3221        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3222
3223    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3224        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3225
3226    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3227        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3228
3229    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3230        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3231
3232    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3233        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3234
3235    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3236        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3237            return self.sql(
3238                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3239            )
3240        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3241
3242    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3243        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3244
3245    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3246        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3247
3248    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3249        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3250
3251    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3252        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3253
3254    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3255        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3256
3257    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3258        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3259
3260    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3261        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3262
3263    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3264        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3265
3266    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3267        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3268
3269    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3270        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3271
3272    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3273        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3274
3275    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3276        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3277
3278    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3279        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3280
3281    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3282        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3283            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3284            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3285
3286        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3287
3288    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3289        this = expression.this
3290        expr = expression.expression
3291
3292        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3293            this, expr = expr, this
3294        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3295            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3296                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3297
3298            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3299
3300        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3301
3302    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3303        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3304        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3305        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3306        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3307        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3308
3309    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3310        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3311        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3312
3313    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3314        args = []
3315
3316        for key in expression.arg_types:
3317            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3318
3319            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3320                for value in arg_value:
3321                    args.append(value)
3322            elif arg_value is not None:
3323                args.append(arg_value)
3324
3325        if self.normalize_functions:
3326            name = expression.sql_name()
3327        else:
3328            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3329
3330        return self.func(name, *args)
3331
3332    def func(
3333        self,
3334        name: str,
3335        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3336        prefix: str = "(",
3337        suffix: str = ")",
3338    ) -> str:
3339        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3340
3341    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3342        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3343        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3344            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3345        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3346
3347    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3348        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3349
3350    def format_time(
3351        self,
3352        expression: exp.Expression,
3353        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3354        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3355    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3356        return format_time(
3357            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3358            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3359            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3360        )
3361
3362    def expressions(
3363        self,
3364        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3365        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3366        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3367        flat: bool = False,
3368        indent: bool = True,
3369        skip_first: bool = False,
3370        skip_last: bool = False,
3371        sep: str = ", ",
3372        prefix: str = "",
3373        dynamic: bool = False,
3374        new_line: bool = False,
3375    ) -> str:
3376        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3377
3378        if not expressions:
3379            return ""
3380
3381        if flat:
3382            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3383
3384        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3385
3386        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3387        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3388            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3389
3390        result_sqls = []
3391        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3392            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3393            if not sql:
3394                continue
3395
3396            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3397
3398            if self.pretty:
3399                if self.leading_comma:
3400                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3401                else:
3402                    result_sqls.append(
3403                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3404                    )
3405            else:
3406                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3407
3408        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3409            if new_line:
3410                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3411                result_sqls.append("")
3412            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3413        else:
3414            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3415        return (
3416            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3417            if indent
3418            else result_sql
3419        )
3420
3421    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3422        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3423        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3424        if flat:
3425            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3426        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3427
3428    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3429        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3430        if not property_name:
3431            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3432        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3433
3434    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3435        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3436
3437    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3438        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3439
3440    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3441        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3442        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3443        expressions = (
3444            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3445        )
3446        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3447
3448    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3449        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3450        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3451        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3452
3453    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3454        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3455
3456    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3457        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3458        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3459        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3460        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3461
3462        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3463        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3464            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3465            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3466            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3467            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3468        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3469            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3470                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3471            else:
3472                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3473        else:
3474            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3475        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3476
3477    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3478        table = expression.this
3479        table_alias = ""
3480
3481        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3482        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3483            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3484            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3485
3486        this = self.sql(table)
3487        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3488        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3489        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3490        sep = self.sep()
3491
3492        return self.prepend_ctes(
3493            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3494        )
3495
3496    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3497        if expression.args.get("format"):
3498            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3499
3500        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3501
3502    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3503        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3504            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3505            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3506
3507        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3508        if not fmt:
3509            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3510            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3511
3512        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3513
3514    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3515        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3516        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3517        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3518        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3519        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3520
3521    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3522        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3523        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3524        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3525        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3526
3527    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3528        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3529
3530    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3531        return ""
3532
3533    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3534        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3535        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3536        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3537        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3538        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3539
3540    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3541        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3542        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3543
3544        if having:
3545            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3546
3547        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3548
3549    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3550        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3551        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3552        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3553        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3554        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3555        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3556        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3557        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3558        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3559        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3560        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3561        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3562        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3563
3564    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3565        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3566        if key_block_size:
3567            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3568
3569        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3570        if using:
3571            return f"USING {using}"
3572
3573        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3574        if parser:
3575            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3576
3577        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3578        if comment:
3579            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3580
3581        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3582        if visible is not None:
3583            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3584
3585        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3586        if engine_attr:
3587            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3588
3589        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3590        if secondary_engine_attr:
3591            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3592
3593        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3594        return ""
3595
3596    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3597        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3598        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3599
3600    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3601        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3602        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3603        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3604        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3605        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3606        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3607        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3608        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3609        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3610        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3611        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3612
3613    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3614        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3615            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3616
3617        case = exp.Case().when(
3618            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3619            expression.args["true"],
3620            copy=False,
3621        )
3622        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3623        if else_cond:
3624            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3625
3626        return self.sql(case)
3627
