sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 118        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 119        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 122        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 123        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 125        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 127        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 128        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 132        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 135        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 136        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 138        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 139        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 140        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 141        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 142        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 143        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 144        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 145        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 146        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 147        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 150        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 151        exp.Int64: lambda self, e: self.sql(exp.cast(e.this, exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT)),
 152        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 153        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 154        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 155        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 156        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 157        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 158        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 159        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 160        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 161        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 162        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 163        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 164        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 165        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 166        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 168        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 169        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 170        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 171        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 172        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 173            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 174        ),
 175        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 176        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 177        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 178        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 179        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 180        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 181        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 182        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 183        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 184        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 185        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 186        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 187        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 188        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 189        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 190        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 191        exp.Tags: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 192        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 193        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 194        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 195        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 196        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 197        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 198        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 199        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 200        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 201        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 202        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 203        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 204        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 205        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 206        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 207        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 208    }
 209
 210    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 211    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 212    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 213    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 214
 215    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 216    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 217    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 218
 219    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 220    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 221
 222    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 223    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 224
 225    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 226    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 227
 228    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 229    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 230
 231    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 232    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 233
 234    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 235    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 236
 237    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 238    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 239
 240    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 241    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 242
 243    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 244    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 245
 246    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 247    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 248
 249    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 250    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 251
 252    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 253    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 254
 255    # Whether join hints should be generated
 256    JOIN_HINTS = True
 257
 258    # Whether table hints should be generated
 259    TABLE_HINTS = True
 260
 261    # Whether query hints should be generated
 262    QUERY_HINTS = True
 263
 264    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 265    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 266
 267    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 268    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 269
 270    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 271    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 272
 273    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 274    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 275
 276    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 277    RETURNING_END = True
 278
 279    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 280    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 281
 282    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 283    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 284
 285    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 286    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 287
 288    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 289    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 290
 291    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 292    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 293    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 294    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 295
 296    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 297    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 298
 299    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 300    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 301
 302    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 303    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 304
 305    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 306    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 307
 308    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 309    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 310
 311    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 312    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 313
 314    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 315    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 316
 317    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 318    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 319
 320    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 321    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 322
 323    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 324    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 325
 326    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 327    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 328
 329    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 330    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 331
 332    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 333    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 334
 335    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 336    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 337
 338    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 339    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 340
 341    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 342    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 343
 344    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 345    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 346
 347    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 348    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 349
 350    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 351    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 352
 353    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 354    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 355
 356    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 357    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 358
 359    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 360    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 361
 362    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 363    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 364
 365    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 366    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 367
 368    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 369    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 370
 371    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 372    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 373    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 374
 375    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 376    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 377
 378    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 379    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 380
 381    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 382    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 383
 384    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 385    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 386
 387    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 388    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 389
 390    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 391    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 392
 393    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 394    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 395    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 396    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 397
 398    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 399    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 400
 401    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 402    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 403
 404    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 405    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 406
 407    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 408    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 409
 410    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 411    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 412
 413    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 414    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 415
 416    # The HEX function name
 417    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 418
 419    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 420    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 421
 422    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 423    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 424
 425    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 426    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 427
 428    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 429    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 430
 431    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 432    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 433
 434    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 435    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 436
 437    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
 438    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
 439
 440    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
 441    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
 442
 443    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 444    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 445
 446    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
 447    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
 448
 449    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
 450    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
 451    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
 452    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
 453    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
 454
 455    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 456        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 457        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 458        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 459        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 460        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 461        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 462        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 463        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 464        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 465        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 466    }
 467
 468    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 469        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 470        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 471        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 472        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 473        "DAYS": "DAY",
 474        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 475        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 476        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 477        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 478    }
 479
 480    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 481        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 482        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 483        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 484        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 485            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 486            if e.args.get("windows")
 487            else ""
 488        ),
 489        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 490    }
 491
 492    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 493
 494    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 495
 496    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 497    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 498
 499    EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: t.Set[str] = set()
 500
 501    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 502        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 504        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 508        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 509        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 510        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 511        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 512        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 513        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 514        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 515        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 517        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 519        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 522        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 524        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 525        exp.EncodeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 526        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 527        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 528        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 529        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 530        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 531        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 532        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 533        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 534        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 535        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 536        exp.IncludeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 539        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 540        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 541        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 542        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 543        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 544        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 545        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 546        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 547        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 548        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 549        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 550        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 551        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 552        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 553        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 554        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 555        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 556        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 557        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 558        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 559        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 560        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 561        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 563        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 564        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 565        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 566        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 567        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 568        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 569        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 570        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 571        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 572        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 573        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 574        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 575        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 576        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 577        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 578        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 579        exp.Tags: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 580        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 581        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 582        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 583        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 584        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 585        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 586        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 587        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 588        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 589        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 590        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 591        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 592        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 593    }
 594
 595    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 596    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 597
 598    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 599    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 600        exp.Command,
 601        exp.Create,
 602        exp.Describe,
 603        exp.Delete,
 604        exp.Drop,
 605        exp.From,
 606        exp.Insert,
 607        exp.Join,
 608        exp.MultitableInserts,
 609        exp.Select,
 610        exp.SetOperation,
 611        exp.Update,
 612        exp.Where,
 613        exp.With,
 614    )
 615
 616    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 617    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 618        exp.Binary,
 619        exp.SetOperation,
 620    )
 621
 622    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 623    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 624        exp.Column,
 625        exp.Literal,
 626        exp.Neg,
 627        exp.Paren,
 628    )
 629
 630    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 631        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 632        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 633        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 634        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 635    }
 636
 637    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 638    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 639
 640    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 641
 642    __slots__ = (
 643        "pretty",
 644        "identify",
 645        "normalize",
 646        "pad",
 647        "_indent",
 648        "normalize_functions",
 649        "unsupported_level",
 650        "max_unsupported",
 651        "leading_comma",
 652        "max_text_width",
 653        "comments",
 654        "dialect",
 655        "unsupported_messages",
 656        "_escaped_quote_end",
 657        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 658        "_next_name",
 659        "_identifier_start",
 660        "_identifier_end",
 661        "_quote_json_path_key_using_brackets",
 662    )
 663
 664    def __init__(
 665        self,
 666        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 667        identify: str | bool = False,
 668        normalize: bool = False,
 669        pad: int = 2,
 670        indent: int = 2,
 671        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 672        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 673        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 674        leading_comma: bool = False,
 675        max_text_width: int = 80,
 676        comments: bool = True,
 677        dialect: DialectType = None,
 678    ):
 679        import sqlglot
 680        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 681
 682        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 683        self.identify = identify
 684        self.normalize = normalize
 685        self.pad = pad
 686        self._indent = indent
 687        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 688        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 689        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 690        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 691        self.comments = comments
 692        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 693
 694        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 695        self.normalize_functions = (
 696            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 697        )
 698
 699        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 700        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 701            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 702        )
 703        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 704
 705        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 706
 707        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 708        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 709
 710        self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets = True
 711
 712    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 713        """
 714        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 715
 716        Args:
 717            expression: The syntax tree.
