sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 118        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 119        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 122        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 123        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 125        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 127        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 128        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 132        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 135        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 136        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 138        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 139        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 140        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 141        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 142        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 143        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 144        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 145        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 146        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 147        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 150        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 151        exp.Int64: lambda self, e: self.sql(exp.cast(e.this, exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT)),
 152        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 153        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 154        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 155        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 156        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 157        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 158        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 159        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 160        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 161        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 162        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 163        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 164        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 165        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 166        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 168        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 169        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 170        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 171        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 172        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 173            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 174        ),
 175        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 176        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 177        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 178        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 179        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 180        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 181        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 182        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 183        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 184        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 185        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 186        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 187        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 188        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 189        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 190        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 191        exp.Tags: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 192        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 193        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 194        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 195        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 196        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 197        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 198        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 199        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 200        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 201        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 202        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 203        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 204        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 205        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 206        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 207        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 208    }
 209
 210    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 211    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 212    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 213    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 214
 215    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 216    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 217    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 218
 219    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 220    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 221
 222    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 223    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 224
 225    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 226    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 227
 228    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 229    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 230
 231    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 232    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 233
 234    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 235    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 236
 237    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 238    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 239
 240    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 241    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 242
 243    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 244    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 245
 246    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 247    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 248
 249    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 250    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 251
 252    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 253    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 254
 255    # Whether join hints should be generated
 256    JOIN_HINTS = True
 257
 258    # Whether table hints should be generated
 259    TABLE_HINTS = True
 260
 261    # Whether query hints should be generated
 262    QUERY_HINTS = True
 263
 264    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 265    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 266
 267    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 268    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 269
 270    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 271    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 272
 273    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 274    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 275
 276    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 277    RETURNING_END = True
 278
 279    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 280    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 281
 282    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 283    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 284
 285    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 286    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 287
 288    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 289    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 290
 291    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 292    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 293    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 294    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 295
 296    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 297    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 298
 299    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 300    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 301
 302    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 303    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 304
 305    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 306    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 307
 308    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 309    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 310
 311    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 312    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 313
 314    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 315    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 316
 317    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 318    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 319
 320    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 321    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 322
 323    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 324    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 325
 326    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 327    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 328
 329    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 330    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 331
 332    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 333    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 334
 335    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 336    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 337
 338    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 339    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 340
 341    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 342    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 343
 344    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 345    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 346
 347    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 348    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 349
 350    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 351    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 352
 353    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 354    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 355
 356    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 357    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 358
 359    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 360    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 361
 362    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 363    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 364
 365    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 366    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 367
 368    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 369    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 370
 371    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 372    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 373    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 374
 375    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 376    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 377
 378    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 379    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 380
 381    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 382    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 383
 384    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 385    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 386
 387    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 388    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 389
 390    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 391    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 392
 393    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 394    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 395    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 396    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 397
 398    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 399    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 400
 401    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 402    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 403
 404    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 405    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 406
 407    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 408    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 409
 410    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 411    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 412
 413    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 414    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 415
 416    # The HEX function name
 417    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 418
 419    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 420    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 421
 422    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 423    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 424
 425    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 426    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 427
 428    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 429    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 430
 431    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 432    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 433
 434    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 435    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 436
 437    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
 438    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
 439
 440    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
 441    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
 442
 443    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 444    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 445
 446    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
 447    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
 448
 449    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
 450    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
 451    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
 452    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
 453    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
 454
 455    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 456        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 457        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 458        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 459        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 460        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 461        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 462        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 463        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 464        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 465        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 466    }
 467
 468    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 469        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 470        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 471        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 472        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 473        "DAYS": "DAY",
 474        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 475        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 476        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 477        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 478    }
 479
 480    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 481        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 482        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 483        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 484        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 485            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 486            if e.args.get("windows")
 487            else ""
 488        ),
 489        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 490    }
 491
 492    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 493
 494    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 495
 496    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 497    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 498
 499    EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: t.Set[str] = set()
 500
 501    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 502        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 504        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 508        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 509        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 510        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 511        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 512        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 513        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 514        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 515        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 517        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 519        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 522        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 524        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 525        exp.EncodeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 526        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 527        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 528        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 529        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 530        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 531        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 532        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 533        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 534        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 535        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 536        exp.IncludeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 539        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 540        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 541        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 542        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 543        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 544        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 545        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 546        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 547        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 548        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 549        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 550        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 551        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 552        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 553        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 554        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 555        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 556        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 557        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 558        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 559        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 560        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 561        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 563        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 564        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 565        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 566        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 567        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 568        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 569        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 570        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 571        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 572        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 573        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 574        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 575        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 576        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 577        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 578        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 579        exp.Tags: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 580        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 581        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 582        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 583        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 584        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 585        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 586        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 587        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 588        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 589        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 590        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 591        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 592        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 593    }
 594
 595    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 596    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 597
 598    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 599    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 600        exp.Command,
 601        exp.Create,
 602        exp.Describe,
 603        exp.Delete,
 604        exp.Drop,
 605        exp.From,
 606        exp.Insert,
 607        exp.Join,
 608        exp.MultitableInserts,
 609        exp.Select,
 610        exp.SetOperation,
 611        exp.Update,
 612        exp.Where,
 613        exp.With,
 614    )
 615
 616    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 617    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 618        exp.Binary,
 619        exp.SetOperation,
 620    )
 621
 622    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 623    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 624        exp.Column,
 625        exp.Literal,
 626        exp.Neg,
 627        exp.Paren,
 628    )
 629
 630    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 631        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 632        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 633        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 634        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 635    }
 636
 637    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 638    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 639
 640    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 641
 642    __slots__ = (
 643        "pretty",
 644        "identify",
 645        "normalize",
 646        "pad",
 647        "_indent",
 648        "normalize_functions",
 649        "unsupported_level",
 650        "max_unsupported",
 651        "leading_comma",
 652        "max_text_width",
 653        "comments",
 654        "dialect",
 655        "unsupported_messages",
 656        "_escaped_quote_end",
 657        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 658        "_next_name",
 659        "_identifier_start",
 660        "_identifier_end",
 661    )
 662
 663    def __init__(
 664        self,
 665        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 666        identify: str | bool = False,
 667        normalize: bool = False,
 668        pad: int = 2,
 669        indent: int = 2,
 670        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 671        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 672        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 673        leading_comma: bool = False,
 674        max_text_width: int = 80,
 675        comments: bool = True,
 676        dialect: DialectType = None,
 677    ):
 678        import sqlglot
 679        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 680
 681        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 682        self.identify = identify
 683        self.normalize = normalize
 684        self.pad = pad
 685        self._indent = indent
 686        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 687        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 688        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 689        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 690        self.comments = comments
 691        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 692
 693        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 694        self.normalize_functions = (
 695            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 696        )
 697
 698        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 699        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 700            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 701        )
 702        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 703
 704        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 705
 706        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 707        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 708
 709    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 710        """
 711        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 712
 713        Args:
 714            expression: The syntax tree.
 715            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 716                it is safer to copy.
