sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  78        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  79        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  82        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  83        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  85        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  87        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  95        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
  96        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  98        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  99        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 100        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 101        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 102        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 103        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 104        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 105        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 106        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 108        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 109        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 110        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 112        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 113        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 114        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 115        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 116        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 117        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 118        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 119        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 122        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 126        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 128        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 130            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 131        ),
 132        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 134        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 135        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 136        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 137        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 139        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 140        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 141        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 142        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 143        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 144        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 145        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 146        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 147        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 150        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 151        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 152        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 153        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 154        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 155        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 156        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 157        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 158        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 159        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 160    }
 161
 162    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 163    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 164    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 165
 166    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 167    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 168    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 169
 170    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 171    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 172
 173    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 174    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 175
 176    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 177    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 178
 179    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 180    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 181
 182    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 183    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 184
 185    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 186    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 187
 188    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 189    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 190
 191    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 192    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 193
 194    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 195    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 196
 197    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 198    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 199
 200    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 201    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 202
 203    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 204    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 205
 206    # Whether join hints should be generated
 207    JOIN_HINTS = True
 208
 209    # Whether table hints should be generated
 210    TABLE_HINTS = True
 211
 212    # Whether query hints should be generated
 213    QUERY_HINTS = True
 214
 215    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 216    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 217
 218    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 219    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 220
 221    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 222    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 223
 224    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 225    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 226
 227    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 228    RETURNING_END = True
 229
 230    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 231    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 232
 233    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 234    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 235
 236    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 237    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 238
 239    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 240    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 241
 242    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 243    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 244    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 245    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 246
 247    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 248    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 249
 250    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 251    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 252
 253    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 254    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 255
 256    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 257    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 258
 259    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 260    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 261
 262    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 263    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 264
 265    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 266    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 267
 268    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 269    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 270
 271    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 272    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 273
 274    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 275    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 276
 277    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 278    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 279
 280    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 281    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 282
 283    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 284    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 285
 286    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 287    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 288
 289    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 290    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 291
 292    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 293    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 294
 295    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 296    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 297
 298    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 299    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 300
 301    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 302    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 303
 304    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 305    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 306
 307    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 308    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 309
 310    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 311    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 312
 313    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 314    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 315
 316    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 317    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 318
 319    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 320    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 321
 322    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 323    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 324    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 325
 326    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 327    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 328
 329    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 330    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 331
 332    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 333    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 334
 335    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 336    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 337
 338    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 339    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 340
 341    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 342    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 343
 344    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 345    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 346    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 347    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 348
 349    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 350    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 351
 352    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 353    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 354
 355    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 356    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 357
 358    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 359    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 360
 361    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 362    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 363
 364    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 365    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 366
 367    # The HEX function name
 368    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 369
 370    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 371    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 372
 373    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 374    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 375
 376    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 377    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 378
 379    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 380    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 381
 382    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 383    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 384
 385    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 386    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 387
 388    # Whether nullable types can be constructed, e.g. `Nullable(Int64)`
 389    SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES = True
 390
 391    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 392    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 393
 394    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 395        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 396        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 397        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 398        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 399        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 400        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 401        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 402        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 403        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 404        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 405    }
 406
 407    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 408        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 409        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 410        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 411        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 412        "DAYS": "DAY",
 413        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 414        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 415        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 416        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 417    }
 418
 419    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 420        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 421        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 422        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 423        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 424            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 425            if e.args.get("windows")
 426            else ""
 427        ),
 428        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 429    }
 430
 431    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 432
 433    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 434
 435    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 436    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 437
 438    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 439        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 441        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 445        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 447        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 452        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 454        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 457        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 463        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 464        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 465        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 466        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 467        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 468        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 469        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 470        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 472        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 473        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 476        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 478        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 479        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 480        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 481        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 482        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 484        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 487        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 490        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 498        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 502        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 504        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 505        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 508        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 509        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 510        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 511        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 512        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 513        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 514        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 515        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 517        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 519        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 520        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 521        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523    }
 524
 525    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 526    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 527
 528    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 529    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 530        exp.Command,
 531        exp.Create,
 532        exp.Delete,
 533        exp.Drop,
 534        exp.From,
 535        exp.Insert,
 536        exp.Join,
 537        exp.Select,
 538        exp.SetOperation,
 539        exp.Update,
 540        exp.Where,
 541        exp.With,
 542    )
 543
 544    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 545    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 546        exp.Binary,
 547        exp.SetOperation,
 548    )
 549
 550    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 551    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 552        exp.Column,
 553        exp.Literal,
 554        exp.Neg,
 555        exp.Paren,
 556    )
 557
 558    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 559        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 560        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 561        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 562        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 563    }
 564
 565    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 566    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 567
 568    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 569
 570    __slots__ = (
 571        "pretty",
 572        "identify",
 573        "normalize",
 574        "pad",
 575        "_indent",
 576        "normalize_functions",
 577        "unsupported_level",
 578        "max_unsupported",
 579        "leading_comma",
 580        "max_text_width",
 581        "comments",
 582        "dialect",
 583        "unsupported_messages",
 584        "_escaped_quote_end",
 585        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 586        "_next_name",
 587    )
 588
 589    def __init__(
 590        self,
 591        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 592        identify: str | bool = False,
 593        normalize: bool = False,
 594        pad: int = 2,
 595        indent: int = 2,
 596        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 597        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 598        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 599        leading_comma: bool = False,
 600        max_text_width: int = 80,
 601        comments: bool = True,
 602        dialect: DialectType = None,
 603    ):
 604        import sqlglot
 605        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 606
 607        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 608        self.identify = identify
 609        self.normalize = normalize
 610        self.pad = pad
 611        self._indent = indent
 612        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 613        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 614        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 615        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 616        self.comments = comments
 617        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 618
 619        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 620        self.normalize_functions = (
 621            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 622        )
 623
 624        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 625        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 626            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 627        )
 628        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 629            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 630        )
 631
 632        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 633
 634    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 635        """
 636        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 637
 638        Args:
 639            expression: The syntax tree.
 640            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 641                it is safer to copy.