 718            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 719                it is safer to copy.
 720
 721        Returns:
 722            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 723        """
 724        if copy:
 725            expression = expression.copy()
 726
 727        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 728
 729        self.unsupported_messages = []
 730        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 731
 732        if self.pretty:
 733            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 734
 735        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 736            return sql
 737
 738        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 739            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 740                logger.warning(msg)
 741        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 742            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 743
 744        return sql
 745
 746    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 747        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 748        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 749
 750        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 751            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 752
 753            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 754
 755        return expression
 756
 757    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 758        if (
 759            not expression.parent
 760            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 761            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 762        ):
 763            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 764
 765            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 766        return expression
 767
 768    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 769        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 770            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 771        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 772
 773    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 774        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 775
 776    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 777        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 778
 779    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 780        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 781        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 782        return comment
 783
 784    def maybe_comment(
 785        self,
 786        sql: str,
 787        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 788        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 789        separated: bool = False,
 790    ) -> str:
 791        comments = (
 792            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 793            if self.comments
 794            else None
 795        )
 796
 797        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 798            return sql
 799
 800        comments_sql = " ".join(
 801            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 802        )
 803
 804        if not comments_sql:
 805            return sql
 806
 807        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 808
 809        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 810            return (
 811                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 812                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 813                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 814            )
 815
 816        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 817
 818    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 819        this_sql = (
 820            self.sql(expression)
 821            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 822            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 823        )
 824        if not this_sql:
 825            return "()"
 826
 827        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 828        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 829
 830    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 831        original = self.identify
 832        self.identify = False
 833        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 834        self.identify = original
 835        return result
 836
 837    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 838        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 839            return name.upper()
 840        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 841            return name.lower()
 842        return name
 843
 844    def indent(
 845        self,
 846        sql: str,
 847        level: int = 0,
 848        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 849        skip_first: bool = False,
 850        skip_last: bool = False,
 851    ) -> str:
 852        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 853            return sql
 854
 855        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 856        lines = sql.split("\n")
 857
 858        return "\n".join(
 859            (
 860                line
 861                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 862                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 863            )
 864            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 865        )
 866
 867    def sql(
 868        self,
 869        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 870        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 871        comment: bool = True,
 872    ) -> str:
 873        if not expression:
 874            return ""
 875
 876        if isinstance(expression, str):
 877            return expression
 878
 879        if key:
 880            value = expression.args.get(key)
 881            if value:
 882                return self.sql(value)
 883            return ""
 884
 885        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 886
 887        if callable(transform):
 888            sql = transform(self, expression)
 889        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 890            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 891
 892            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 893                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 894            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 895                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 896            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 897                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 898            else:
 899                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 900        else:
 901            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 902
 903        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 904
 905    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 906        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 907        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 908        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 909
 910    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 911        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 912        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 913        options = expression.args.get("options")
 914        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 915        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 916        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 917        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 918        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 919
 920    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 921        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 922            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 923        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 924        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 925
 926    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 927        return ".".join(
 928            self.sql(part)
 929            for part in (
 930                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 931                expression.args.get("db"),
 932                expression.args.get("table"),
 933                expression.args.get("this"),
 934            )
 935            if part
 936        )
 937
 938    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 939        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 940
 941        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 942            join_mark = ""
 943            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 944
 945        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 946
 947    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 948        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 949        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 950        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 951        return f"{position}{this}"
 952
 953    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 954        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 955        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 956        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 957        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 958        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 959        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 960        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 961        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 962
 963        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 964            kind = ""
 965
 966        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 967
 968    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 969        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 970        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 971        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 972
 973    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 974        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 975        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 976            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 977        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 978            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 979        else:
 980            persisted = ""
 981        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 982
 983    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 984        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 985
 986    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 987        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 988            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 989        else:
 990            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 991
 992        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 993
 994    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 995        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 996    ) -> str:
 997        this = ""
 998        if expression.this is not None:
 999            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
1000            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
1001
1002        start = expression.args.get("start")
1003        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1004        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
1005        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1006        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
1007        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1008        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
1009        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1010        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
1011        cycle_sql = ""
1012
1013        if cycle is not None:
1014            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
1015            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
1016
1017        sequence_opts = ""
1018        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
1019            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
1020            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
1021
1022        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1023        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1024
1025        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
1026
1027    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1028        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1029    ) -> str:
1030        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1031        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1032        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1033
1034    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1035        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1036    ) -> str:
1037        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1038
1039    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1040        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1041
1042    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1043        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1044
1045    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1046        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1047        if desc is not None:
1048            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1049        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1050
1051    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1052        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1053        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1054        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1055        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1056        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1057        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1058        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1059        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1060
1061    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1062        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1063
1064    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1065        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1066        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1067        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1068        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1069
1070        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1071
1072        properties_sql = ""
1073        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1074            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1075        ):
1076            properties_sql = self.sql(
1077                exp.Properties(
1078                    expressions=[
1079                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1080                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1081                    ]
1082                )
1083            )
1084
1085            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1086                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1087            elif not self.pretty:
1088                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1089                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1090
1091        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1092        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1093
1094        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1095        if expression_sql:
1096            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1097
1098            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1099                postalias_props_sql = ""
1100                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1101                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1102                        exp.Properties(
1103                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1104                        ),
1105                        wrapped=False,
1106                    )
1107                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1108                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1109
1110        postindex_props_sql = ""
1111        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1112            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1113                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1114                wrapped=False,
1115                prefix=" ",
1116            )
1117
1118        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1119        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1120        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1121
1122        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1123        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1124        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1125
1126        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1127        if clustered is None:
1128            clustered_sql = ""
1129        elif clustered:
1130            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1131        else:
1132            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1133
1134        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1135        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1136            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1137                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1138                sep=" ",
1139                prefix=" ",
1140                wrapped=False,
1141            )
1142
1143        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1144
1145        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1146        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1147            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1148                exp.Properties(
1149                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1150                ),
1151                sep=" ",
1152                prefix=" ",
1153                wrapped=False,
1154            )
1155
1156        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1157        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1158        no_schema_binding = (
1159            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1160        )
1161
1162        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1163        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1164
1165        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
1166            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
1167        else:
1168            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"
1169
1170        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1171        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1172
1173    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1174        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1175        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1176        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1177        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1178        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1179        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1180        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1181        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1182        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1183        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1184
1185        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1186        if cache is None:
1187            cache_str = ""
1188        elif cache is True:
1189            cache_str = " CACHE"
1190        else:
1191            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1192
1193        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1194        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1195
1196        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1197
1198    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1199        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1200        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1201        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1202        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1203
1204    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1205        style = expression.args.get("style")
1206        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1207        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1208        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1209        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1210        format = f" {format}" if format else ""
1211
1212        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1213
1214    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1215        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1216        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1217
1218    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1219        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1220        if with_:
1221            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1222        return sql
1223
1224    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1225        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1226        recursive = (
1227            "RECURSIVE "
1228            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1229            else ""
1230        )
1231
1232        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1233
1234    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1235        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1236        if alias:
1237            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1238
1239        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1240
1241        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1242        if materialized is False:
1243            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1244        elif materialized:
1245            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1246
1247        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1248
1249    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1250        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1251        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1252        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1253
1254        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1255            columns = ""
1256            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1257
1258        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1259            alias = self._next_name()
1260
1261        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1262
1263    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1264        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1265        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1266            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1267        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1268
1269    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1270        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1271        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1272            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1273        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1274
1275    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1277        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1278            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1279        return this
1280
1281    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1282        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1283        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1284
1285        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1286            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1287            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1288        else:
1289            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1290            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1291
1292        if escape:
1293            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1294            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1295        else:
1296            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1297            escape_sql = ""
1298
1299        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1300            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1301
1302        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1303
1304    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1305        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1306        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1307
1308    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1309        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1310        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1311        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1312        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1313
1314    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1315        nested = ""
1316        values = ""
1317        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1318
1319        type_value = expression.this
1320        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1321            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1322        else:
1323            type_sql = (
1324                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1325                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1326                else type_value
1327            )
1328
1329        if interior:
1330            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1331                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1332                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1333                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1334                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1335                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1336            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1337                nested = f" {interior}"
1338            else:
1339                nested = f"({interior})"
1340
1341        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1342        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1343            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1344            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1345        ):
1346            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1347
1348        return type_sql
1349
1350    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1351        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1352        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1353        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1354        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1355
1356    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1357        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1358        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1359        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1360        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1361        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1362        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1363        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1364        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1365        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1366        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1367        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1368        if self.RETURNING_END:
1369            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1370        else:
1371            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1372        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1373
1374    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1375        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1376        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1377        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1378        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1379        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1380        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1381        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1382        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1383        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1384        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1385        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1386        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1387        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1388        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1389        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1390
1391    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1392        op_type = type(expression)
1393        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1394
1395        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1396        if (
1397            distinct is False
1398            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1399            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1400        ):
1401            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1402
1403        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1404
1405        if distinct is None:
1406            distinct = default_distinct
1407            if distinct is None:
1408                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1409
1410        if distinct is default_distinct:
1411            kind = ""
1412        else:
1413            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1414
1415        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1416        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1417
1418    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1419        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1420            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1421            order = expression.args.get("order")
1422
1423            if limit or order:
1424                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1425                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1426                )
1427
1428                if limit:
1429                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1430                if order:
1431                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1432                return self.sql(select)
1433
1434        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1435        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1436
1437        while stack:
1438            node = stack.pop()
1439
1440            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1441                stack.append(node.expression)
1442                stack.append(
1443                    self.maybe_comment(
1444                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1445                    )
1446                )
1447                stack.append(node.this)
1448            else:
1449                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1450
1451        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1452        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1453        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1454
1455    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1456        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1457        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1458        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1459        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1460        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1461            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1462        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1463        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1464
1465    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1466        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1467            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1468            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1469            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1470
1471        agg = expression.this
1472        agg_arg = agg.this
1473        cond = expression.expression.this
1474        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1475        return self.sql(agg)
1476
1477    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1478        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1479            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1480            return ""
1481
1482        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1483
1484    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1485        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1486        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1487        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1488        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1489        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1490        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1491        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1492        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1493        if include:
1494            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1495        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1496        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1497        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1498        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1499        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1500        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1501
1502        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1503
1504    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1505        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1506        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1507        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1508        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1509        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1510        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1511        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1512
1513        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1514
1515        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1516        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1517
1518    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1519        text = expression.name
1520        lower = text.lower()
1521        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1522        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1523        if (
1524            expression.quoted
1525            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1526            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1527            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1528        ):
1529            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1530        return text
1531
1532    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1533        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1534        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1535            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1536
1537        return text
1538
1539    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1540        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1541        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1542            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1543        return text
1544
1545    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1546        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1547        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1548        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1549        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1550        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1551
1552    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1553        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1554        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1555
1556    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1557        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1558
1559    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1560        root_properties = []
1561        with_properties = []
1562
1563        for p in expression.expressions:
1564            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1565            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1566                with_properties.append(p)
1567            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1568                root_properties.append(p)
1569
1570        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1571        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1572
1573        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1574            with_props = " " + with_props
1575
1576        return root_props + with_props
1577
1578    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1579        if properties.expressions:
1580            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1581        return ""
1582
1583    def properties(
1584        self,
1585        properties: exp.Properties,
1586        prefix: str = "",
1587        sep: str = ", ",
1588        suffix: str = "",
1589        wrapped: bool = True,
1590    ) -> str:
1591        if properties.expressions:
1592            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1593            if expressions:
1594                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1595                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1596        return ""
1597
1598    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1599        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1600
1601    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1602        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1603        for p in properties.expressions:
1604            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1605            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1606                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1607            else:
1608                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1609
1610        return properties_locs
1611
1612    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1613        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1614            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1615        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1616
1617    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1618        property_cls = expression.__class__
1619        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1620            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1621
1622        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1623        if not property_name:
1624            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1625
1626        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1627
1628    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1629        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1630            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1631            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1632
1633            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1634            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1635                like = f"({like})"
1636
1637            return like
1638
1639        if expression.expressions:
1640            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1641
1642        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1643        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1644
1645    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1646        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1647        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1648        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1649
1650    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1651        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1652        local = expression.args.get("local")
1653        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1654        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1655        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1656        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1657        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1658
1659    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1660        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1661        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1662        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1663
1664    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1665        if expression.args.get("default"):
1666            property = "DEFAULT"
1667        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1668            property = "ON"
1669        else:
1670            property = "OFF"
1671        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1672
1673    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1674        if expression.args.get("no"):
1675            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1676        if expression.args.get("default"):
1677            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1678
1679        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1680        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1681
1682    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1683        default = expression.args.get("default")
1684        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1685        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1686        if default or minimum or maximum:
1687            if default:
1688                prop = "DEFAULT"
1689            elif minimum:
1690                prop = "MINIMUM"
1691            else:
1692                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1693            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1694        units = expression.args.get("units")
1695        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1696        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1697
1698    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1699        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1700        always = expression.args.get("always")
1701        default = expression.args.get("default")
1702        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1703        never = expression.args.get("never")
1704
1705        if autotemp is not None:
1706            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1707        elif always:
1708            prop = "ALWAYS"
1709        elif default:
1710            prop = "DEFAULT"
1711        elif manual:
1712            prop = "MANUAL"
1713        elif never:
1714            prop = "NEVER"
1715        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1716
1717    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1718        no = expression.args.get("no")
1719        no = " NO" if no else ""
1720        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1721        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1722        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1723        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1724        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1725
1726    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1727        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1728            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1729        if expression.this:
1730            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1731            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1732            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1733
1734        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1735        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1736        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1737
1738    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1739        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1740
1741        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1742        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1743            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1744        else:
1745            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1746
1747        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1748
1749    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1750        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1751        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1752        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1753        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1754        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1755        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1756        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1757
1758    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1759        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1760        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1761        statistics_sql = ""
1762        if statistics is not None:
1763            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1764        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1765
1766    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1767        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1768        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1769        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1770        data_consistency = (
1771            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1772        )
1773        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1774        retention_period = (
1775            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1776        )
1777
1778        if this:
1779            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1780        else:
1781            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1782
1783        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1784
1785        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1786
1787    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1788        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1789        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1790
1791        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1792            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1793        else:
1794            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1795
1796        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1797        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1798        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1799        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1800        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1801        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1802        if is_function:
1803            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1804        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1805
1806        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1807        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1808        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1809        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1810        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1811        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1812        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1813        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1814
1815        if self.RETURNING_END:
1816            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1817        else:
1818            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1819
1820        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1821        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1822        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1823        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1824
1825        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1826        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1827