 717
 718        Returns:
 719            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 720        """
 721        if copy:
 722            expression = expression.copy()
 723
 724        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 725
 726        self.unsupported_messages = []
 727        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 728
 729        if self.pretty:
 730            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 731
 732        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 733            return sql
 734
 735        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 736            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 737                logger.warning(msg)
 738        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 739            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 740
 741        return sql
 742
 743    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 744        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 745        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 746
 747        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 748            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 749
 750            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 751
 752        return expression
 753
 754    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 755        if (
 756            not expression.parent
 757            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 758            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 759        ):
 760            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 761
 762            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 763        return expression
 764
 765    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 766        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 767            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 768        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 769
 770    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 771        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 772
 773    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 774        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 775
 776    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 777        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 778        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 779        return comment
 780
 781    def maybe_comment(
 782        self,
 783        sql: str,
 784        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 785        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 786        separated: bool = False,
 787    ) -> str:
 788        comments = (
 789            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 790            if self.comments
 791            else None
 792        )
 793
 794        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 795            return sql
 796
 797        comments_sql = " ".join(
 798            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 799        )
 800
 801        if not comments_sql:
 802            return sql
 803
 804        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 805
 806        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 807            return (
 808                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 809                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 810                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 811            )
 812
 813        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 814
 815    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 816        this_sql = (
 817            self.sql(expression)
 818            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 819            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 820        )
 821        if not this_sql:
 822            return "()"
 823
 824        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 825        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 826
 827    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 828        original = self.identify
 829        self.identify = False
 830        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 831        self.identify = original
 832        return result
 833
 834    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 835        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 836            return name.upper()
 837        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 838            return name.lower()
 839        return name
 840
 841    def indent(
 842        self,
 843        sql: str,
 844        level: int = 0,
 845        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 846        skip_first: bool = False,
 847        skip_last: bool = False,
 848    ) -> str:
 849        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 850            return sql
 851
 852        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 853        lines = sql.split("\n")
 854
 855        return "\n".join(
 856            (
 857                line
 858                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 859                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 860            )
 861            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 862        )
 863
 864    def sql(
 865        self,
 866        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 867        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 868        comment: bool = True,
 869    ) -> str:
 870        if not expression:
 871            return ""
 872
 873        if isinstance(expression, str):
 874            return expression
 875
 876        if key:
 877            value = expression.args.get(key)
 878            if value:
 879                return self.sql(value)
 880            return ""
 881
 882        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 883
 884        if callable(transform):
 885            sql = transform(self, expression)
 886        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 887            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 888
 889            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 890                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 891            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 892                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 893            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 894                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 895            else:
 896                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 897        else:
 898            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 899
 900        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 901
 902    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 903        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 904        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 905        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 906
 907    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 908        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 909        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 910        options = expression.args.get("options")
 911        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 912        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 913        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 914        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 915        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 916
 917    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 918        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 919            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 920        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 921        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 922
 923    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 924        return ".".join(
 925            self.sql(part)
 926            for part in (
 927                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 928                expression.args.get("db"),
 929                expression.args.get("table"),
 930                expression.args.get("this"),
 931            )
 932            if part
 933        )
 934
 935    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 936        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 937
 938        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 939            join_mark = ""
 940            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 941
 942        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 943
 944    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 945        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 946        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 947        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 948        return f"{position}{this}"
 949
 950    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 951        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 952        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 953        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 954        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 955        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 956        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 957        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 958        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 959
 960        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 961            kind = ""
 962
 963        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 964
 965    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 966        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 967        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 968        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 969
 970    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 971        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 972        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 973            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 974        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 975            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 976        else:
 977            persisted = ""
 978        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 979
 980    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 981        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 982
 983    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 984        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 985            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 986        else:
 987            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 988
 989        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 990
 991    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 992        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 993    ) -> str:
 994        this = ""
 995        if expression.this is not None:
 996            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 997            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 998
 999        start = expression.args.get("start")
1000        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1001        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
1002        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1003        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
1004        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1005        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
1006        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1007        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
1008        cycle_sql = ""
1009
1010        if cycle is not None:
1011            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
1012            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
1013
1014        sequence_opts = ""
1015        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
1016            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
1017            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
1018
1019        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1020        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1021
1022        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
1023
1024    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1025        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1026    ) -> str:
1027        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1028        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1029        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1030
1031    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1032        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1033    ) -> str:
1034        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1035
1036    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1037        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1038
1039    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1040        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1041
1042    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1043        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1044        if desc is not None:
1045            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1046        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1047
1048    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1049        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1050        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1051        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1052        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1053        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1054        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1055        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1056        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1057
1058    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1059        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1060
1061    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1062        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1063        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1064        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1065        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1066
1067        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1068
1069        properties_sql = ""
1070        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1071            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1072        ):
1073            properties_sql = self.sql(
1074                exp.Properties(
1075                    expressions=[
1076                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1077                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1078                    ]
1079                )
1080            )
1081
1082            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1083                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1084            elif not self.pretty:
1085                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1086                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1087
1088        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1089        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1090
1091        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1092        if expression_sql:
1093            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1094
1095            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1096                postalias_props_sql = ""
1097                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1098                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1099                        exp.Properties(
1100                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1101                        ),
1102                        wrapped=False,
1103                    )
1104                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1105                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1106
1107        postindex_props_sql = ""
1108        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1109            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1110                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1111                wrapped=False,
1112                prefix=" ",
1113            )
1114
1115        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1116        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1117        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1118
1119        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1120        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1121        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1122
1123        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1124        if clustered is None:
1125            clustered_sql = ""
1126        elif clustered:
1127            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1128        else:
1129            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1130
1131        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1132        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1133            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1134                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1135                sep=" ",
1136                prefix=" ",
1137                wrapped=False,
1138            )
1139
1140        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1141
1142        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1143        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1144            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1145                exp.Properties(
1146                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1147                ),
1148                sep=" ",
1149                prefix=" ",
1150                wrapped=False,
1151            )
1152
1153        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1154        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1155        no_schema_binding = (
1156            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1157        )
1158
1159        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1160        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1161
1162        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
1163            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
1164        else:
1165            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"
1166
1167        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1168        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1169
1170    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1171        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1172        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1173        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1174        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1175        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1176        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1177        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1178        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1179        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1180        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1181
1182        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1183        if cache is None:
1184            cache_str = ""
1185        elif cache is True:
1186            cache_str = " CACHE"
1187        else:
1188            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1189
1190        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1191        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1192
1193        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1194
1195    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1196        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1197        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1198        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1199        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1200
1201    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1202        style = expression.args.get("style")
1203        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1204        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1205        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1206        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1207        format = f" {format}" if format else ""
1208
1209        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1210
1211    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1212        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1213        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1214
1215    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1216        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1217        if with_:
1218            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1219        return sql
1220
1221    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1222        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1223        recursive = (
1224            "RECURSIVE "
1225            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1226            else ""
1227        )
1228
1229        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1230
1231    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1232        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1233        if alias:
1234            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1235
1236        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1237
1238        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1239        if materialized is False:
1240            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1241        elif materialized:
1242            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1243
1244        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1245
1246    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1247        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1248        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1249        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1250
1251        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1252            columns = ""
1253            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1254
1255        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1256            alias = self._next_name()
1257
1258        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1259
1260    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1261        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1262        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1263            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1264        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1265
1266    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1267        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1268        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1269            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1270        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1271
1272    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1273        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1274        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1275            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1276        return this
1277
1278    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1279        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1280        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1281
1282        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1283            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1284            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1285        else:
1286            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1287            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1288
1289        if escape:
1290            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1291            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1292        else:
1293            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1294            escape_sql = ""
1295
1296        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1297            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1298
1299        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1300
1301    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1302        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1303        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1304
1305    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1306        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1307        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1308        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1309        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1310
1311    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1312        nested = ""
1313        values = ""
1314        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1315
1316        type_value = expression.this
1317        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1318            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1319        else:
1320            type_sql = (
1321                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1322                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1323                else type_value
1324            )
1325
1326        if interior:
1327            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1328                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1329                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1330                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1331                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1332                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1333            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1334                nested = f" {interior}"
1335            else:
1336                nested = f"({interior})"
1337
1338        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1339        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1340            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1341            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1342        ):
1343            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1344
1345        return type_sql
1346
1347    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1348        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1349        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1350        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1351        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1352
1353    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1354        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1355        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1356        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1357        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1358        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1359        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1360        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1361        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1362        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1363        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1364        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1365        if self.RETURNING_END:
1366            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1367        else:
1368            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1369        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1370
1371    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1372        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1373        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1374        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1375        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1376        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1377        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1378        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1379        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1380        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1381        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1382        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1383        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1384        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1385        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1386        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1387
1388    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1389        op_type = type(expression)
1390        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1391
1392        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1393        if (
1394            distinct is False
1395            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1396            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1397        ):
1398            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1399
1400        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1401
1402        if distinct is None:
1403            distinct = default_distinct
1404            if distinct is None:
1405                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1406
1407        if distinct is default_distinct:
1408            kind = ""
1409        else:
1410            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1411
1412        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1413        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1414
1415    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1416        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1417            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1418            order = expression.args.get("order")
1419
1420            if limit or order:
1421                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1422                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1423                )
1424
1425                if limit:
1426                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1427                if order:
1428                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1429                return self.sql(select)
1430
1431        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1432        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1433
1434        while stack:
1435            node = stack.pop()
1436
1437            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1438                stack.append(node.expression)
1439                stack.append(
1440                    self.maybe_comment(
1441                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1442                    )
1443                )
1444                stack.append(node.this)
1445            else:
1446                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1447
1448        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1449        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1450        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1451
1452    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1453        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1454        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1455        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1456        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1457        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1458            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1459        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1460        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1461
1462    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1463        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1464            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1465            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1466            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1467
1468        agg = expression.this
1469        agg_arg = agg.this
1470        cond = expression.expression.this
1471        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1472        return self.sql(agg)
1473
1474    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1475        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1476            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1477            return ""
1478
1479        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1480
1481    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1482        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1483        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1484        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1485        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1486        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1487        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1488        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1489        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1490        if include:
1491            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1492        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1493        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1494        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1495        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1496        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1497        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1498
1499        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1500
1501    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1502        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1503        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1504        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1505        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1506        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1507        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1508        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1509
1510        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1511
1512        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1513        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1514
1515    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1516        text = expression.name
1517        lower = text.lower()
1518        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1519        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1520        if (
1521            expression.quoted
1522            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1523            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1524            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1525        ):
1526            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1527        return text
1528
1529    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1530        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1531        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1532            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1533
1534        return text
1535
1536    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1537        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1538        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1539            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1540        return text
1541
1542    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1543        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1544        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1545        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1546        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1547        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1548
1549    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1550        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1551        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1552
1553    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1554        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1555
1556    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1557        root_properties = []
1558        with_properties = []
1559
1560        for p in expression.expressions:
1561            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1562            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1563                with_properties.append(p)
1564            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1565                root_properties.append(p)
1566
1567        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1568        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1569
1570        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1571            with_props = " " + with_props
1572
1573        return root_props + with_props
1574
1575    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1576        if properties.expressions:
1577            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1578        return ""
1579
1580    def properties(
1581        self,
1582        properties: exp.Properties,
1583        prefix: str = "",
1584        sep: str = ", ",
1585        suffix: str = "",
1586        wrapped: bool = True,
1587    ) -> str:
1588        if properties.expressions:
1589            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1590            if expressions:
1591                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1592                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1593        return ""
1594
1595    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1596        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1597
1598    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1599        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1600        for p in properties.expressions:
1601            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1602            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1603                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1604            else:
1605                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1606
1607        return properties_locs
1608
1609    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1610        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1611            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1612        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1613
1614    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1615        property_cls = expression.__class__
1616        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1617            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1618
1619        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1620        if not property_name:
1621            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1622
1623        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1624
1625    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1626        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1627            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1628            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1629
1630            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1631            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1632                like = f"({like})"
1633
1634            return like
1635
1636        if expression.expressions:
1637            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1638
1639        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1640        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1641
1642    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1643        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1644        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1645        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1646
1647    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1648        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1649        local = expression.args.get("local")
1650        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1651        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1652        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1653        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1654        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1655
1656    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1657        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1658        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1659        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1660
1661    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1662        if expression.args.get("default"):
1663            property = "DEFAULT"
1664        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1665            property = "ON"
1666        else:
1667            property = "OFF"
1668        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1669
1670    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1671        if expression.args.get("no"):
1672            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1673        if expression.args.get("default"):
1674            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1675
1676        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1677        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1678
1679    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1680        default = expression.args.get("default")
1681        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1682        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1683        if default or minimum or maximum:
1684            if default:
1685                prop = "DEFAULT"
1686            elif minimum:
1687                prop = "MINIMUM"
1688            else:
1689                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1690            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1691        units = expression.args.get("units")
1692        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1693        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1694
1695    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1696        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1697        always = expression.args.get("always")
1698        default = expression.args.get("default")
1699        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1700        never = expression.args.get("never")
1701
1702        if autotemp is not None:
1703            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1704        elif always:
1705            prop = "ALWAYS"
1706        elif default:
1707            prop = "DEFAULT"
1708        elif manual:
1709            prop = "MANUAL"
1710        elif never:
1711            prop = "NEVER"
1712        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1713
1714    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1715        no = expression.args.get("no")
1716        no = " NO" if no else ""
1717        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1718        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1719        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1720        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1721        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1722
1723    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1724        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1725            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1726        if expression.this:
1727            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1728            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1729            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1730
1731        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1732        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1733        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1734
1735    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1736        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1737
1738        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1739        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1740            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1741        else:
1742            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1743
1744        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1745
1746    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1747        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1748        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1749        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1750        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1751        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1752        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1753        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1754
1755    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1756        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1757        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1758        statistics_sql = ""
1759        if statistics is not None:
1760            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1761        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1762
1763    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1764        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1765        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1766        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1767        data_consistency = (
1768            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1769        )
1770        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1771        retention_period = (
1772            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1773        )
1774
1775        if this:
1776            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1777        else:
1778            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1779
1780        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1781
1782        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1783
1784    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1785        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1786        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1787
1788        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1789            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1790        else:
1791            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1792
1793        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1794        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1795        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1796        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1797        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1798        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1799        if is_function:
1800            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1801        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1802
1803        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1804        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1805        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1806        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1807        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1808        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1809        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1810        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1811
1812        if self.RETURNING_END:
1813            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1814        else:
1815            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1816
1817        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1818        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1819        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1820        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1821