 642
 643        Returns:
 644            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 645        """
 646        if copy:
 647            expression = expression.copy()
 648
 649        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 650
 651        self.unsupported_messages = []
 652        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 653
 654        if self.pretty:
 655            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 656
 657        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 658            return sql
 659
 660        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 661            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 662                logger.warning(msg)
 663        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 664            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 665
 666        return sql
 667
 668    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 669        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 670        if (
 671            not expression.parent
 672            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 673            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 674        ):
 675            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 676
 677            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 678
 679        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 680            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 681
 682            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 683
 684        return expression
 685
 686    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 687        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 688            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 689        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 690
 691    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 692        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 693
 694    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 695        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 696
 697    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 698        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 699        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 700        return comment
 701
 702    def maybe_comment(
 703        self,
 704        sql: str,
 705        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 706        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 707        separated: bool = False,
 708    ) -> str:
 709        comments = (
 710            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 711            if self.comments
 712            else None
 713        )
 714
 715        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 716            return sql
 717
 718        comments_sql = " ".join(
 719            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 720        )
 721
 722        if not comments_sql:
 723            return sql
 724
 725        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 726
 727        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 728            return (
 729                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 730                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 731                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 732            )
 733
 734        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 735
 736    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 737        this_sql = (
 738            self.sql(expression)
 739            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 740            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 741        )
 742        if not this_sql:
 743            return "()"
 744
 745        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 746        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 747
 748    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 749        original = self.identify
 750        self.identify = False
 751        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 752        self.identify = original
 753        return result
 754
 755    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 756        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 757            return name.upper()
 758        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 759            return name.lower()
 760        return name
 761
 762    def indent(
 763        self,
 764        sql: str,
 765        level: int = 0,
 766        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 767        skip_first: bool = False,
 768        skip_last: bool = False,
 769    ) -> str:
 770        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 771            return sql
 772
 773        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 774        lines = sql.split("\n")
 775
 776        return "\n".join(
 777            (
 778                line
 779                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 780                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 781            )
 782            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 783        )
 784
 785    def sql(
 786        self,
 787        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 788        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 789        comment: bool = True,
 790    ) -> str:
 791        if not expression:
 792            return ""
 793
 794        if isinstance(expression, str):
 795            return expression
 796
 797        if key:
 798            value = expression.args.get(key)
 799            if value:
 800                return self.sql(value)
 801            return ""
 802
 803        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 804
 805        if callable(transform):
 806            sql = transform(self, expression)
 807        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 808            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 809
 810            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 811                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 812            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 813                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 814            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 815                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 816            else:
 817                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 818        else:
 819            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 820
 821        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 822
 823    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 824        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 825        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 826        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 827
 828    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 829        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 830        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 831        options = expression.args.get("options")
 832        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 833        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 834        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 835        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 836        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 837
 838    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 839        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 840            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 841        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 842        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 843
 844    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 845        return ".".join(
 846            self.sql(part)
 847            for part in (
 848                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 849                expression.args.get("db"),
 850                expression.args.get("table"),
 851                expression.args.get("this"),
 852            )
 853            if part
 854        )
 855
 856    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 857        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 858
 859        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 860            join_mark = ""
 861            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 862
 863        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 864
 865    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 867        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 868        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 869        return f"{position}{this}"
 870
 871    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 872        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 873        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 874        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 875        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 876        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 877        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 878        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 879        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 880
 881        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 882            kind = ""
 883
 884        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 885
 886    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 887        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 888        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 889        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 890
 891    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 892        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 893        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 894            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 895        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 896            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 897        else:
 898            persisted = ""
 899        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 900
 901    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 902        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 903
 904    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 905        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 906            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 907        else:
 908            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 909
 910        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 911
 912    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 913        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 914    ) -> str:
 915        this = ""
 916        if expression.this is not None:
 917            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 918            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 919
 920        start = expression.args.get("start")
 921        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 922        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 923        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 924        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 925        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 926        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 927        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 928        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 929        cycle_sql = ""
 930
 931        if cycle is not None:
 932            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 933            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 934
 935        sequence_opts = ""
 936        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 937            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 938            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 939
 940        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 941        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 942
 943        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 944
 945    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 946        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 947    ) -> str:
 948        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 949        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 950        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 951
 952    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 953        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 954    ) -> str:
 955        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 956
 957    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 958        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 959
 960    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 961        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 962
 963    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 964        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 965        if desc is not None:
 966            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 967        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 968
 969    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 970        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 971        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 972        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 973        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 974        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 975        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 976        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
 977        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 978
 979    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 980        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 981
 982    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 983        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 984        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
 985        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 986        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 987
 988        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 989
 990        properties_sql = ""
 991        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 992            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 993        ):
 994            properties_sql = self.sql(
 995                exp.Properties(
 996                    expressions=[
 997                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 998                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 999                    ]
1000                )
1001            )
1002
1003            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1004                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1005            elif not self.pretty:
1006                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1007                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1008
1009        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1010        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1011
1012        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1013        if expression_sql:
1014            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1015
1016            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1017                postalias_props_sql = ""
1018                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1019                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1020                        exp.Properties(
1021                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1022                        ),
1023                        wrapped=False,
1024                    )
1025                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1026                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1027
1028        postindex_props_sql = ""
1029        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1030            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1031                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1032                wrapped=False,
1033                prefix=" ",
1034            )
1035
1036        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1037        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1038        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1039
1040        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1041        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1042        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1043
1044        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1045        if clustered is None:
1046            clustered_sql = ""
1047        elif clustered:
1048            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1049        else:
1050            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1051
1052        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1053        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1054            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1055                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1056                sep=" ",
1057                prefix=" ",
1058                wrapped=False,
1059            )
1060
1061        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1062
1063        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1064        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1065            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1066                exp.Properties(
1067                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1068                ),
1069                sep=" ",
1070                prefix=" ",
1071                wrapped=False,
1072            )
1073
1074        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1075        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1076        no_schema_binding = (
1077            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1078        )
1079
1080        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1081        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1082
1083        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1084        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1085
1086    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1087        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1088        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1089        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1090        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1091        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1092        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1093        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1094        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1095        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1096        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1097
1098        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1099        if cache is None:
1100            cache_str = ""
1101        elif cache is True:
1102            cache_str = " CACHE"
1103        else:
1104            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1105
1106        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1107        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1108
1109        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1110
1111    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1112        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1113        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1114        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1115        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1116
1117    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1118        style = expression.args.get("style")
1119        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1120        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1121        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1122        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1123
1124    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1125        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1126        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1127
1128    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1129        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1130        if with_:
1131            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1132        return sql
1133
1134    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1135        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1136        recursive = (
1137            "RECURSIVE "
1138            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1139            else ""
1140        )
1141
1142        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1143
1144    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1145        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1146
1147        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1148        if materialized is False:
1149            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1150        elif materialized:
1151            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1152
1153        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1154
1155    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1156        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1157        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1158        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1159
1160        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1161            columns = ""
1162            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1163
1164        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1165            alias = self._next_name()
