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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 118        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 119        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 120        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 121        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 123        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 125        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 126        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 130        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 133        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 134        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 135        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 136        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 137        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 138        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 139        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 140        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 141        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 142        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 143        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 144        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 145        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 146        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 148        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 149        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 150        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 151        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 152        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 153        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 154        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 155        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 156        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 157        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 158        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 159        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 160        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 161        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 162        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 163        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 164        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 165        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 166        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 168        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 169        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 170            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 171        ),
 172        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 173        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 174        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 175        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 176        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 177        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 178        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 179        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 180        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 181        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 182        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 183        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 184        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 185        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 186        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 187        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 188        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 189        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 190        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 191        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 192        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 193        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 194        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 195        exp.UnpackColumns: lambda self, e: f"*{self.sql(e.this)}",
 196        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 197        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 198        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 199        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 200        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 201        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 202        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 203        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 204    }
 205
 206    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 207    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 208    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 209
 210    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 211    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 212    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 213
 214    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 215    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 216
 217    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 218    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 219
 220    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 221    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 222
 223    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 224    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 225
 226    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 227    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 228
 229    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 230    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 231
 232    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 233    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 234
 235    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 236    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 237
 238    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 239    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 240
 241    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 242    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 243
 244    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 245    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 246
 247    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 248    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 249
 250    # Whether join hints should be generated
 251    JOIN_HINTS = True
 252
 253    # Whether table hints should be generated
 254    TABLE_HINTS = True
 255
 256    # Whether query hints should be generated
 257    QUERY_HINTS = True
 258
 259    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 260    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 261
 262    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 263    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 264
 265    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 266    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 267
 268    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 269    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 270
 271    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 272    RETURNING_END = True
 273
 274    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 275    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 276
 277    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 278    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 279
 280    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 281    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 282
 283    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 284    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 285
 286    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 287    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 288    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 289    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 290
 291    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 292    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 293
 294    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 295    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 296
 297    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 298    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 299
 300    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 301    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 302
 303    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 304    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 305
 306    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 307    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 308
 309    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 310    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 311
 312    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 313    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 314
 315    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 316    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 317
 318    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 319    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 320
 321    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 322    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 323
 324    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 325    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 326
 327    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 328    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 329
 330    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 331    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 332
 333    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 334    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 335
 336    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 337    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 338
 339    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 340    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 341
 342    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 343    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 344
 345    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 346    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 347
 348    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 349    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 350
 351    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 352    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 353
 354    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 355    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 356
 357    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 358    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 359
 360    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 361    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 362
 363    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 364    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 365
 366    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 367    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 368    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 369
 370    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 371    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 372
 373    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 374    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 375
 376    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 377    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 378
 379    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 380    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 381
 382    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 383    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 384
 385    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 386    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 387
 388    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 389    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 390    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 391    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 392
 393    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 394    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 395
 396    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 397    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 398
 399    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 400    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 401
 402    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 403    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 404
 405    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 406    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 407
 408    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 409    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 410
 411    # The HEX function name
 412    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 413
 414    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 415    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 416
 417    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 418    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 419
 420    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 421    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 422
 423    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 424    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 425
 426    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 427    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 428
 429    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 430    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 431
 432    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 433    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 434
 435    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 436        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 437        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 438        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 439        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 440        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 441        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 442        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 443        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 444        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 445        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 446    }