1822        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1823        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1824
1825        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1826        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1827
1828    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1829        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1830
1831    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1832        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1833        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1834        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1835        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1836        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1837
1838    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1839        return expression.name
1840
1841    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1842        return expression.name
1843
1844    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1845        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1846
1847        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1848        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1849
1850        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1851        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1852        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1853
1854        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1855        if expressions:
1856            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1857            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1858
1859        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1860
1861    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1862        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1863
1864    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1865        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1866        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1867        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1868        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1869        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1870        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1871        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1872        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1873        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1874        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1875        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1876        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1877        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1878
1879    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1880        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1881
1882    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1883        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1884        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1885        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1886        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1887
1888    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1889        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1890        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1891        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1892        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1893
1894    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1895        return ".".join(
1896            self.sql(part)
1897            for part in (
1898                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1899                expression.args.get("db"),
1900                expression.args.get("this"),
1901            )
1902            if part is not None
1903        )
1904
1905    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1906        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1907        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1908        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1909        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1910        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1911        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1912        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1913        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1914
1915        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1916        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1917            sample_pre_alias = sample
1918            sample_post_alias = ""
1919        else:
1920            sample_pre_alias = ""
1921            sample_post_alias = sample
1922
1923        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1924        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1925        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1926        joins = self.indent(
1927            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1928        )
1929        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1930
1931        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1932        if file_format:
1933            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1934            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1935            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1936
1937        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1938        if ordinality:
1939            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1940            alias = ""
1941
1942        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1943        if when:
1944            table = f"{table} {when}"
1945
1946        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1947        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1948
1949        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1950        if rows_from:
1951            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1952
1953        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1954
1955    def tablesample_sql(
1956        self,
1957        expression: exp.TableSample,
1958        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1959    ) -> str:
1960        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1961        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1962        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1963        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1964        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1965        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1966        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1967        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1968        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1969
1970        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1971        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1972            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1973
1974        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1975        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1976            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1977
1978        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1979        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1980            expr = f"({expr})"
1981
1982        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1983
1984    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1985        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1986
1987        if expression.this:
1988            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1989            if not expressions:
1990                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1991
1992            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1993            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1994            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1995            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1996            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1997
1998        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1999        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2000        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
2001
2002        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
2003
2004        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
2005        if include_nulls is not None:
2006            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
2007        else:
2008            nulls = ""
2009
2010        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
2011        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
2012        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
2013
2014    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
2015        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
2016        kind = expression.text("kind")
2017        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2018        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
2019
2020    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
2021        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
2022
2023    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
2024        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2025        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2026        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2027        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2028        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2029        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2030        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2031        if self.RETURNING_END:
2032            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2033        else:
2034            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2035        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2036        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2037
2038    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2039        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2040
2041        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2042        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2043            args = self.expressions(expression)
2044            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2045            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2046            values = (
2047                f"({values})"
2048                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2049                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2050                else values
2051            )
2052            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2053
2054        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2055        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2056        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2057
2058        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2059
2060        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2061            row = tup.expressions
2062
2063            if i == 0 and column_names:
2064                row = [
2065                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2066                ]
2067
2068            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2069
2070        if self.pretty:
2071            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2072            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2073            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2074            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2075            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2076
2077        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2078        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2079        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2080
2081    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2082        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2083
2084    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2085    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2086        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2087        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2088        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2089
2090    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2091        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2092
2093    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2094        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2095        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2096
2097    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2098        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2099        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2100
2101    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2102        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2103        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2104
2105    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2106        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2107        if group_by_all is True:
2108            modifier = " ALL"
2109        elif group_by_all is False:
2110            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2111        else:
2112            modifier = ""
2113
2114        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2115
2116        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2117        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2118        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2119
2120        groupings = csv(
2121            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2122            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2123            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2124            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2125            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2126        )
2127
2128        if (
2129            expression.expressions
2130            and groupings
2131            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2132        ):
2133            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2134
2135        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2136
2137    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2138        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2139        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2140
2141    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2142        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2143        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2144        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2145        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2146        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2147        return start + connect
2148
2149    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2150        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2151
2152    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2153        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2154            side = None
2155        else:
2156            side = expression.side
2157
2158        op_sql = " ".join(
2159            op
2160            for op in (
2161                expression.method,
2162                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2163                side,
2164                expression.kind,
2165                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2166            )
2167            if op
2168        )
2169        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2170        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2171        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2172        using = expression.args.get("using")
2173
2174        if not on_sql and using:
2175            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2176
2177        this = expression.this
2178        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2179
2180        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2181        if exprs:
2182            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2183
2184        if on_sql:
2185            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2186            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2187            if using:
2188                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2189            else:
2190                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2191        elif not op_sql:
2192            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2193                return f" {this_sql}"
2194
2195            return f", {this_sql}"
2196
2197        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2198            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2199
2200        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2201
2202    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2203        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2204        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2205        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2206
2207    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2208        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2209
2210        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2211        if cross_apply is True:
2212            op = "INNER JOIN "
2213        elif cross_apply is False:
2214            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2215        else:
2216            op = ""
2217
2218        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2219
2220    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2221        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2222
2223        if expression.args.get("view"):
2224            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2225            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2226            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2227            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2228            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2229            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2230
2231        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2232        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2233        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2234
2235    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2236        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2237
2238        args = [
2239            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2240            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2241            if e
2242        ]
2243
2244        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2245        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2246        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2247        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2248
2249        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2250
2251    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2252        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2253        value = expression.expression
2254        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2255        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2256        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2257        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2258
2259    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2260        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2261        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2262        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2263        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2264        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2265        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2266        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2267        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2268
2269    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2270        expressions = (
2271            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2272        )
2273        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2274        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2275
2276    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2277        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2278
2279    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2280        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2281            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2282            return ""
2283
2284        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2285        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2286        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2287        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2288
2289        if wait is not None:
2290            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2291                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2292            else:
2293                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2294
2295        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2296
2297    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2298        text = expression.this or ""
2299        if expression.is_string:
2300            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2301        return text
2302
2303    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2304        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2305            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2306            text = "".join(
2307                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2308            )
2309
2310        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2311            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2312        )
2313
2314    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2315        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2316        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2317        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2318        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2319        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2320        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2321        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2322        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2323        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2324        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2325        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2326
2327    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2328        return "NULL"
2329
2330    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2331        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2332
2333    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2334        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2335        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2336        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2337        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2338
2339    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2340        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2341        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2342        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2343        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2344        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2345        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2346        interpolated_values = [
2347            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2348            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2349            else self.sql(e, "this")
2350            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2351        ]
2352        interpolate = (
2353            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2354        )
2355        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2356
2357    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2358        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2359
2360    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2361        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2362