1166
1167        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1168
1169    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1171        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1172            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1173        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1174
1175    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1176        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1177        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1178            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1179        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1180
1181    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1182        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1183        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1184            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1185        return this
1186
1187    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1188        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1189        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1190
1191        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1192            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1193            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1194        else:
1195            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1196            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1197
1198        if escape:
1199            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1200            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1201        else:
1202            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1203            escape_sql = ""
1204
1205        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1206            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1207
1208        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1209
1210    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1211        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1212        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1213
1214    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1216        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1217        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1218        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1219
1220    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1221        nested = ""
1222        values = ""
1223        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1224
1225        type_value = expression.this
1226        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1227            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1228        elif type_value != exp.DataType.Type.NULLABLE or self.SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES:
1229            type_sql = (
1230                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1231                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1232                else type_value
1233            )
1234        else:
1235            return interior
1236
1237        if interior:
1238            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1239                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1240                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1241                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1242                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1243                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1244            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1245                nested = f" {interior}"
1246            else:
1247                nested = f"({interior})"
1248
1249        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1250        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1251            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1252            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1253        ):
1254            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1255
1256        return type_sql
1257
1258    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1259        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1260        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1261        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1262        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1263
1264    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1266        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1267        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1268        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1269        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1270        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1271        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1272        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1273        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1274        if self.RETURNING_END:
1275            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1276        else:
1277            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1278        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1279
1280    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1281        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1282        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1283        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1284        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1285        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1286        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1287        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1288        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1289        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1290        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1291        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1292        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1293        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1294        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1295
1296    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1297        return self.set_operations(expression)
1298
1299    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1300        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1301
1302    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1303        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1304        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1305        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1306        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1307        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1308            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1309        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1310        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1311
1312    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1313        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1314            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1315            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1316            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1317
1318        agg = expression.this
1319        agg_arg = agg.this
1320        cond = expression.expression.this
1321        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1322        return self.sql(agg)
1323
1324    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1325        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1326            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1327            return ""
1328
1329        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1330
1331    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1332        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1333        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1334        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1335        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1336        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1337        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1338        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1339        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1340        if include:
1341            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1342        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1343        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1344        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1345        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1346        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1347        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1348
1349        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1350
1351    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1352        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1353        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1354        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1355        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1356        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1357        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1358        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1359
1360        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1361
1362        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1363        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1364
1365    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1366        text = expression.name
1367        lower = text.lower()
1368        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1369        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1370        if (
1371            expression.quoted
1372            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1373            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1374            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1375        ):
1376            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1377        return text
1378
1379    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1380        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1381        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1382            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1383
1384        return text
1385
1386    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1387        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1388        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1389            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1390        return text
1391
1392    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1393        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1394        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1395        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1396        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1397        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1398
1399    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1400        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1401        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1402
1403    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1404        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1405
1406    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1407        root_properties = []
1408        with_properties = []
1409
1410        for p in expression.expressions:
1411            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1412            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1413                with_properties.append(p)
1414            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1415                root_properties.append(p)
1416
1417        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1418        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1419
1420        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1421            with_props = " " + with_props
1422
1423        return root_props + with_props
1424
1425    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1426        if properties.expressions:
1427            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1428        return ""
1429
1430    def properties(
1431        self,
1432        properties: exp.Properties,
1433        prefix: str = "",
1434        sep: str = ", ",
1435        suffix: str = "",
1436        wrapped: bool = True,
1437    ) -> str:
1438        if properties.expressions:
1439            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1440            if expressions:
1441                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1442                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1443        return ""
1444
1445    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1446        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1447
1448    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1449        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1450        for p in properties.expressions:
1451            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1452            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1453                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1454            else:
1455                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1456
1457        return properties_locs
1458
1459    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1460        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1461            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1462        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1463
1464    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1465        property_cls = expression.__class__
1466        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1467            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1468
1469        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1470        if not property_name:
1471            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1472
1473        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1474
1475    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1476        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1477            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1478            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1479
1480            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1481            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1482                like = f"({like})"
1483
1484            return like
1485
1486        if expression.expressions:
1487            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1488
1489        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1490        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1491
1492    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1493        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1494        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1495        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1496
1497    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1498        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1499        local = expression.args.get("local")
1500        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1501        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1502        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1503        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1504        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1505
1506    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1507        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1508        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1509        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1510
1511    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1512        if expression.args.get("default"):
1513            property = "DEFAULT"
1514        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1515            property = "ON"
1516        else:
1517            property = "OFF"
1518        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1519
1520    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1521        if expression.args.get("no"):
1522            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1523        if expression.args.get("default"):
1524            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1525
1526        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1527        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1528
1529    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1530        default = expression.args.get("default")
1531        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1532        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1533        if default or minimum or maximum:
1534            if default:
1535                prop = "DEFAULT"
1536            elif minimum:
1537                prop = "MINIMUM"
1538            else:
1539                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1540            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1541        units = expression.args.get("units")
1542        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1543        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1544
1545    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1546        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1547        always = expression.args.get("always")
1548        default = expression.args.get("default")
1549        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1550        never = expression.args.get("never")
1551
1552        if autotemp is not None:
1553            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1554        elif always:
1555            prop = "ALWAYS"
1556        elif default:
1557            prop = "DEFAULT"
1558        elif manual:
1559            prop = "MANUAL"
1560        elif never:
1561            prop = "NEVER"
1562        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1563
1564    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1565        no = expression.args.get("no")
1566        no = " NO" if no else ""
1567        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1568        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1569        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1570        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1571        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1572
1573    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1574        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1575            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1576        if expression.this:
1577            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1578            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1579            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1580
1581        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1582        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1583        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1584
1585    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1586        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1587
1588        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1589        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1590            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1591        else:
1592            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1593
1594        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1595
1596    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1597        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1598        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1599        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1600        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1601        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1602        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1603        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1604
1605    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1606        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1607        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1608        statistics_sql = ""
1609        if statistics is not None:
1610            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1611        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1612
1613    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1614        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1615        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1616        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1617        data_consistency = (
1618            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1619        )
1620        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1621        retention_period = (
1622            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1623        )
1624
1625        if this:
1626            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1627        else:
1628            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1629
1630        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1631
1632        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1633
1634    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1635        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1636        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1637
1638        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1639            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1640        else:
1641            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1642