1828        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1829        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1830
1831    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1832        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1833
1834    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1835        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1836        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1838        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1839        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1840
1841    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1842        return expression.name
1843
1844    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1845        return expression.name
1846
1847    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1848        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1849
1850        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1851        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1852
1853        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1854        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1855        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1856
1857        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1858        if expressions:
1859            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1860            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1861
1862        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1863
1864    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1865        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1866
1867    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1868        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1869        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1870        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1871        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1872        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1873        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1874        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1875        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1876        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1877        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1878        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1879        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1880        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1881
1882    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1883        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1884
1885    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1886        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1887        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1888        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1889        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1890
1891    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1892        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1893        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1894        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1895        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1896
1897    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1898        return ".".join(
1899            self.sql(part)
1900            for part in (
1901                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1902                expression.args.get("db"),
1903                expression.args.get("this"),
1904            )
1905            if part is not None
1906        )
1907
1908    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1909        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1910        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1911        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1912        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1913        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1914        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1915        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1916        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1917
1918        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1919        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1920            sample_pre_alias = sample
1921            sample_post_alias = ""
1922        else:
1923            sample_pre_alias = ""
1924            sample_post_alias = sample
1925
1926        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1927        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1928        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1929        joins = self.indent(
1930            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1931        )
1932        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1933
1934        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1935        if file_format:
1936            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1937            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1938            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1939
1940        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1941        if ordinality:
1942            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1943            alias = ""
1944
1945        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1946        if when:
1947            table = f"{table} {when}"
1948
1949        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1950        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1951
1952        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1953        if rows_from:
1954            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1955
1956        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1957
1958    def tablesample_sql(
1959        self,
1960        expression: exp.TableSample,
1961        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1962    ) -> str:
1963        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1964        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1965        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1966        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1967        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1968        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1969        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1970        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1971        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1972
1973        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1974        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1975            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1976
1977        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1978        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1979            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1980
1981        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1982        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1983            expr = f"({expr})"
1984
1985        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1986
1987    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1988        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1989
1990        if expression.this:
1991            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1992            if not expressions:
1993                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1994
1995            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1996            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1997            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1998            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1999            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
2000
2001        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2002        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2003        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
2004
2005        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
2006
2007        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
2008        if include_nulls is not None:
2009            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
2010        else:
2011            nulls = ""
2012
2013        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
2014        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
2015        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
2016
2017    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
2018        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
2019        kind = expression.text("kind")
2020        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2021        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
2022
2023    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
2024        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
2025
2026    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
2027        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2028        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2029        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2030        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2031        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2032        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2033        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2034        if self.RETURNING_END:
2035            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2036        else:
2037            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2038        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2039        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2040
2041    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2042        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2043
2044        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2045        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2046            args = self.expressions(expression)
2047            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2048            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2049            values = (
2050                f"({values})"
2051                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2052                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2053                else values
2054            )
2055            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2056
2057        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2058        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2059        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2060
2061        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2062
2063        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2064            row = tup.expressions
2065
2066            if i == 0 and column_names:
2067                row = [
2068                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2069                ]
2070
2071            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2072
2073        if self.pretty:
2074            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2075            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2076            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2077            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2078            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2079
2080        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2081        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2082        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2083
2084    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2085        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2086
2087    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2088    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2089        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2090        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2091        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2092
2093    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2094        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2095
2096    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2097        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2098        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2099
2100    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2101        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2102        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2103
2104    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2105        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2106        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2107
2108    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2109        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2110        if group_by_all is True:
2111            modifier = " ALL"
2112        elif group_by_all is False:
2113            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2114        else:
2115            modifier = ""
2116
2117        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2118
2119        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2120        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2121        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2122
2123        groupings = csv(
2124            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2125            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2126            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2127            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2128            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2129        )
2130
2131        if (
2132            expression.expressions
2133            and groupings
2134            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2135        ):
2136            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2137
2138        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2139
2140    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2141        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2142        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2143
2144    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2145        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2146        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2147        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2148        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2149        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2150        return start + connect
2151
2152    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2153        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2154
2155    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2156        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2157            side = None
2158        else:
2159            side = expression.side
2160
2161        op_sql = " ".join(
2162            op
2163            for op in (
2164                expression.method,
2165                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2166                side,
2167                expression.kind,
2168                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2169            )
2170            if op
2171        )
2172        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2173        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2174        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2175        using = expression.args.get("using")
2176
2177        if not on_sql and using:
2178            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2179
2180        this = expression.this
2181        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2182
2183        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2184        if exprs:
2185            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2186
2187        if on_sql:
2188            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2189            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2190            if using:
2191                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2192            else:
2193                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2194        elif not op_sql:
2195            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2196                return f" {this_sql}"
2197
2198            return f", {this_sql}"
2199
2200        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2201            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2202
2203        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2204
2205    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2206        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2207        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2208        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2209
2210    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2211        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2212
2213        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2214        if cross_apply is True:
2215            op = "INNER JOIN "
2216        elif cross_apply is False:
2217            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2218        else:
2219            op = ""
2220
2221        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2222
2223    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2224        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2225
2226        if expression.args.get("view"):
2227            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2228            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2229            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2230            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2231            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2232            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2233
2234        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2235        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2236        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2237
2238    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2239        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2240
2241        args = [
2242            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2243            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2244            if e
2245        ]
2246
2247        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2248        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2249        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2250        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2251
2252        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2253
2254    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2255        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2256        value = expression.expression
2257        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2258        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2259        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2260        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2261
2262    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2263        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2264        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2266        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2267        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2268        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2269        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2270        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2271
2272    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2273        expressions = (
2274            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2275        )
2276        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2277        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2278
2279    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2280        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2281
2282    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2283        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2284            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2285            return ""
2286
2287        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2288        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2289        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2290        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2291
2292        if wait is not None:
2293            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2294                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2295            else:
2296                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2297
2298        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2299
2300    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2301        text = expression.this or ""
2302        if expression.is_string:
2303            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2304        return text
2305
2306    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2307        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2308            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2309            text = "".join(
2310                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2311            )
2312
2313        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2314            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2315        )
2316
2317    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2318        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2319        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2320        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2321        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2322        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2323        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2324        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2325        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2326        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2327        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2328        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2329
2330    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2331        return "NULL"
2332
2333    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2334        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2335
2336    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2337        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2338        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2339        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2340        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2341
2342    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2343        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2344        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2345        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2346        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2347        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2348        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2349        interpolated_values = [
2350            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2351            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2352            else self.sql(e, "this")
2353            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2354        ]
2355        interpolate = (
2356            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2357        )
2358        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2359
2360    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2361        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2362
2363    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2364        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2365
2366    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2367        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2368
2369    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2370        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2371        asc = not desc