2363    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2364        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2365
2366    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2367        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2368        asc = not desc
2369
2370        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2371        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2372        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2373        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2374        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2375
2376        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2377
2378        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2379        nulls_sort_change = ""
2380        if nulls_first and (
2381            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2382        ):
2383            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2384        elif (
2385            nulls_last
2386            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2387            and not nulls_are_last
2388        ):
2389            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2390
2391        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2392        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2393            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2394            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2395                self.unsupported(
2396                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2397                )
2398                nulls_sort_change = ""
2399            elif (
2400                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
2401                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
2402                and (
2403                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2404                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2405                )
2406            ):
2407                self.unsupported(
2408                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2409                )
2410                nulls_sort_change = ""
2411            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2412                if expression.this.is_int:
2413                    self.unsupported(
2414                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2415                    )
2416                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2417                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2418                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2419                nulls_sort_change = ""
2420
2421        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2422        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2423
2424        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2425
2426    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2427        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2428        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2429
2430        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2431
2432        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2433
2434    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2435        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2436        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2437        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2438        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2439        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2440        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2441        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2442        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2443        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2444        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2445        definition_sqls = [
2446            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2447            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2448        ]
2449        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2450        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2451        body = "".join(
2452            (
2453                partition,
2454                order,
2455                measures,
2456                rows,
2457                after,
2458                pattern,
2459                define,
2460            )
2461        )
2462        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2463        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2464        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2465
2466    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2467        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2468
2469        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2470            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2471        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2472            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2473
2474        return csv(
2475            *sqls,
2476            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2477            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2478            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2479            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2480            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2481            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2482            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2483            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2484            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2485            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2486            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2487            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2488            self.options_modifier(expression),
2489            sep="",
2490        )
2491
2492    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2493        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2494        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2495
2496    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2497        return ""
2498
2499    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2500        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2501    ) -> t.List[str]:
2502        return [
2503            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2504            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2505        ]
2506
2507    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2508        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2509        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2510        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2511
2512    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2513        into = expression.args.get("into")
2514        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2515            into.pop()
2516
2517        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2518        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2519        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2520        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2521
2522        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2523        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2524            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2525            limit.pop()
2526        else:
2527            top = ""
2528
2529        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2530
2531        if kind:
2532            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2533                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2534            else:
2535                if kind == "STRUCT":
2536                    expressions = self.expressions(
2537                        sqls=[
2538                            self.sql(
2539                                exp.Struct(
2540                                    expressions=[
2541                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2542                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2543                                        else e
2544                                        for e in expression.expressions
2545                                    ]
2546                                )
2547                            )
2548                        ]
2549                    )
2550                kind = ""
2551
2552        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2553        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2554
2555        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2556        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2557        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2558        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2559        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2560            expression,
2561            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2562            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2563            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2564        )
2565
2566        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2567        if expression.args.get("with"):
2568            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2569            expression.pop_comments()
2570
2571        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2572
2573        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2574            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2575                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2576            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2577                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2578            else:
2579                table_kind = ""
2580            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2581
2582        return sql
2583
2584    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2585        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2586        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2587        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2588
2589    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2590        if expression.expressions:
2591            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2592        return ""
2593
2594    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2595        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2596        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2597        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2598        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2599        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2600        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2601        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2602
2603    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2604        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2605        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2606
2607    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2608        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2609        kind = expression.text("kind")
2610        if kind:
2611            kind = f"{kind}."
2612        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2613
2614    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2615        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2616
2617    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2618        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2619        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2620        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2621        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2622            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2623
2624            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2625            expression.set("sample", None)
2626
2627        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2628        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2629        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2630
2631    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2632        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2633        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2634
2635    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2636        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2637
2638        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2639        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2640
2641        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2642            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2643                alias.append("columns", offset)
2644
2645        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2646            columns = alias.columns
2647            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2648        else:
2649            alias = self.sql(alias)
2650
2651        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2652        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2653            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2654        else:
2655            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2656                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2657            elif offset:
2658                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2659            else:
2660                suffix = alias
2661
2662        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2663
2664    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2665        return ""
2666
2667    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2668        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2669        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2670
2671    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2672        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2673        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2674        order = expression.args.get("order")
2675        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2676        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2677        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2678        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2679
2680        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2681
2682        first = expression.args.get("first")
2683        if first is None:
2684            first = ""
2685        else:
2686            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2687
2688        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2689            return f"{this} {alias}"
2690
2691        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2692        return f"{this} ({args})"
2693
2694    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2695        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2696        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2697
2698    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2699        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2700        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2701        end = (
2702            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2703            or "CURRENT ROW"
2704        )
2705        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2706
2707    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2708        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2709        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2710        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2711
2712    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2713        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2714        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2715        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2716        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2717
2718    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2719        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2720    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2721        return apply_index_offset(
2722            expression.this,
2723            expression.expressions,
2724            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2725        )
2726
2727    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2728        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2729        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2730        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2731
2732    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2733        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2734
2735    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2736        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2737        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2738            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2739                this = self.wrap(this)
2740            return f"ANY{this}"
2741        return f"ANY {this}"
2742
2743    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2744        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2745
2746    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2747        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2748        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2749
2750        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2751            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2752            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2753
2754        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2755
2756        if default:
2757            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2758
2759        statements.append("END")
2760
2761        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2762            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2763
2764        return " ".join(statements)
2765
2766    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2767        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2768        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2769        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2770
2771    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2772        order = expression.args.get("order")
2773        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2774        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2775
2776    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2777        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2778        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2779        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2780
2781    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2782        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2783
2784        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2785            func_name = "LTRIM"
2786        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2787            func_name = "RTRIM"
2788        else:
2789            func_name = "TRIM"
2790
2791        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2792
2793    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2794        args = expression.expressions
2795        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2796            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2797
2798        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2799            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2800
2801        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2802            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2803
2804        return args
2805
2806    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2807        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2808
2809        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2810        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2811            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2812
2813        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2814
2815    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2816        return self.func(
2817            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2818        )
2819
2820    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2821        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2822        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2823
2824    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2825        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2826        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2827        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2828        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2829        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2830        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2831        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2832        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2833
2834    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2835        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2836        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2837        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2838        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2839
2840    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2841        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2842
2843    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2844        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2845        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2846        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2847
2848    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2849        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2850
2851    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2852        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2853
2854        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2855            path = self.escape_str(path)
2856
2857        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2858            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2859
2860        return path
2861
2862    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2863        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2864            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2865            if not callable(transform):
2866                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2867                return ""
2868
2869            return transform(self, expression)
2870
2871        if isinstance(expression, int):
2872            return str(expression)
2873
2874        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2875            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2876            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2877        else:
2878            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2879            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2880
2881        return escaped
2882
2883    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2884        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2885
2886    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2887        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2888        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2889
2890        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2891        if unique_keys is not None:
2892            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2893        else:
2894            unique_keys = ""
2895
2896        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2897        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2898        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2899        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2900
2901        return self.func(
2902            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2903            *expression.expressions,
2904            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2905        )
2906
2907    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2908        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2909