1643        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1644        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1645        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1646        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1647        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1648        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1649        if is_function:
1650            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1651        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1652
1653        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1654        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1655        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1656        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1657        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1658        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1659        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1660        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1661
1662        if self.RETURNING_END:
1663            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1664        else:
1665            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1666
1667        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1668        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1669        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1670        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1671
1672        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}"
1673        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1674
1675    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1676        return self.set_operations(expression)
1677
1678    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1679        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1680
1681    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1682        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1683
1684    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1685        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1686        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1687        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1688        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1689        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1690
1691    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1692        return expression.name
1693
1694    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1695        return expression.name
1696
1697    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1698        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1699
1700        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1701        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1702
1703        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1704        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1705        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1706
1707        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1708        if expressions:
1709            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1710            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1711
1712        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1713
1714    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1715        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1716
1717    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1718        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1719        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1720        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1721        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1722        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1723        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1724        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1725        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1726        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1727        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1728        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1729        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1730        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1731
1732    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1733        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1734
1735    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1736        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1737        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1738        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1739        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1740
1741    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1742        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1743        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1744        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1745        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1746
1747    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1748        return ".".join(
1749            self.sql(part)
1750            for part in (
1751                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1752                expression.args.get("db"),
1753                expression.args.get("this"),
1754            )
1755            if part is not None
1756        )
1757
1758    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1759        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1760        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1761        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1762        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1763        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1764        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1765        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1766        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1767        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1768        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1769        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1770        joins = self.indent(
1771            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1772        )
1773        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1774
1775        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1776        if file_format:
1777            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1778            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1779            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1780
1781        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1782        if ordinality:
1783            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1784            alias = ""
1785
1786        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1787        if when:
1788            table = f"{table} {when}"
1789
1790        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1791        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1792
1793        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1794        if rows_from:
1795            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1796
1797        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1798
1799    def tablesample_sql(
1800        self,
1801        expression: exp.TableSample,
1802        sep: str = " AS ",
1803        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1804    ) -> str:
1805        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1806            table = expression.this.copy()
1807            table.set("alias", None)
1808            this = self.sql(table)
1809            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1810        else:
1811            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1812            alias = ""
1813
1814        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1815        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1816        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1817        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1818        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1819        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1820        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1821        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1822        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1823
1824        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1825        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1826            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1827
1828        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1829        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1830            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1831
1832        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1833        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1834            expr = f"({expr})"
1835
1836        return (
1837            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1838        )
1839
1840    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1841        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1842
1843        if expression.this:
1844            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1845            if not expressions:
1846                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1847
1848            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1849            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1850            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1851            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1852            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1853
1854        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1855        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1856        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1857
1858        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1859        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1860            field = f"IN ({field})"
1861
1862        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1863        if include_nulls is not None:
1864            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1865        else:
1866            nulls = ""
1867
1868        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1869        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1870        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1871
1872    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1873        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1874        kind = expression.text("kind")
1875        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1876        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1877
1878    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1879        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1880
1881    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1882        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1883        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1884        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1885        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1886        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1887        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1888        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1889        if self.RETURNING_END:
1890            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1891        else:
1892            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1893        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1894        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1895
1896    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1897        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1898
1899        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1900        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1901            args = self.expressions(expression)
1902            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1903            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1904            values = (
1905                f"({values})"
1906                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1907                else values
1908            )
1909            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1910
1911        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1912        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1913        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1914
1915        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1916
1917        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1918            row = tup.expressions
1919
1920            if i == 0 and column_names:
1921                row = [
1922                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1923                ]
1924
1925            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1926
1927        if self.pretty:
1928            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1929            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1930            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1931            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1932            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1933
1934        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1935        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1936        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1937
1938    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1939        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1940
1941    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1942        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1943        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1944        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1945
1946    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1947        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1948
1949    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1950        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1951        if group_by_all is True:
1952            modifier = " ALL"
1953        elif group_by_all is False:
1954            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1955        else:
1956            modifier = ""
1957
1958        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1959
1960        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1961        grouping_sets = (
1962            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1963        )
1964
1965        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1966        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1967            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1968        else:
1969            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1970            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1971
1972        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1973        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1974            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1975        else:
1976            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1977            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1978
1979        groupings = csv(
1980            grouping_sets,
1981            cube_sql,
1982            rollup_sql,
1983            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1984            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1985        )
1986
1987        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1988            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1989
1990        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1991
1992    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1993        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1994        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1995
1996    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1997        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1998        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1999        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2000        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2001        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2002        return start + connect
2003
2004    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2005        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2006
2007    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2008        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2009            side = None
2010        else:
2011            side = expression.side
2012
2013        op_sql = " ".join(
2014            op
2015            for op in (
2016                expression.method,
2017                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2018                side,
2019                expression.kind,
2020                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2021            )
2022            if op
2023        )
2024        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2025        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2026        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2027        using = expression.args.get("using")
2028
2029        if not on_sql and using:
2030            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2031
2032        this = expression.this
2033        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2034
2035        if on_sql:
2036            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2037            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2038            if using:
2039                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2040            else:
2041                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2042        elif not op_sql:
2043            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2044                return f" {this_sql}"
2045
2046            return f", {this_sql}"
2047
2048        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2049            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2050
2051        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2052
2053    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2054        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2055        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2056        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2057
2058    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2059        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2060
2061        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2062        if cross_apply is True:
2063            op = "INNER JOIN "
2064        elif cross_apply is False:
2065            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2066        else:
2067            op = ""
2068
2069        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2070
2071    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2072        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2073
2074        if expression.args.get("view"):
2075            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2076            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2077            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2078            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2079            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2080            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2081
2082        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2083        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2084        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2085
2086    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2087        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2088
2089        args = [
2090            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2091            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2092            if e
2093        ]
2094
2095        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2096        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2097        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2098        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2099
2100        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2101
2102    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2104        value = expression.expression
2105        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2106        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2107        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2108        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2109
2110    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2111        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2112        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2113        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2114        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2115        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2116        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2117        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2118        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2119
2120    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2121        expressions = (
2122            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2123        )
2124        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2125        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2126
2127    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2128        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2129
2130    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2131        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2132            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2133            return ""
2134