2372
2373        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2374        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2375        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2376        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2377        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2378
2379        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2380
2381        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2382        nulls_sort_change = ""
2383        if nulls_first and (
2384            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2385        ):
2386            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2387        elif (
2388            nulls_last
2389            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2390            and not nulls_are_last
2391        ):
2392            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2393
2394        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2395        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2396            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2397            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2398                self.unsupported(
2399                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2400                )
2401                nulls_sort_change = ""
2402            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False and (
2403                (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2404                or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2405            ):
2406                # BigQuery does not allow these ordering/nulls combinations when used under
2407                # an aggregation func or under a window containing one
2408                ancestor = expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Window, exp.Select)
2409
2410                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.Window):
2411                    ancestor = ancestor.this
2412                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.AggFunc):
2413                    self.unsupported(
2414                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2415                    )
2416                    nulls_sort_change = ""
2417            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2418                if expression.this.is_int:
2419                    self.unsupported(
2420                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2421                    )
2422                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2423                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2424                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2425                nulls_sort_change = ""
2426
2427        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2428        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2429
2430        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2431
2432    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2433        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2434        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2435
2436        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2437
2438        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2439
2440    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2441        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2442        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2443        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2444        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2445        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2446        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2447        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2448        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2449        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2450        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2451        definition_sqls = [
2452            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2453            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2454        ]
2455        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2456        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2457        body = "".join(
2458            (
2459                partition,
2460                order,
2461                measures,
2462                rows,
2463                after,
2464                pattern,
2465                define,
2466            )
2467        )
2468        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2469        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2470        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2471
2472    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2473        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2474
2475        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2476            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2477        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2478            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2479
2480        return csv(
2481            *sqls,
2482            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2483            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2484            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2485            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2486            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2487            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2488            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2489            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2490            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2491            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2492            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2493            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2494            self.options_modifier(expression),
2495            sep="",
2496        )
2497
2498    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2499        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2500        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2501
2502    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2503        return ""
2504
2505    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2506        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2507    ) -> t.List[str]:
2508        return [
2509            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2510            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2511        ]
2512
2513    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2514        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2515        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2516        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2517
2518    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2519        into = expression.args.get("into")
2520        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2521            into.pop()
2522
2523        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2524        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2525        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2526        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2527
2528        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2529        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2530            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2531            limit.pop()
2532        else:
2533            top = ""
2534
2535        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2536
2537        if kind:
2538            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2539                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2540            else:
2541                if kind == "STRUCT":
2542                    expressions = self.expressions(
2543                        sqls=[
2544                            self.sql(
2545                                exp.Struct(
2546                                    expressions=[
2547                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2548                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2549                                        else e
2550                                        for e in expression.expressions
2551                                    ]
2552                                )
2553                            )
2554                        ]
2555                    )
2556                kind = ""
2557
2558        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2559        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2560
2561        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2562        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2563        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2564        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2565        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2566            expression,
2567            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2568            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2569            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2570        )
2571
2572        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2573        if expression.args.get("with"):
2574            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2575            expression.pop_comments()
2576
2577        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2578
2579        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2580            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2581                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2582            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2583                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2584            else:
2585                table_kind = ""
2586            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2587
2588        return sql
2589
2590    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2591        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2592        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2593        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2594
2595    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2596        if expression.expressions:
2597            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2598        return ""
2599
2600    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2601        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2602        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2603        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2604        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2605        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2606        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2607        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2608
2609    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2610        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2611        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2612
2613    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2614        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2615        kind = expression.text("kind")
2616        if kind:
2617            kind = f"{kind}."
2618        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2619
2620    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2621        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2622
2623    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2624        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2625        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2626        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2627        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2628            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2629
2630            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2631            expression.set("sample", None)
2632
2633        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2634        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2635        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2636
2637    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2638        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2639        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2640
2641    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2642        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2643
2644        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2645        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2646
2647        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2648            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2649                alias.append("columns", offset)
2650
2651        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2652            columns = alias.columns
2653            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2654        else:
2655            alias = self.sql(alias)
2656
2657        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2658        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2659            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2660        else:
2661            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2662                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2663            elif offset:
2664                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2665            else:
2666                suffix = alias
2667
2668        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2669
2670    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2671        return ""
2672
2673    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2674        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2675        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2676
2677    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2678        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2679        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2680        order = expression.args.get("order")
2681        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2682        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2683        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2684        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2685
2686        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2687
2688        first = expression.args.get("first")
2689        if first is None:
2690            first = ""
2691        else:
2692            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2693
2694        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2695            return f"{this} {alias}"
2696
2697        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2698        return f"{this} ({args})"
2699
2700    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2701        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2702        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2703
2704    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2705        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2706        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2707        end = (
2708            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2709            or "CURRENT ROW"
2710        )
2711        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2712
2713    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2714        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2715        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2716        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2717
2718    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2719        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2720        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2721        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2722        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2723
2724    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2725        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2726    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2727        return apply_index_offset(
2728            expression.this,
2729            expression.expressions,
2730            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2731        )
2732
2733    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2734        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2735        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2736        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2737
2738    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2739        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2740
2741    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2742        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2743        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2744            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2745                this = self.wrap(this)
2746            return f"ANY{this}"
2747        return f"ANY {this}"
2748
2749    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2750        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2751
2752    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2753        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2754        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2755
2756        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2757            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2758            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2759
2760        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2761
2762        if default:
2763            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2764
2765        statements.append("END")
2766
2767        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2768            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2769
2770        return " ".join(statements)
2771
2772    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2773        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2774        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2775        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2776
2777    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2778        order = expression.args.get("order")
2779        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2780        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2781
2782    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2783        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2784        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2785        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2786
2787    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2788        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2789
2790        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2791            func_name = "LTRIM"
2792        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2793            func_name = "RTRIM"
2794        else:
2795            func_name = "TRIM"
2796
2797        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2798
2799    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2800        args = expression.expressions
2801        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2802            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2803
2804        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2805            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2806
2807        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2808            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2809
2810        return args
2811
2812    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2813        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2814
2815        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2816        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2817            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2818
2819        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2820
2821    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2822        return self.func(
2823            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2824        )
2825
2826    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2827        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2828        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2829
2830    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2831        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2832        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2833        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2834        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2835        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2836        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2837        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2838        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2839
2840    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2841        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2842        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2843        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2844        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2845
2846    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2847        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2848
2849    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2850        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2851        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2852        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2853
2854    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2855        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2856
2857    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2858        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2859
2860        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2861            path = self.escape_str(path)
2862
2863        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2864            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2865
2866        return path
2867
2868    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2869        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2870            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2871            if not callable(transform):
2872                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2873                return ""
2874
2875            return transform(self, expression)
2876
2877        if isinstance(expression, int):
2878            return str(expression)
2879
2880        if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2881            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2882            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2883        else:
2884            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2885            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2886
2887        return escaped
2888
2889    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2890        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2891
2892    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2893        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2894        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2895
2896        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2897        if unique_keys is not None:
2898            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2899        else:
2900            unique_keys = ""
2901
2902        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2903        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2904        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2905        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2906
2907        return self.func(
2908            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2909            *expression.expressions,
2910            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2911        )
2912
2913    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2914        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2915