2910    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2911        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2912        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2913        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2914        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2915        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2916        return self.func(
2917            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2918        )
2919
2920    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2922        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2923        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2924        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2925        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2926        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2927        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2928        return self.func(
2929            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2930            this,
2931            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2932        )
2933
2934    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2935        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2936        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2937        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2938
2939        if nested_schema:
2940            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2941
2942        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2943        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2944        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2945        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2946
2947    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2948        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2949
2950    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2951        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2952        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2953        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2954        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2955        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2956        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2957        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2958        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2959        return self.func(
2960            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2961        )
2962
2963    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2964        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2965        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2966        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2967        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2968        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2969        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2970
2971    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2972        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2973        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2974        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2975        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2976        with_ = (
2977            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2978            if expressions
2979            else ""
2980        )
2981        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2982
2983    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2984        query = expression.args.get("query")
2985        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2986        field = expression.args.get("field")
2987        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2988
2989        if query:
2990            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2991        elif unnest:
2992            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2993        elif field:
2994            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2995        else:
2996            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2997
2998        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2999
3000    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
3001        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
3002
3003    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
3004        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
3005        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
3006            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
3007        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
3008
3009        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
3010            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
3011            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
3012
3013        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3014        if this:
3015            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
3016            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
3017
3018        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
3019
3020    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
3021        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3022
3023    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
3024        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3025        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3026        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3027        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3028        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3029        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
3030
3031    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3032        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3033        parent = expression.parent
3034        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3035        return self.func(
3036            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3037        )
3038
3039    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3040        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3041        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3042
3043    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3044        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3045        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3046        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3047        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3048
3049    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3050        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3051
3052    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3053        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3054        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3055        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3056
3057    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3058        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3059
3060        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3061        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3062
3063        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3064            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3065        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3066            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3067
3068        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3069
3070    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3071        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3072
3073    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3074        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3075        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3076        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3077
3078    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3079        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3080        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3081        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3082
3083    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3084        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3085        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3086        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3087
3088    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3089        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3090
3091    def and_sql(
3092        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3093    ) -> str:
3094        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3095
3096    def or_sql(
3097        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3098    ) -> str:
3099        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3100
3101    def xor_sql(
3102        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3103    ) -> str:
3104        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3105
3106    def connector_sql(
3107        self,
3108        expression: exp.Connector,
3109        op: str,
3110        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3111    ) -> str:
3112        if stack is not None:
3113            if expression.expressions:
3114                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3115            else:
3116                stack.append(expression.right)
3117                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3118                    for comment in expression.comments:
3119                        if comment:
3120                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3121                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3122            return op
3123
3124        stack = [expression]
3125        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3126        ops = set()
3127
3128        while stack:
3129            node = stack.pop()
3130            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3131                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3132            else:
3133                sql = self.sql(node)
3134                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3135                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3136                else:
3137                    sqls.append(sql)
3138
3139        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3140        return sep.join(sqls)
3141
3142    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3143        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3144
3145    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3146        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3147
3148    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3149        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3150
3151    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3152        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3153
3154    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3155        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3156
3157    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3158        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3159
3160    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3161        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3162        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3163        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3164        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3165        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3166        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3167        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3168
3169    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3170        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3171        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3172
3173    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3174        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3175            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3176        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3177
3178    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3179        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3180
3181    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3182        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3183        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3184        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3185        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3186        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3187        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3188
3189    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3190        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3191        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3192        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3193        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3194        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3195        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3196        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3197        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3198        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3199
3200    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3201        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3202        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3203        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3204        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3205
3206        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3207            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3208
3209        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3210
3211    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3212        return "BEGIN"
3213
3214    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3215        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3216        if chain is not None:
3217            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3218
3219        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3220
3221    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3222        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3223        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3224        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3225
3226    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3227        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3228
3229        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3230        if dtype:
3231            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3232            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3233            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3234            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3235            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3236
3237        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3238        if default:
3239            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3240
3241        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3242        if comment:
3243            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3244
3245        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3246        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3247
3248        if not drop and not allow_null:
3249            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3250
3251        if allow_null is not None:
3252            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3253            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3254
3255        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3256
3257    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3258        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3259        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3260            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3261        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3262
3263    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3264        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3266        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3267        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3268        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3269
3270    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3271        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3272            # Remove db from tables
3273            expression = expression.transform(
3274                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3275            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3277        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3278
3279    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3280        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3281        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3282        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3283        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3284
3285    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3286        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3287        return f"SET {exprs}"
3288
3289    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3290        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3291
3292        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3293            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3294        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3295            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3296        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3297            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3298        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3299            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3300        else:
3301            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3302
3303        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3304        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3305        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3306        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3307        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3308        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3309        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3310        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3311
3312        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3313
3314    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3315        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3316            return self.expressions(
3317                expression,
3318                key="actions",
3319                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3320                skip_first=True,
3321            )
3322        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3323
3324    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3325        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3326        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3327        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3328
3329    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3330        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3331
3332    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3333        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3334
3335        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3336            case = exp.case()
3337            for arg in expression.expressions:
3338                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3339            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3340
3341        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3342
3343        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3344        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3345        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3346
3347    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3348        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3349
3350    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3351        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3352
3353    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3354        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3355        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3356        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3357        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3358
3359    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3360        return self.sql(
3361            exp.Cast(
3362                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3363                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3364            )
3365        )
3366
3367    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3368        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3369            return self.func(
3370                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3371            )
3372        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3373
3374    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3375        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3376
3377        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3378            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3379
3380        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3381            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3382                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3383
3384        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3385            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3386                return self.sql(
3387                    exp.cast(
3388                        l / r,
3389                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3390                    )
3391                )
3392
3393        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3394
3395    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3396        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3397
3398    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3399        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3400
3401    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3402        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3403
3404    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3405        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3406
3407    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3408        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3409
3410    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3411        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3412
3413    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3414        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3415
3416    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3417        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3418
3419    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3420        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3421
3422    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3423        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3424
3425    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3426        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3427
3428    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3429        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3430            return self.sql(
3431                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3432            )
3433        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3434
3435    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3436        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3437
3438    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3439        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3440
3441    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3442        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3443
3444    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3445        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3446
3447    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3448        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3449