2135        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2136        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2137        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2138        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2139
2140        if wait is not None:
2141            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2142                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2143            else:
2144                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2145
2146        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2147
2148    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2149        text = expression.this or ""
2150        if expression.is_string:
2151            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2152        return text
2153
2154    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2155        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2156            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2157            text = "".join(
2158                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2159            )
2160
2161        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2162            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2163        )
2164
2165    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2166        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2167        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2168        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2169        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2170        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2171        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2172        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2173        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2174        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2175        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2176        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2177
2178    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2179        return "NULL"
2180
2181    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2182        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2183
2184    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2185        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2186        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2187        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2188        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2189
2190    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2191        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2192        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2193        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2194        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2195        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2196        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2197        interpolated_values = [
2198            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2199            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2200        ]
2201        interpolate = (
2202            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2203        )
2204        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2205
2206    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2207        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2208
2209    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2210        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2211
2212    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2213        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2214
2215    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2216        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2217        asc = not desc
2218
2219        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2220        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2221        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2222        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2223        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2224
2225        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2226
2227        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2228        nulls_sort_change = ""
2229        if nulls_first and (
2230            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2231        ):
2232            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2233        elif (
2234            nulls_last
2235            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2236            and not nulls_are_last
2237        ):
2238            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2239
2240        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2241        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2242            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2243            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2244                self.unsupported(
2245                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2246                )
2247                nulls_sort_change = ""
2248            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2249                if expression.this.is_int:
2250                    self.unsupported(
2251                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2252                    )
2253                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2254                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2255                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2256                nulls_sort_change = ""
2257
2258        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2259        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2260
2261        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2262
2263    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2264        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2265        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2266
2267        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2268
2269        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2270
2271    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2272        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2273        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2274        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2275        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2276        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2277        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2278        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2279        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2280        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2281        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2282        definition_sqls = [
2283            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2284            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2285        ]
2286        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2287        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2288        body = "".join(
2289            (
2290                partition,
2291                order,
2292                measures,
2293                rows,
2294                after,
2295                pattern,
2296                define,
2297            )
2298        )
2299        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2300        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2301        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2302
2303    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2304        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2305
2306        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2307            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2308        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2309            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2310
2311        return csv(
2312            *sqls,
2313            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2314            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2315            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2316            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2317            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2318            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2319            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2320            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2321            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2322            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2323            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2324            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2325            self.options_modifier(expression),
2326            sep="",
2327        )
2328
2329    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2330        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2331        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2332
2333    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2334        return ""
2335
2336    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2337        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2338    ) -> t.List[str]:
2339        return [
2340            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2341            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2342        ]
2343
2344    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2345        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2346        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2347        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2348
2349    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2350        into = expression.args.get("into")
2351        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2352            into.pop()
2353
2354        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2355        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2356        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2357        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2358
2359        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2360        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2361            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2362            limit.pop()
2363        else:
2364            top = ""
2365
2366        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2367
2368        if kind:
2369            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2370                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2371            else:
2372                if kind == "STRUCT":
2373                    expressions = self.expressions(
2374                        sqls=[
2375                            self.sql(
2376                                exp.Struct(
2377                                    expressions=[
2378                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2379                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2380                                        else e
2381                                        for e in expression.expressions
2382                                    ]
2383                                )
2384                            )
2385                        ]
2386                    )
2387                kind = ""
2388
2389        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2390        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2391        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2392        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2393        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2394            expression,
2395            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2396            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2397            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2398        )
2399
2400        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2401
2402        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2403            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2404                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2405            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2406                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2407            else:
2408                table_kind = ""
2409            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2410
2411        return sql
2412
2413    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2414        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2415        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2416        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2417
2418    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2419        if expression.expressions:
2420            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2421        return ""
2422
2423    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2424        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2425        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2426        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2427        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2428        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2429        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2430        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2431
2432    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2433        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2434        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2435
2436    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2437        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2438        kind = expression.text("kind")
2439        if kind:
2440            kind = f"{kind}."
2441        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2442
2443    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2444        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2445
2446    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2447        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2448        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2449        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2450        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2451        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2452
2453    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2454        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2455        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2456
2457    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2458        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2459            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2460            order = expression.args.get("order")
2461
2462            if limit or order:
2463                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2464
2465                if limit:
2466                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2467                if order:
2468                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2469                return self.sql(select)
2470
2471        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2472        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2473
2474        while stack:
2475            node = stack.pop()
2476
2477            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2478                stack.append(node.expression)
2479                stack.append(
2480                    self.maybe_comment(
2481                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2482                        comments=node.comments,
2483                        separated=True,
2484                    )
2485                )
2486                stack.append(node.this)
2487            else:
2488                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2489
2490        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2491        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2492        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2493
2494    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2495        return self.set_operations(expression)
2496
2497    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2498        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2499        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2500        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2501        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2502
2503    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2504        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2505
2506        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2507        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2508
2509        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2510            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2511                alias.append("columns", offset)
2512
2513        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2514            columns = alias.columns
2515            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2516        else:
2517            alias = self.sql(alias)
2518
2519        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2520        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2521            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2522        else:
2523            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2524                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2525            elif offset:
2526                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2527            else:
2528                suffix = alias
2529
2530        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2531
2532    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2533        return ""
2534
2535    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2536        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2537        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2538
2539    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2540        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2541        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2542        order = expression.args.get("order")
2543        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2544        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2545        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2546        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2547
2548        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2549
2550        first = expression.args.get("first")
2551        if first is None:
2552            first = ""
2553        else:
2554            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2555
2556        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2557            return f"{this} {alias}"
2558
2559        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2560        return f"{this} ({args})"
2561
2562    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2563        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2564        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2565
2566    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2567        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2568        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2569        end = (
2570            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2571            or "CURRENT ROW"
2572        )
2573        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2574
2575    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2577        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2578        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2579
2580    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2581        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2582        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2583        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2584        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2585
2586    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2587        return apply_index_offset(
2588            expression.this,
2589            expression.expressions,
2590            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2591        )
2592
2593    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2594        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2595        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2596        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2597
2598    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2599        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2600
2601    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2602        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2603        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2604            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2605                this = self.wrap(this)
2606            return f"ANY{this}"
2607        return f"ANY {this}"
2608
2609    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2610        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2611
2612    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2613        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2614        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2615
2616        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2617            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2618            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2619
2620        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2621
2622        if default:
2623            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2624
2625        statements.append("END")
2626
2627        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2628            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2629