2916    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2917        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2918        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2919        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2920        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2921        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2922        return self.func(
2923            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2924        )
2925
2926    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2927        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2928        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2929        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2930        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2931        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2932        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2933        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2934        return self.func(
2935            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2936            this,
2937            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2938        )
2939
2940    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2941        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2942        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2943        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2944
2945        if nested_schema:
2946            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2947
2948        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2949        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2950        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2951        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2952
2953    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2954        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2955
2956    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2957        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2958        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2959        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2960        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2961        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2962        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2963        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2964        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2965        return self.func(
2966            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2967        )
2968
2969    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2970        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2971        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2972        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2973        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2974        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2975        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2976
2977    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2978        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2979        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2980        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2981        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2982        with_ = (
2983            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2984            if expressions
2985            else ""
2986        )
2987        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2988
2989    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2990        query = expression.args.get("query")
2991        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2992        field = expression.args.get("field")
2993        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2994
2995        if query:
2996            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2997        elif unnest:
2998            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2999        elif field:
3000            in_sql = self.sql(field)
3001        else:
3002            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3003
3004        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
3005
3006    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
3007        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
3008
3009    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
3010        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
3011        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
3012            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
3013        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
3014
3015        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
3016            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
3017            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
3018
3019        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3020        if this:
3021            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
3022            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
3023
3024        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
3025
3026    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
3027        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3028
3029    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
3030        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3031        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3032        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3033        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3034        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3035        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
3036
3037    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3038        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3039        parent = expression.parent
3040        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3041        return self.func(
3042            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3043        )
3044
3045    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3046        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3047        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3048
3049    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3050        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3051        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3052        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3053        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3054
3055    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3056        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3057
3058    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3059        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3060        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3061        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3062
3063    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3064        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3065
3066        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3067        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3068
3069        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3070            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3071        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3072            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3073
3074        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3075
3076    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3077        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3078
3079    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3080        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3081        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3082        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3083
3084    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3085        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3086        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3087        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3088
3089    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3090        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3091        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3092        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3093
3094    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3095        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3096
3097    def and_sql(
3098        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3099    ) -> str:
3100        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3101
3102    def or_sql(
3103        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3104    ) -> str:
3105        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3106
3107    def xor_sql(
3108        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3109    ) -> str:
3110        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3111
3112    def connector_sql(
3113        self,
3114        expression: exp.Connector,
3115        op: str,
3116        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3117    ) -> str:
3118        if stack is not None:
3119            if expression.expressions:
3120                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3121            else:
3122                stack.append(expression.right)
3123                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3124                    for comment in expression.comments:
3125                        if comment:
3126                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3127                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3128            return op
3129
3130        stack = [expression]
3131        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3132        ops = set()
3133
3134        while stack:
3135            node = stack.pop()
3136            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3137                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3138            else:
3139                sql = self.sql(node)
3140                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3141                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3142                else:
3143                    sqls.append(sql)
3144
3145        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3146        return sep.join(sqls)
3147
3148    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3149        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3150
3151    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3152        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3153
3154    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3155        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3156
3157    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3158        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3159
3160    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3161        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3162
3163    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3164        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3165
3166    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3167        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3168        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3169        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3170        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3171        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3172        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3173        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3174
3175    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3176        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3177        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3178
3179    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3180        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3181            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3182        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3183
3184    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3185        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3186
3187    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3188        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3189        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3190        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3191        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3192        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3193        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3194
3195    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3196        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3197        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3198        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3199        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3200        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3201        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3202        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3203        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3204        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3205
3206    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3207        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3208        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3209        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3210        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3211
3212        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3213            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3214
3215        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3216
3217    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3218        return "BEGIN"
3219
3220    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3221        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3222        if chain is not None:
3223            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3224
3225        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3226
3227    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3228        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3229        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3230        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3231
3232    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3234
3235        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3236        if dtype:
3237            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3238            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3239            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3240            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3241            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3242
3243        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3244        if default:
3245            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3246
3247        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3248        if comment:
3249            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3250
3251        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3252        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3253
3254        if not drop and not allow_null:
3255            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3256
3257        if allow_null is not None:
3258            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3259            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3260
3261        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3262
3263    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3264        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3265        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3266            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3267        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3268
3269    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3270        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3271        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3272        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3273        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3274        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3275
3276    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3277        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3278            # Remove db from tables
3279            expression = expression.transform(
3280                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3281            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3282        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3283        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3284
3285    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3286        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3287        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3288        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3289        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3290
3291    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3292        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3293        return f"SET {exprs}"
3294
3295    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3296        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3297
3298        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3299            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3300        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3301            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3302        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3303            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3304        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3305            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3306        else:
3307            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3308
3309        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3310        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3311        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3312        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3313        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3314        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3315        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3316        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3317
3318        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3319
3320    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3321        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3322            return self.expressions(
3323                expression,
3324                key="actions",
3325                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3326                skip_first=True,
3327            )
3328        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3329
3330    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3331        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3332        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3333        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3334
3335    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3336        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3337
3338    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3339        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3340
3341        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3342            case = exp.case()
3343            for arg in expression.expressions:
3344                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3345            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3346
3347        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3348
3349        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3350        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3351        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3352
3353    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3354        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3355
3356    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3357        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3358
3359    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3360        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3361        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3362        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3363        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3364
3365    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3366        return self.sql(
3367            exp.Cast(
3368                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3369                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3370            )
3371        )
3372
3373    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3374        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3375            return self.func(
3376                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3377            )
3378        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3379
3380    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3381        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3382
3383        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3384            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3385
3386        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3387            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3388                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3389
3390        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3391            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3392                return self.sql(
3393                    exp.cast(
3394                        l / r,
3395                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3396                    )
3397                )
3398
3399        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3400
3401    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3402        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3403
3404    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3405        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3406
3407    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3408        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3409
3410    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3411        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3412
3413    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3414        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3415
3416    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3417        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3418
3419    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3420        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3421
3422    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3423        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3424
3425    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3426        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3427
3428    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3429        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3430
3431    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3432        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3433
3434    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3435        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3436            return self.sql(
3437                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3438            )
3439        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3440
3441    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3442        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3443
3444    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3445        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3446
3447    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3448        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3449
3450    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3451        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3452
3453    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3454        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3455