3450    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3451        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3452
3453    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3454        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3455
3456    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3457        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3458
3459    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3460        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3461
3462    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3463        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3464
3465    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3466        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3467
3468    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3469        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3470
3471    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3472        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3473
3474    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3475        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3476            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3477            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3478
3479        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3480
3481    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3482        this = expression.this
3483        expr = expression.expression
3484
3485        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3486            this, expr = expr, this
3487        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3488            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3489                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3490
3491            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3492
3493        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3494
3495    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3496        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3497        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3498        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3499        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3500        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3501
3502    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3503        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3504        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3505        binary_type = type(expression)
3506
3507        while stack:
3508            node = stack.pop()
3509
3510            if type(node) is binary_type:
3511                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3512                if op_func:
3513                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3514
3515                stack.append(node.right)
3516                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3517                stack.append(node.left)
3518            else:
3519                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3520
3521        return "".join(sqls)
3522
3523    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3524        args = []
3525
3526        for key in expression.arg_types:
3527            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3528
3529            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3530                for value in arg_value:
3531                    args.append(value)
3532            elif arg_value is not None:
3533                args.append(arg_value)
3534
3535        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
3536            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3537        else:
3538            name = expression.sql_name()
3539
3540        return self.func(name, *args)
3541
3542    def func(
3543        self,
3544        name: str,
3545        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3546        prefix: str = "(",
3547        suffix: str = ")",
3548        normalize: bool = True,
3549    ) -> str:
3550        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3551        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3552
3553    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3554        arg_sqls = tuple(
3555            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3556        )
3557        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3558            return self.indent(
3559                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3560            )
3561        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
3562
3563    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3564        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3565
3566    def format_time(
3567        self,
3568        expression: exp.Expression,
3569        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3570        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3571    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3572        return format_time(
3573            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3574            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3575            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3576        )
3577
3578    def expressions(
3579        self,
3580        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3581        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3582        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3583        flat: bool = False,
3584        indent: bool = True,
3585        skip_first: bool = False,
3586        skip_last: bool = False,
3587        sep: str = ", ",
3588        prefix: str = "",
3589        dynamic: bool = False,
3590        new_line: bool = False,
3591    ) -> str:
3592        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3593
3594        if not expressions:
3595            return ""
3596
3597        if flat:
3598            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3599
3600        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3601        result_sqls = []
3602
3603        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3604            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3605            if not sql:
3606                continue
3607
3608            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3609
3610            if self.pretty:
3611                if self.leading_comma:
3612                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3613                else:
3614                    result_sqls.append(
3615                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3616                    )
3617            else:
3618                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3619
3620        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3621            if new_line:
3622                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3623                result_sqls.append("")
3624            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3625        else:
3626            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3627
3628        return (
3629            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3630            if indent
3631            else result_sql
3632        )
3633
3634    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3635        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3636        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3637        if flat:
3638            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3639        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3640
3641    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3642        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3643        if not property_name:
3644            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3645        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3646
3647    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3648        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3649
3650    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3651        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3652
3653    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3654        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3655        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3656        expressions = (
3657            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3658        )
3659        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
3660
3661    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3662        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3663        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3664        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3665
3666    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3667        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3668
3669    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3670        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3671        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3672        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3673        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3674
3675        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3676        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3677            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3678            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3679            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3680            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3681        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3682            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3683                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3684            else:
3685                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3686        else:
3687            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3688        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3689
3690    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3691        table = expression.this
3692        table_alias = ""
3693
3694        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3695        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3696            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3697            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3698
3699        this = self.sql(table)
3700        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3701        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3702        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3703        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3704        if returning:
3705            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
3706
3707        sep = self.sep()
3708
3709        return self.prepend_ctes(
3710            expression,
3711            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
3712        )
3713
3714    @unsupported_args("format")
3715    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3716        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3717
3718    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3719        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3720            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3721            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3722
3723        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3724        if not fmt:
3725            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3726            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3727
3728        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3729
3730    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3731        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3732        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3733        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3734        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3735        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3736
3737    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3739        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3740        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3741        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3742
3743    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3744        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3745
3746    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3747        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3748
3749    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3750    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3751        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3752        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3753        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3754        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3755        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3756        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3757        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3758
3759    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3760        return ""
3761
3762    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3763        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3764        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3765        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3766        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3767        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3768
3769    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3771        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3772
3773        if having:
3774            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3775
3776        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3777
3778    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3779        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3780        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3781        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3782        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3783        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3784        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3785        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3786        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3787        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3788        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3789        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3790        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3791        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3792
3793    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3794        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3795        if key_block_size:
3796            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3797
3798        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3799        if using:
3800            return f"USING {using}"
3801
3802        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3803        if parser:
3804            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3805
3806        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3807        if comment:
3808            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3809
3810        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3811        if visible is not None:
3812            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3813
3814        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3815        if engine_attr:
3816            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3817
3818        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3819        if secondary_engine_attr:
3820            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3821
3822        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3823        return ""
3824
3825    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3826        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3827        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3828
3829    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3830        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3831        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3832        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3833        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3834        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3835        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3836        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3837        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3838        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3839        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3840        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3841
3842    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3843        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3844            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3845
3846        case = exp.Case().when(
3847            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3848            expression.args["true"],
3849            copy=False,
3850        )
3851        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3852        if else_cond:
3853            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3854
3855        return self.sql(case)
3856
3857    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3858        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3859        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3860        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3861        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3862        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3863        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3864
3865    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3866        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3867
3868    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3869        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3870
3871    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3872        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3873        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3874        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3875        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3876        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3877        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3878
3879    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3880        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3881        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3882        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3883
3884    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3885        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3886        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3887        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3888
3889    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3890        arg = expression.this
3891        if not arg.type:
3892            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3893
3894            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3895
3896        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3897            return self.sql(arg)
3898
3899        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3900        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3901
3902    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3903        this = expression.this
3904        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3905            return self.sql(this)
3906
3907        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3908
3909    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3910        this = expression.this
3911        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3912            return self.sql(this)
3913
3914        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
3915
3916    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
3917        this = expression.this
3918        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
3919            return self.sql(this)
3920
3921        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
3922
3923    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3924        this = expression.this
3925        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3926
3927        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3928            return self.sql(
3929                exp.cast(
3930                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3931                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3932                )
3933            )
3934
3935        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3936            return self.sql(this)
3937
3938        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3939
3940    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3941        return self.sql(
3942            exp.func(
3943                "DATEDIFF",
3944                expression.this,
3945                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3946                "day",
3947            )
3948        )
3949
3950    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3951        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3952            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3953
3954        unit = expression.text("unit")
3955        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3956            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3957
3958        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3959
3960    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3961        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3962
3963        return self.func(
3964            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3965        )
3966
3967    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3968        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3969            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3970            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3971            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3972            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3973
3974        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3975
3976        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3977        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3978            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3979
3980        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3981
3982    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3983        expression.set(
3984            "expressions",
3985            [
3986                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3987                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3988                else e
3989                for e in expression.expressions
3990            ],
3991        )
3992
3993        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3994
3995    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3996        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3997        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3998
3999        return f"{low} TO {high}"
4000
4001    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
4002        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
4003        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
4004
4005        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4006
4007        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
4008        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
4009
4010        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
4011        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
4012
4013        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4014        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4015
4016        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4017        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4018
4019        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
4020
4021    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