2630        return " ".join(statements)
2631
2632    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2633        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2634        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2635        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2636
2637    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2638        order = expression.args.get("order")
2639        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2640        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2641
2642    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2643        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2644        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2645        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2646
2647    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2648        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2649
2650        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2651            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2652        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2653            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2654        else:
2655            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2656
2657    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2658        args = expression.expressions
2659        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2660            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2661
2662        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2663            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2664
2665        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2666            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2667
2668        return args
2669
2670    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2671        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2672
2673        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2674        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2675            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2676
2677        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2678
2679    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2680        return self.func(
2681            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2682        )
2683
2684    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2685        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2686        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2687
2688    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2689        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2690        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2691        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2692        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2693        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2694        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2695        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2696        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2697
2698    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2699        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2700        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2701        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2702        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2703
2704    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2705        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2706
2707    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2708        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2709        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2710        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2711
2712    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2713        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2714
2715    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2716        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2717        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2718            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2719
2720        return path
2721
2722    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2723        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2724            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2725            if not callable(transform):
2726                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2727                return ""
2728
2729            return transform(self, expression)
2730
2731        if isinstance(expression, int):
2732            return str(expression)
2733
2734        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2735            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2736            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2737        else:
2738            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2739            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2740
2741        return escaped
2742
2743    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2744        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2745
2746    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2747        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2748        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2749
2750        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2751        if unique_keys is not None:
2752            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2753        else:
2754            unique_keys = ""
2755
2756        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2757        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2758        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2759        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2760
2761        return self.func(
2762            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2763            *expression.expressions,
2764            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2765        )
2766
2767    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2768        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2769
2770    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2771        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2772        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2773        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2774        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2775        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2776        return self.func(
2777            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2778        )
2779
2780    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2781        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2782        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2783        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2784        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2785        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2786        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2787        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2788        return self.func(
2789            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2790            this,
2791            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2792        )
2793
2794    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2795        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2796        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2797        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2798
2799        if nested_schema:
2800            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2801
2802        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2803        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2804        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2805        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2806
2807    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2808        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2809
2810    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2811        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2812        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2813        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2814        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2815        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2816        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2817        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2818        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2819        return self.func(
2820            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2821        )
2822
2823    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2825        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2826        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2827        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2828        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2829        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2830
2831    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2832        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2833        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2834        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2835        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2836        with_ = (
2837            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2838            if expressions
2839            else ""
2840        )
2841        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2842
2843    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2844        query = expression.args.get("query")
2845        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2846        field = expression.args.get("field")
2847        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2848
2849        if query:
2850            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2851        elif unnest:
2852            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2853        elif field:
2854            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2855        else:
2856            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2857
2858        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2859
2860    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2861        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2862
2863    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2864        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2865        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2866            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2867        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2868
2869        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2870            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2871            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2872
2873        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2874        if this:
2875            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2876            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2877
2878        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2879
2880    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2881        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2882
2883    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2885        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2886        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2887        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2888        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2889        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2890
2891    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2892        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2893
2894    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2895        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2896        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2897
2898    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2899        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2900        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2901        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2902        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2903
2904    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2905        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2906
2907    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2908        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2909        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2910        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2911
2912    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2913        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2914
2915        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2916        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
2917
2918        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2919            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2920        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2921            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2922
2923        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2924
2925    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2926        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2927
2928    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2929        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2930        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2931        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2932
2933    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2935        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2936        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2937
2938    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2939        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2940        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2941        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2942
2943    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2944        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2945
2946    def and_sql(
2947        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2948    ) -> str:
2949        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2950
2951    def or_sql(
2952        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2953    ) -> str:
2954        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2955
2956    def xor_sql(
2957        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2958    ) -> str:
2959        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2960
2961    def connector_sql(
2962        self,
2963        expression: exp.Connector,
2964        op: str,
2965        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2966    ) -> str:
2967        if stack is not None:
2968            if expression.expressions:
2969                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2970            else:
2971                stack.append(expression.right)
2972                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2973                    for comment in expression.comments:
2974                        if comment:
2975                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2976                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2977            return op
2978
2979        stack = [expression]
2980        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2981        ops = set()
2982
2983        while stack:
2984            node = stack.pop()
2985            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2986                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2987            else:
2988                sql = self.sql(node)
2989                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2990                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2991                else:
2992                    sqls.append(sql)
2993
2994        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2995        return sep.join(sqls)
2996
2997    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2998        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2999
3000    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3001        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3002
3003    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3004        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3005
3006    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3007        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3008
3009    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3010        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3011
3012    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3013        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3014
3015    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3016        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3017        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3018        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3019        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3020        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3021        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3022        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3023
3024    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3025        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3026        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3027
3028    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3029        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3030            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3031        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3032
3033    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3034        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3035
3036    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3037        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3038        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3039        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3040        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3041        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3042        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3043
3044    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3045        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3046        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3047        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3048        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3049        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3050        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3051        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3052        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3053        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3054
3055    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3056        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3057        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3058        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3059        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3060
3061        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3062            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3063
3064        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3065
3066    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3067        return "BEGIN"
3068
3069    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3070        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3071        if chain is not None:
3072            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3073
3074        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3075
3076    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3077        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3078        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3079        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3080
3081    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3083
3084        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3085        if dtype:
3086            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3087            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3088            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3089            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3090            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3091
3092        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3093        if default:
3094            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3095
3096        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3097        if comment:
3098            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3099
3100        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3101        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3102
3103        if not drop and not allow_null:
3104            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3105
3106        if allow_null is not None:
3107            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3108            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3109
3110        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3111
3112    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3113        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3114        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3115            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3116        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3117