3456    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3457        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3458
3459    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3460        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3461
3462    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3463        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3464
3465    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3466        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3467
3468    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3469        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3470
3471    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3472        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3473
3474    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3475        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3476
3477    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3478        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3479
3480    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3481        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3482            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3483            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3484
3485        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3486
3487    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3488        this = expression.this
3489        expr = expression.expression
3490
3491        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3492            this, expr = expr, this
3493        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3494            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3495                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3496
3497            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3498
3499        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3500
3501    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3502        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3503        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3504        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3505        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3506        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3507
3508    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3509        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3510        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3511        binary_type = type(expression)
3512
3513        while stack:
3514            node = stack.pop()
3515
3516            if type(node) is binary_type:
3517                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3518                if op_func:
3519                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3520
3521                stack.append(node.right)
3522                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3523                stack.append(node.left)
3524            else:
3525                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3526
3527        return "".join(sqls)
3528
3529    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3530        args = []
3531
3532        for key in expression.arg_types:
3533            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3534
3535            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3536                for value in arg_value:
3537                    args.append(value)
3538            elif arg_value is not None:
3539                args.append(arg_value)
3540
3541        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
3542            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3543        else:
3544            name = expression.sql_name()
3545
3546        return self.func(name, *args)
3547
3548    def func(
3549        self,
3550        name: str,
3551        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3552        prefix: str = "(",
3553        suffix: str = ")",
3554        normalize: bool = True,
3555    ) -> str:
3556        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3557        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3558
3559    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3560        arg_sqls = tuple(
3561            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3562        )
3563        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3564            return self.indent(
3565                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3566            )
3567        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
3568
3569    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3570        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3571
3572    def format_time(
3573        self,
3574        expression: exp.Expression,
3575        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3576        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3577    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3578        return format_time(
3579            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3580            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3581            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3582        )
3583
3584    def expressions(
3585        self,
3586        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3587        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3588        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3589        flat: bool = False,
3590        indent: bool = True,
3591        skip_first: bool = False,
3592        skip_last: bool = False,
3593        sep: str = ", ",
3594        prefix: str = "",
3595        dynamic: bool = False,
3596        new_line: bool = False,
3597    ) -> str:
3598        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3599
3600        if not expressions:
3601            return ""
3602
3603        if flat:
3604            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3605
3606        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3607        result_sqls = []
3608
3609        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3610            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3611            if not sql:
3612                continue
3613
3614            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3615
3616            if self.pretty:
3617                if self.leading_comma:
3618                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3619                else:
3620                    result_sqls.append(
3621                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3622                    )
3623            else:
3624                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3625
3626        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3627            if new_line:
3628                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3629                result_sqls.append("")
3630            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3631        else:
3632            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3633
3634        return (
3635            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3636            if indent
3637            else result_sql
3638        )
3639
3640    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3641        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3642        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3643        if flat:
3644            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3645        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3646
3647    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3648        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3649        if not property_name:
3650            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3651        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3652
3653    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3654        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3655
3656    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3657        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3658
3659    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3660        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3661        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3662        expressions = (
3663            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3664        )
3665        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
3666
3667    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3668        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3669        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3670        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3671
3672    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3673        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3674
3675    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3676        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3677        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3678        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3679        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3680
3681        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3682        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3683            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3684            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3685            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3686            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3687        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3688            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3689                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3690            else:
3691                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3692        else:
3693            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3694        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3695
3696    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3697        table = expression.this
3698        table_alias = ""
3699
3700        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3701        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3702            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3703            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3704
3705        this = self.sql(table)
3706        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3707        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3708        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3709        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3710        if returning:
3711            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
3712
3713        sep = self.sep()
3714
3715        return self.prepend_ctes(
3716            expression,
3717            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
3718        )
3719
3720    @unsupported_args("format")
3721    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3722        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3723
3724    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3725        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3726            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3727            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3728
3729        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3730        if not fmt:
3731            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3732            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3733
3734        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3735
3736    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3738        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3739        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3740        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3741        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3742
3743    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3744        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3745        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3746        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3747        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3748
3749    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3750        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3751
3752    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3753        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3754
3755    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3756    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3757        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3758        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3759        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3760        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3761        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3762        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3763        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3764
3765    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3766        return ""
3767
3768    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3769        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3770        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3771        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3772        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3773        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3774
3775    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3776        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3777        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3778
3779        if having:
3780            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3781
3782        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3783
3784    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3785        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3786        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3787        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3788        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3789        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3790        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3791        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3792        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3793        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3794        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3795        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3796        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3797        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3798
3799    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3800        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3801        if key_block_size:
3802            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3803
3804        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3805        if using:
3806            return f"USING {using}"
3807
3808        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3809        if parser:
3810            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3811
3812        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3813        if comment:
3814            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3815
3816        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3817        if visible is not None:
3818            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3819
3820        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3821        if engine_attr:
3822            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3823
3824        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3825        if secondary_engine_attr:
3826            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3827
3828        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3829        return ""
3830
3831    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3832        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3833        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3834
3835    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3836        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3837        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3839        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3840        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3841        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3842        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3843        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3844        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3845        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3846        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3847
3848    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3849        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3850            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3851
3852        case = exp.Case().when(
3853            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3854            expression.args["true"],
3855            copy=False,
3856        )
3857        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3858        if else_cond:
3859            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3860
3861        return self.sql(case)
3862
3863    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3865        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3866        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3867        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3868        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3869        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3870
3871    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3872        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3873
3874    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3875        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3876
3877    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3878        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3879        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3880        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3881        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3882        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3883        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3884
3885    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3886        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3887        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3888        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3889
3890    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3891        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3892        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3893        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3894
3895    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3896        arg = expression.this
3897        if not arg.type:
3898            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3899
3900            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3901
3902        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3903            return self.sql(arg)
3904
3905        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3906        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3907
3908    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3909        this = expression.this
3910        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3911            return self.sql(this)
3912
3913        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3914
3915    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3916        this = expression.this
3917        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3918            return self.sql(this)
3919
3920        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
3921
3922    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
3923        this = expression.this
3924        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
3925            return self.sql(this)
3926
3927        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
3928
3929    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3930        this = expression.this
3931        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3932
3933        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3934            return self.sql(
3935                exp.cast(
3936                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3937                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3938                )
3939            )
3940
3941        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3942            return self.sql(this)
3943
3944        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3945
3946    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3947        return self.sql(
3948            exp.func(
3949                "DATEDIFF",
3950                expression.this,
3951                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3952                "day",
3953            )
3954        )
3955
3956    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3957        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3958            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3959
3960        unit = expression.text("unit")
3961        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3962            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3963
3964        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3965
3966    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3967        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3968
3969        return self.func(
3970            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3971        )
3972
3973    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3974        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3975            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3976            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3977            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3978            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3979
3980        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3981
3982        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3983        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3984            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3985
3986        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3987
3988    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3989        expression.set(
3990            "expressions",
3991            [
3992                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3993                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3994                else e
3995                for e in expression.expressions
3996            ],
3997        )
3998
3999        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4000
4001    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
4002        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
4003        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4004
4005        return f"{low} TO {high}"
4006
4007    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
4008        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
4009        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
4010
4011        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4012
4013        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
4014        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
4015
4016        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
4017        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
4018
4019        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4020        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4021
4022        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4023        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4024
4025        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
4026
4027    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
4028    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
4029    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