4022    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
4023    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
4024        to = expression.this
4025        value = expression.expression
4026        style = expression.args.get("style")
4027        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
4028        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
4029
4030        if not to or not value:
4031            return ""
4032
4033        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4034        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4035            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4036
4037        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4038        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4039
4040        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4041        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4042            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4043
4044            style_value = style.name
4045            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4046            if not converted_style:
4047                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4048
4049            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4050
4051            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4052                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4053            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
4054                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4055            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4056                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4057            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4058                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4059
4060        if not transformed:
4061            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4062
4063        return self.sql(transformed)
4064
4065    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4066        this = expression.this
4067        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4068            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4069            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4070
4071        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4072            return f".{this}"
4073
4074        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4075        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
4076
4077    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4078        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4079        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4080
4081    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4082        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4083            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4084
4085            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4086
4087        return expression
4088
4089    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4090        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4091            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4092            mods = sorted(
4093                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4094                key=lambda x: 0
4095                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4096                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4097            )
4098
4099            if mods:
4100                mod = mods[0]
4101                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4102                this.meta["inline"] = True
4103                mod.this.replace(this)
4104                return self.sql(expression.this)
4105
4106            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4107
4108            if agg_func:
4109                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4110
4111        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4112
4113    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4114        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4115        if self.pretty:
4116            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4117        return string
4118
4119    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4120        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4121
4122        if expression.expressions:
4123            upper = option.upper()
4124
4125            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4126            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4127
4128            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4129            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4130            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4131            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4132
4133        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4134
4135        if not value:
4136            return option
4137
4138        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4139
4140        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4141
4142    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4143        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4144        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4145            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4146            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4147            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4148        else:
4149            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4150            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4151            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4152
4153        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4154        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4155
4156        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4157        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4158
4159        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4160        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4161
4162        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4163        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4164
4165        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4166
4167    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4169        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4170
4171        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4172        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4173        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4174        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4175
4176        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4177        params = self.expressions(
4178            expression,
4179            key="params",
4180            sep=sep,
4181            new_line=True,
4182            skip_last=True,
4183            skip_first=True,
4184            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4185        )
4186
4187        if params:
4188            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4189                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4190            elif not self.pretty:
4191                params = f" {params}"
4192
4193        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4194
4195    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4196        return ""
4197
4198    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4199        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4200        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4201        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4202        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4203        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4204
4205        if filter_col or retention_period:
4206            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4207
4208        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4209
4210    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4211        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4212    ) -> str:
4213        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4214        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4215        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4216        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4217
4218    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4219        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4220        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4221        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4222
4223    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4224        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4225
4226    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4227        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4228        expr = expression.expression
4229
4230        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4231            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4232            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4233        else:
4234            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4235
4236        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4237
4238    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4239        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4240            return self.sql(expression.this)
4241
4242        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4243
4244    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4245        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4246        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4247
4248        if lower and upper:
4249            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4250        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4251
4252    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4253        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4254        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4255        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4256        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4257        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4258        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4259
4260        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4261
4262    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4263        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4264
4265        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4266        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4267            fill_pattern = "' '"
4268
4269        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4270
4271    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4272        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4273        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4274
4275    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4276        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4277
4278        parent = expression.parent
4279        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4280            parent = parent.parent
4281
4282        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4283            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4284
4285        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4286            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4287
4288        return self.sql(generate_series)
4289
4290    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4291        exprs = expression.expressions
4292        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4293            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4294        else:
4295            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4296
4297        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
4298
4299    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4300        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4301            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4302
4303        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4304        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4305        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4306
4307        if source_tz and timestamp:
4308            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4309                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4310            )
4311
4312        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4313
4314        return self.sql(expr)
4315
4316    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4317        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4318        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4319
4320        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4321
4322        if _with is None:
4323            with_sql = ""
4324        elif not _with:
4325            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4326        else:
4327            with_sql = " WITH"
4328
4329        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4330
4331        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4332
4333    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4334        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4335            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4336
4337        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4338        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4339        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4340
4341        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4342        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4343
4344        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4345
4346    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4347        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4348        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4349        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4350        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4351        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4352
4353    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4354        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4355        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4356        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4357        return res
4358
4359    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4360        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4361        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4362        empty = (
4363            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4364            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4365            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4366        )
4367
4368        error = expression.args.get("error")
4369        error = (
4370            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4371            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4372            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4373        )
4374
4375        if error and empty:
4376            error = (
4377                f"{empty} {error}"
4378                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4379                else f"{error} {empty}"
4380            )
4381            empty = ""
4382
4383        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4384
4385        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4386
4387    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4388        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4389        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4390
4391        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4392        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4393
4394        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4395        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4396
4397        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4398
4399        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4400
4401    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4402        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4403
4404        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4405        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4406        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4407            parent = expression.parent
4408            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4409                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4410                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4411            else:
4412                this = expression.this
4413                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4414                if this.find(exp.Column):
4415                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4416                    this_sql = (
4417                        self.expressions(this)
4418                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4419                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4420                    )
4421
4422                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4423
4424        return array_agg
4425
4426    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4427        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4428        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4429
4430        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4431
4432    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4433        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4434
4435        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4436        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4437
4438        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4439        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4440
4441        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4442
4443        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4444
4445        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4446
4447    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4449        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4450        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4451
4452        return f"{this}{columns}"
4453
4454    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4455        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4456
4457        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4458        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4459
4460        return f"{kind}{this}"
4461
4462    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4463        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4464        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4465            func = f"*{func}"
4466
4467        return func
4468
4469    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4470        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4471        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4472        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4473        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4474        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4475
4476        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
4477
4478    @unsupported_args("format")
4479    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4480        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
4481
4482    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4483        this = expression.this
4484        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4485
4486        if zone:
4487            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4488            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4489            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4490            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4491                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4492            )
4493
4494        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
4495
4496    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4497        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4498            return self.sql(
4499                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4500            )
4501
4502        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4503
4504    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4505        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4506        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4507        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4508        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
4509
4510    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4511        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
4512            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4513
4514        start_ts = exp.cast(
4515            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
4516        )
4517
4518        return self.sql(
4519            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
4520        )
4521
4522    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
4523        dim = expression.expression
4524
4525        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
4526        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
4527            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
4528                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
4529            dim = None
4530
4531        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
4532        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
4533            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
4534
4535        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)
4536
4537    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
4538        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4539        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4540        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
4541        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4542
4543        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"
4544
4545    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
4546        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4547        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4548
4549        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"
4550
4551    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
4552        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4553        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4554        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
4555        return f"{this}{value}"
4556
4557    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
4558        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
4559        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
4560            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"
4561
4562        return self.func(
4563            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
4564            this_sql,
4565            expression.args.get("time"),
4566            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
4567            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
4568        )
4569
4570    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
4571        return (
4572            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
4573        )
4574
4575    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
4576        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
4577        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4578
4579        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
4580        if properties:
4581            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"
4582
4583        return encode
4584
4585    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
4586        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4587        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"
4588
4589        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
4590        if column_def:
4591            include = f"{include} {column_def}"
4592
4593        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
4594        if alias:
4595            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"
4596
4597        return include