3628    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3629        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3630        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3631        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3632        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3633        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3634        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3635
3636    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3637        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3638
3639    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3640        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3641
3642    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3643        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3644        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3645        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3646        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3647        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3648        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3649
3650    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3651        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3652        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3653        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3654
3655    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3656        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3657        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3658        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3659
3660    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3661        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3662
3663    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3664        arg = expression.this
3665        if not arg.type:
3666            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3667
3668            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3669
3670        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3671            return self.sql(arg)
3672
3673        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3674        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3675
3676    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3677        this = expression.this
3678        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3679            return self.sql(this)
3680
3681        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3682
3683    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3684        this = expression.this
3685        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3686            return self.sql(this)
3687
3688        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3689
3690    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3691        this = expression.this
3692        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3693
3694        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3695            return self.sql(
3696                exp.cast(
3697                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3698                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3699                )
3700            )
3701
3702        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3703            return self.sql(this)
3704
3705        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3706
3707    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3708        return self.sql(
3709            exp.func(
3710                "DATEDIFF",
3711                expression.this,
3712                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3713                "day",
3714            )
3715        )
3716
3717    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3718        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3719            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3720
3721        unit = expression.text("unit")
3722        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3723            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3724
3725        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3726
3727    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3728        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3729
3730        return self.func(
3731            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3732        )
3733
3734    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3735        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3736            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3737            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3738            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3739            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3740
3741        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3742
3743        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3744        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3745            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3746
3747        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3748
3749    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3750        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3751        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3752
3753    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3754        expression.set(
3755            "expressions",
3756            [
3757                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3758                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3759                else e
3760                for e in expression.expressions
3761            ],
3762        )
3763
3764        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3765
3766    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3767        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3768        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3769
3770        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3771
3772    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3773        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3774        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3775
3776        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3777
3778        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3779        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3780
3781        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3782        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3783
3784        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3785        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3786
3787        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3788        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3789
3790        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3791
3792    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3793    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3794    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3795        to = expression.this
3796        value = expression.expression
3797        style = expression.args.get("style")
3798        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3799        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3800
3801        if not to or not value:
3802            return ""
3803
3804        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3805        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3806            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3807
3808        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3809        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3810
3811        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3812        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3813            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3814
3815            style_value = style.name
3816            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3817            if not converted_style:
3818                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3819
3820            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3821
3822            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3823                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3824            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3825                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3826            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3827                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3828            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3829                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3830
3831        if not transformed:
3832            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3833
3834        return self.sql(transformed)
3835
3836    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3837        this = expression.this
3838        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3839            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3840            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3841
3842        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3843            return f".{this}"
3844
3845        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3846        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3847
3848    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3849        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3850        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3851
3852    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3853        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3854            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3855
3856            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3857
3858        return expression
3859
3860    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3861        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3862            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3863            mods = sorted(
3864                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3865                key=lambda x: 0
3866                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3867                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3868            )
3869
3870            if mods:
3871                mod = mods[0]
3872                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3873                this.meta["inline"] = True
3874                mod.this.replace(this)
3875                return self.sql(expression.this)
3876
3877            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3878
3879            if agg_func:
3880                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3881
3882        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3883
3884    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3885        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3886        if self.pretty:
3887            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3888        return string
3889
3890    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3891        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3892
3893        if expression.expressions:
3894            upper = option.upper()
3895
3896            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3897            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3898
3899            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3900            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3901            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3902            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3903
3904        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3905
3906        if not value:
3907            return option
3908
3909        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3910
3911        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3912
3913    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3914        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3915        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3916            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3917            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3918            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3919        else:
3920            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3921            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3922            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3923
3924        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3925        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3926
3927        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3928        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3929
3930        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3931        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3932
3933        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3934        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3935
3936        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3937
3938    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3939        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3940        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3941
3942        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3943        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3944        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3945        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3946
3947        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3948        params = self.expressions(
3949            expression,
3950            key="params",
3951            sep=sep,
3952            new_line=True,
3953            skip_last=True,
3954            skip_first=True,
3955            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3956        )
3957
3958        if params:
3959            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3960                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3961            elif not self.pretty:
3962                params = f" {params}"
3963
3964        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3965
3966    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3967        return ""
3968
3969    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3970        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3971        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3972        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3973        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3974        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3975
3976        if filter_col or retention_period:
3977            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3978
3979        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
3980
3981    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3982        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3983    ) -> str:
3984        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3985        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3986        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3987        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
3988
3989    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
3990        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3991        this = f"TABLE {this}"
3992        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
3993
3994    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
3995        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
3996
3997    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
3998        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3999        expr = expression.expression
4000
4001        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4002            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4003            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4004        else:
4005            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4006
4007        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4008
4009    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4010        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4011            return self.sql(expression.this)
4012
4013        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4014
4015    def length_sql(self, expression: exp.Length) -> str:
4016        return self.func("LENGTH", expression.this)
4017
4018    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4019        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4020        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4021
4022        if lower and upper:
4023            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4024        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4025
4026    def strtodate_sql(self, expression: exp.StrToDate) -> str:
4027        return self.func("STR_TO_DATE", expression.this, expression.args.get("format"))
4028
4029    def strtotime_sql(self, expression: exp.StrToTime) -> str:
4030        return self.func(
4031            "STR_TO_TIME",
4032            expression.this,
4033            expression.args.get("format"),
4034            expression.args.get("zone"),
4035        )
4036
4037    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4038        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4039        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4040        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4041        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4042        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4043        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4044
4045        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"