4030        to = expression.this
4031        value = expression.expression
4032        style = expression.args.get("style")
4033        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
4034        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
4035
4036        if not to or not value:
4037            return ""
4038
4039        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4040        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4041            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4042
4043        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4044        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4045
4046        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4047        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4048            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4049
4050            style_value = style.name
4051            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4052            if not converted_style:
4053                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4054
4055            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4056
4057            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4058                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4059            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
4060                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4061            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4062                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4063            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4064                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4065
4066        if not transformed:
4067            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4068
4069        return self.sql(transformed)
4070
4071    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4072        this = expression.this
4073        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4074            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4075            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4076
4077        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4078            return f".{this}"
4079
4080        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4081        return (
4082            f"[{this}]"
4083            if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED
4084            else f".{this}"
4085        )
4086
4087    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4088        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4089        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4090
4091    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4092        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4093            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4094
4095            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4096
4097        return expression
4098
4099    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4100        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4101            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4102            mods = sorted(
4103                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4104                key=lambda x: 0
4105                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4106                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4107            )
4108
4109            if mods:
4110                mod = mods[0]
4111                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4112                this.meta["inline"] = True
4113                mod.this.replace(this)
4114                return self.sql(expression.this)
4115
4116            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4117
4118            if agg_func:
4119                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4120
4121        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4122
4123    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4124        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4125        if self.pretty:
4126            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4127        return string
4128
4129    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4130        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4131
4132        if expression.expressions:
4133            upper = option.upper()
4134
4135            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4136            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4137
4138            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4139            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4140            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4141            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4142
4143        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4144
4145        if not value:
4146            return option
4147
4148        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4149
4150        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4151
4152    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4153        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4154        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4155            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4156            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4157            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4158        else:
4159            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4160            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4161            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4162
4163        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4164        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4165
4166        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4167        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4168
4169        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4170        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4171
4172        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4173        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4174
4175        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4176
4177    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4179        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4180
4181        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4182        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4183        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4184        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4185
4186        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4187        params = self.expressions(
4188            expression,
4189            key="params",
4190            sep=sep,
4191            new_line=True,
4192            skip_last=True,
4193            skip_first=True,
4194            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4195        )
4196
4197        if params:
4198            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4199                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4200            elif not self.pretty:
4201                params = f" {params}"
4202
4203        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4204
4205    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4206        return ""
4207
4208    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4209        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4210        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4211        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4212        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4213        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4214
4215        if filter_col or retention_period:
4216            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4217
4218        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4219
4220    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4221        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4222    ) -> str:
4223        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4224        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4225        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4226        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4227
4228    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4229        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4230        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4231        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4232
4233    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4234        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4235
4236    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4237        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4238        expr = expression.expression
4239
4240        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4241            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4242            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4243        else:
4244            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4245
4246        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4247
4248    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4249        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4250            return self.sql(expression.this)
4251
4252        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4253
4254    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4255        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4256        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4257
4258        if lower and upper:
4259            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4260        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4261
4262    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4263        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4264        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4265        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4266        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4267        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4268        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4269
4270        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4271
4272    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4273        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4274
4275        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4276        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4277            fill_pattern = "' '"
4278
4279        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4280
4281    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4282        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4283        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4284
4285    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4286        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4287
4288        parent = expression.parent
4289        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4290            parent = parent.parent
4291
4292        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4293            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4294
4295        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4296            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4297
4298        return self.sql(generate_series)
4299
4300    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4301        exprs = expression.expressions
4302        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4303            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4304        else:
4305            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4306
4307        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
4308
4309    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4310        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4311            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4312
4313        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4314        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4315        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4316
4317        if source_tz and timestamp:
4318            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4319                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4320            )
4321
4322        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4323
4324        return self.sql(expr)
4325
4326    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4327        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4328        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4329
4330        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4331
4332        if _with is None:
4333            with_sql = ""
4334        elif not _with:
4335            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4336        else:
4337            with_sql = " WITH"
4338
4339        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4340
4341        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4342
4343    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4344        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4345            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4346
4347        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4348        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4349        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4350
4351        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4352        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4353
4354        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4355
4356    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4357        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4358        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4359        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4360        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4361        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4362
4363    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4364        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4365        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4366        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4367        return res
4368
4369    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4370        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4371        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4372        empty = (
4373            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4374            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4375            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4376        )
4377
4378        error = expression.args.get("error")
4379        error = (
4380            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4381            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4382            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4383        )
4384
4385        if error and empty:
4386            error = (
4387                f"{empty} {error}"
4388                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4389                else f"{error} {empty}"
4390            )
4391            empty = ""
4392
4393        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4394
4395        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4396
4397    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4398        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4399        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4400
4401        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4402        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4403
4404        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4405        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4406
4407        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4408
4409        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4410
4411    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4412        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4413
4414        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4415        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4416        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4417            parent = expression.parent
4418            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4419                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4420                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4421            else:
4422                this = expression.this
4423                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4424                if this.find(exp.Column):
4425                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4426                    this_sql = (
4427                        self.expressions(this)
4428                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4429                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4430                    )
4431
4432                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4433
4434        return array_agg
4435
4436    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4437        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4438        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4439
4440        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4441
4442    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4443        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4444
4445        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4446        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4447
4448        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4449        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4450
4451        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4452
4453        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4454
4455        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4456
4457    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4458        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4459        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4460        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4461
4462        return f"{this}{columns}"
4463
4464    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4465        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4466
4467        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4468        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4469
4470        return f"{kind}{this}"
4471
4472    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4473        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4474        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4475            func = f"*{func}"
4476
4477        return func
4478
4479    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4480        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4481        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4482        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4483        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4484        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4485
4486        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
4487
4488    @unsupported_args("format")
4489    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4490        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
4491
4492    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4493        this = expression.this
4494        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4495
4496        if zone:
4497            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4498            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4499            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4500            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4501                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4502            )
4503
4504        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
4505
4506    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4507        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4508            return self.sql(
4509                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4510            )
4511
4512        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4513
4514    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4515        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4516        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4517        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4518        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
4519
4520    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4521        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
4522            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4523
4524        start_ts = exp.cast(
4525            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
4526        )
4527
4528        return self.sql(
4529            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
4530        )
4531
4532    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
4533        dim = expression.expression
4534
4535        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
4536        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
4537            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
4538                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
4539            dim = None
4540
4541        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
4542        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
4543            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
4544
4545        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)
4546
4547    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
4548        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4549        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4550        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
4551        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4552
4553        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"
4554
4555    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
4556        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4557        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4558
4559        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"
4560
4561    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
4562        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4563        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4564        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
4565        return f"{this}{value}"
4566
4567    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
4568        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
4569        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
4570            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"
4571
4572        return self.func(
4573            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
4574            this_sql,
4575            expression.args.get("time"),
4576            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
4577            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
4578        )
4579
4580    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
4581        return (
4582            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
4583        )
4584
4585    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
4586        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
4587        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4588
4589        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
4590        if properties:
4591            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"
4592
4593        return encode
4594
4595    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
4596        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4597        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"
4598
4599        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
4600        if column_def:
4601            include = f"{include} {column_def}"
4602
4603        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
4604        if alias:
4605            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"
4606
4607        return include