3118    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3119        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3120        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3121        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3122        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3123        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3124
3125    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3126        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3127            # Remove db from tables
3128            expression = expression.transform(
3129                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3130            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3131        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3132        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3133
3134    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3135        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3136        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3137        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3138        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3139
3140    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3141        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3142        return f"SET {exprs}"
3143
3144    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3145        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3146
3147        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3148            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3149        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3150            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3151        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3152            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3153        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3154            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3155        else:
3156            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3157
3158        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3159        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3160        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3161        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3162        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3163        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3164        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3165        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3166
3167    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3168        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3169            return self.expressions(
3170                expression,
3171                key="actions",
3172                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3173                skip_first=True,
3174            )
3175        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3176
3177    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3178        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3179        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3180        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3181
3182    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3183        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3184
3185    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3186        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3187
3188        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3189            case = exp.case()
3190            for arg in expression.expressions:
3191                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3192            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3193
3194        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3195
3196        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3197        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3198        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3199
3200    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3201        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3202
3203    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3204        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3205
3206    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3207        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3208        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3209        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3210        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3211
3212    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3213        return self.sql(
3214            exp.Cast(
3215                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3216                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3217            )
3218        )
3219
3220    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3221        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3222            return self.func(
3223                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3224            )
3225        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3226
3227    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3228        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3229
3230        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3231            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3232
3233        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3234            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3235                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3236
3237        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3238            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3239                return self.sql(
3240                    exp.cast(
3241                        l / r,
3242                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3243                    )
3244                )
3245
3246        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3247
3248    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3249        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3250
3251    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3252        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3253
3254    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3255        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3256
3257    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3258        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3259
3260    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3261        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3262
3263    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3264        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3265
3266    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3267        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3268
3269    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3270        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3271
3272    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3273        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3274
3275    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3276        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3277
3278    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3279        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3280
3281    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3282        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3283            return self.sql(
3284                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3285            )
3286        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3287
3288    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3289        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3290
3291    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3292        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3293
3294    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3295        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3296
3297    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3298        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3299
3300    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3301        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3302
3303    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3304        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3305
3306    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3307        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3308
3309    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3310        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3311
3312    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3313        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3314
3315    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3316        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3317
3318    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3319        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3320
3321    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3322        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3323
3324    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3325        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3326
3327    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3328        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3329            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3330            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3331
3332        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3333
3334    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3335        this = expression.this
3336        expr = expression.expression
3337
3338        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3339            this, expr = expr, this
3340        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3341            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3342                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3343
3344            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3345
3346        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3347
3348    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3349        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3350        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3351        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3352        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3353        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3354
3355    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3356        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3357        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3358        binary_type = type(expression)
3359
3360        while stack:
3361            node = stack.pop()
3362
3363            if type(node) is binary_type:
3364                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3365                if op_func:
3366                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3367
3368                stack.append(node.right)
3369                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3370                stack.append(node.left)
3371            else:
3372                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3373
3374        return "".join(sqls)
3375
3376    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3377        args = []
3378
3379        for key in expression.arg_types:
3380            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3381
3382            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3383                for value in arg_value:
3384                    args.append(value)
3385            elif arg_value is not None:
3386                args.append(arg_value)
3387
3388        if self.normalize_functions:
3389            name = expression.sql_name()
3390        else:
3391            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3392
3393        return self.func(name, *args)
3394
3395    def func(
3396        self,
3397        name: str,
3398        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3399        prefix: str = "(",
3400        suffix: str = ")",
3401    ) -> str:
3402        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3403
3404    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3405        arg_sqls = tuple(
3406            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3407        )
3408        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3409            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3410        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3411
3412    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3413        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3414
3415    def format_time(
3416        self,
3417        expression: exp.Expression,
3418        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3419        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3420    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3421        return format_time(
3422            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3423            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3424            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3425        )
3426
3427    def expressions(
3428        self,
3429        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3430        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3431        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3432        flat: bool = False,
3433        indent: bool = True,
3434        skip_first: bool = False,
3435        skip_last: bool = False,
3436        sep: str = ", ",
3437        prefix: str = "",
3438        dynamic: bool = False,
3439        new_line: bool = False,
3440    ) -> str:
3441        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3442
3443        if not expressions:
3444            return ""
3445
3446        if flat:
3447            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3448
3449        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3450        result_sqls = []
3451
3452        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3453            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3454            if not sql:
3455                continue
3456
3457            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3458
3459            if self.pretty:
3460                if self.leading_comma:
3461                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3462                else:
3463                    result_sqls.append(
3464                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3465                    )
3466            else:
3467                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3468
3469        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3470            if new_line:
3471                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3472                result_sqls.append("")
3473            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3474        else:
3475            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3476        return (
3477            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3478            if indent
3479            else result_sql
3480        )
3481
3482    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3483        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3484        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3485        if flat:
3486            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3487        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3488
3489    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3490        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3491        if not property_name:
3492            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3493        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3494
3495    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3496        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3497
3498    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3499        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3500
3501    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3502        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3503        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3504        expressions = (
3505            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3506        )
3507        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3508
3509    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3510        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3511        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3512        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3513
3514    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3515        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3516
3517    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3518        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3519        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3520        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3521        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3522
3523        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3524        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3525            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3526            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3527            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3528            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3529        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3530            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3531                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3532            else:
3533                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3534        else:
3535            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3536        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3537
3538    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3539        table = expression.this
3540        table_alias = ""
3541
3542        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3543        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3544            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3545            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3546
3547        this = self.sql(table)
3548        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3549        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3550        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3551        sep = self.sep()
3552
3553        return self.prepend_ctes(
3554            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3555        )
3556
3557    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3558        if expression.args.get("format"):
3559            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3560
3561        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3562
3563    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3564        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3565            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3566            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3567
3568        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3569        if not fmt:
3570            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3571            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3572
3573        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3574
3575    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3577        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3578        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3579        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3580        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3581
3582    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3583        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3584        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3585        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3586        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3587
3588    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3589        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3590
3591    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3592        return ""
3593
3594    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3595        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3596        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3597        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3598        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3599        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3600
3601    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3602        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3603        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3604
3605        if having:
3606            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3607
3608        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3609
3610    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3611        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3612        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3613        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3614        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3615        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3616        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3617        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3618        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3619        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3620        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3621        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3622        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3623        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3624
3625    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3626        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3627        if key_block_size:
3628            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3629
3630        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3631        if using:
3632            return f"USING {using}"
3633
3634        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3635        if parser:
3636            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3637
3638        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3639        if comment:
3640            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3641
3642        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3643        if visible is not None:
3644            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3645
3646        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3647        if engine_attr:
3648            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3649
3650        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3651        if secondary_engine_attr:
3652            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3653
3654        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3655        return ""
3656
3657    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3658        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3659        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3660
3661    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3662        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3663        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3664        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3665        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3666        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3667        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3668        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3669        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3670        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3671        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3672        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3673
3674    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3675        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3676            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3677
3678        case = exp.Case().when(
3679            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3680            expression.args["true"],
3681            copy=False,
3682        )
3683        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3684        if else_cond:
3685            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3686
3687        return self.sql(case)
3688
3689    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3690        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3691        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3692        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3693        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3694        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3695        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3696
3697    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3698        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3699
3700    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3701        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3702
3703    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3704        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3705        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3706        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3707        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3708        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3709        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3710
3711    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3712        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3713        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3714        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3715
3716    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3718        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3719        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3720
3721    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3722        arg = expression.this
3723        if not arg.type:
3724            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3725
3726            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3727
3728        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3729            return self.sql(arg)
3730
3731        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3732        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3733
3734    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3735        this = expression.this
3736        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3737            return self.sql(this)
3738
3739        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3740
3741    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3742        this = expression.this
3743        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3744            return self.sql(this)
3745
3746        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3747
3748    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3749        this = expression.this
3750        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3751
3752        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3753            return self.sql(
3754                exp.cast(
3755                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3756                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3757                )
3758            )
3759
3760        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3761            return self.sql(this)
3762
3763        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3764
3765    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3766        return self.sql(
3767            exp.func(
3768                "DATEDIFF",
3769                expression.this,
3770                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3771                "day",
3772            )
3773        )
3774
3775    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3776        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3777            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3778
3779        unit = expression.text("unit")
3780        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3781            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3782
3783        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3784
3785    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3786        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3787
3788        return self.func(
3789            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3790        )
3791
3792    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3793        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3794            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3795            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3796            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3797            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3798
3799        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3800
3801        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3802        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3803            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3804
3805        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3806
3807    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3808        expression.set(
3809            "expressions",
3810            [
3811                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3812                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3813                else e
3814                for e in expression.expressions
3815            ],
3816        )
3817
3818        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3819
3820    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3821        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3822        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3823
3824        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3825
3826    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3827        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3828        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3829
3830        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3831
3832        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3833        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3834
3835        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3836        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3837
3838        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3839        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3840
3841        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3842        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3843
3844        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3845
3846    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3847    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3848    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3849        to = expression.this
3850        value = expression.expression
3851        style = expression.args.get("style")
3852        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3853        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3854
3855        if not to or not value:
3856            return ""
3857
3858        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3859        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3860            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3861
3862        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3863        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3864
3865        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3866        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3867            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3868
3869            style_value = style.name
3870            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3871            if not converted_style:
3872                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3873
3874            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3875
3876            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3877                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3878            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3879                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3880            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3881                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3882            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3883                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3884
3885        if not transformed:
3886            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3887
3888        return self.sql(transformed)
3889
3890    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3891        this = expression.this
3892        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3893            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3894            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3895
3896        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3897            return f".{this}"
3898
3899        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3900        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3901
3902    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3903        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3904        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3905
3906    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3907        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3908            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3909
3910            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3911
3912        return expression
3913
3914    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3915        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3916            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3917            mods = sorted(
3918                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3919                key=lambda x: 0
3920                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3921                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3922            )
3923
3924            if mods:
3925                mod = mods[0]
3926                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3927                this.meta["inline"] = True
3928                mod.this.replace(this)
3929                return self.sql(expression.this)
3930
3931            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3932
3933            if agg_func:
3934                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3935
3936        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3937
3938    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3939        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3940        if self.pretty:
3941            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3942        return string
3943
3944    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3945        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3946
3947        if expression.expressions:
3948            upper = option.upper()
3949
3950            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3951            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3952
3953            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3954            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3955            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3956            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3957
3958        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3959
3960        if not value:
3961            return option
3962
3963        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3964
3965        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3966
3967    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3968        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3969        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3970            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3971            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3972            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3973        else:
3974            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3975            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3976            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3977
3978        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3979        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3980
3981        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3982        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3983
3984        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3985        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3986
3987        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3988        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3989
3990        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3991
3992    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3993        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3994        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3995
3996        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3997        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3998        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3999        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4000
4001        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4002        params = self.expressions(
4003            expression,
4004            key="params",
4005            sep=sep,
4006            new_line=True,
4007            skip_last=True,
4008            skip_first=True,
4009            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4010        )
4011
4012        if params:
4013            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4014                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4015            elif not self.pretty:
4016                params = f" {params}"
4017
4018        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4019
4020    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4021        return ""
4022
4023    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4024        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4025        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4026        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4027        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4028        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4029
4030        if filter_col or retention_period:
4031            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4032
4033        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4034
4035    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4036        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4037    ) -> str:
4038        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4039        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4040        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4041        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4042
4043    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4044        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4045        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4046        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4047
4048    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4049        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4050
4051    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4052        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4053        expr = expression.expression
4054
4055        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4056            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4057            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4058        else:
4059            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4060
4061        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4062
4063    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4064        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4065            return self.sql(expression.this)
4066
4067        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4068
4069    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4070        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4071        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4072
4073        if lower and upper:
4074            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4075        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4076
4077    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4078        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4079        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4080        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4081        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4082        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4083        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4084
4085        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4086
4087    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4088        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4089
4090        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4091        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4092            fill_pattern = "' '"
4093
4094        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4095
4096    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4097        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4098        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4099
4100    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4101        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4102
4103        parent = expression.parent
4104        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4105            parent = parent.parent
4106
4107        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4108            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4109
4110        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4111            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4112
4113        return self.sql(generate_series)
4114
4115    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4116        exprs = expression.expressions
4117        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4118            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4119        else:
4120            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4121
4122        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4123
4124    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4125        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4126            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4127
4128        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4129        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4130        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4131
4132        if source_tz and timestamp:
4133            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4134                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4135            )
4136
4137        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4138
4139        return self.sql(expr)