 447
 448    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 449        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 450        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 451        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 452        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 453        "DAYS": "DAY",
 454        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 455        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 456        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 457        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 458    }
 459
 460    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 461        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 462        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 463        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 464        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 465            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 466            if e.args.get("windows")
 467            else ""
 468        ),
 469        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 470    }
 471
 472    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 473
 474    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 475
 476    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 477    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 478
 479    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 480        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 482        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 486        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 488        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 495        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 497        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 498        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 500        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 506        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 507        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 508        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 509        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 510        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 511        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 512        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 513        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 514        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 515        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 516        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 517        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 521        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 522        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 523        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 524        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 525        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 526        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 527        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 528        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 529        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 530        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 531        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 532        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 533        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 534        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 535        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 536        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 539        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 541        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 542        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 543        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 544        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 545        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 546        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 547        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 548        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 549        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 550        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 551        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 552        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 553        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 554        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 555        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 556        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 557        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 558        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 559        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 560        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 561        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 563        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 564        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 565        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 566        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 567    }
 568
 569    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 570    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 571
 572    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 573    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 574        exp.Command,
 575        exp.Create,
 576        exp.Delete,
 577        exp.Drop,
 578        exp.From,
 579        exp.Insert,
 580        exp.Join,
 581        exp.MultitableInserts,
 582        exp.Select,
 583        exp.SetOperation,
 584        exp.Update,
 585        exp.Where,
 586        exp.With,
 587    )
 588
 589    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 590    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 591        exp.Binary,
 592        exp.SetOperation,
 593    )
 594
 595    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 596    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 597        exp.Column,
 598        exp.Literal,
 599        exp.Neg,
 600        exp.Paren,
 601    )
 602
 603    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 604        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 605        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 606        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 607        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 608    }
 609
 610    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 611    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 612
 613    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 614
 615    __slots__ = (
 616        "pretty",
 617        "identify",
 618        "normalize",
 619        "pad",
 620        "_indent",
 621        "normalize_functions",
 622        "unsupported_level",
 623        "max_unsupported",
 624        "leading_comma",
 625        "max_text_width",
 626        "comments",
 627        "dialect",
 628        "unsupported_messages",
 629        "_escaped_quote_end",
 630        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 631        "_next_name",
 632        "_identifier_start",
 633        "_identifier_end",
 634    )
 635
 636    def __init__(
 637        self,
 638        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 639        identify: str | bool = False,
 640        normalize: bool = False,
 641        pad: int = 2,
 642        indent: int = 2,
 643        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 644        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 645        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 646        leading_comma: bool = False,
 647        max_text_width: int = 80,
 648        comments: bool = True,
 649        dialect: DialectType = None,
 650    ):
 651        import sqlglot
 652        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 653
 654        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 655        self.identify = identify
 656        self.normalize = normalize
 657        self.pad = pad
 658        self._indent = indent
 659        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 660        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 661        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 662        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 663        self.comments = comments
 664        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 665
 666        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 667        self.normalize_functions = (
 668            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 669        )
 670
 671        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 672        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 673            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 674        )
 675        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 676            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 677        )
 678
 679        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 680
 681        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 682        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 683
 684    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 685        """
 686        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 687
 688        Args:
 689            expression: The syntax tree.
 690            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 691                it is safer to copy.
 692
 693        Returns:
 694            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 695        """
 696        if copy:
 697            expression = expression.copy()
 698
 699        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 700
 701        self.unsupported_messages = []
 702        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 703
 704        if self.pretty:
 705            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 706
 707        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 708            return sql
 709
 710        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 711            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 712                logger.warning(msg)
 713        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 714            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 715
 716        return sql
 717
 718    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 719        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 720        if (
 721            not expression.parent
 722            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 723            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 724        ):
 725            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 726
 727            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 728
 729        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 730            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 731
 732            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 733
 734        return expression
 735
 736    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 737        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 738            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 739        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 740
 741    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 742        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 743
 744    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 745        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 746
 747    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 748        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 749        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 750        return comment
 751
 752    def maybe_comment(
 753        self,
 754        sql: str,
 755        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 756        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 757        separated: bool = False,
 758    ) -> str:
 759        comments = (
 760            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 761            if self.comments
 762            else None
 763        )
 764
 765        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 766            return sql
 767
 768        comments_sql = " ".join(
 769            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 770        )
 771
 772        if not comments_sql:
 773            return sql
 774
 775        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 776
 777        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 778            return (
 779                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 780                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 781                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 782            )
 783
 784        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 785
 786    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 787        this_sql = (
 788            self.sql(expression)
 789            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 790            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 791        )
 792        if not this_sql:
 793            return "()"
 794
 795        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 796        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 797
 798    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 799        original = self.identify
 800        self.identify = False
 801        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 802        self.identify = original
 803        return result
 804
 805    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 806        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 807            return name.upper()
 808        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 809            return name.lower()
 810        return name
 811
 812    def indent(
 813        self,
 814        sql: str,
 815        level: int = 0,
 816        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 817        skip_first: bool = False,
 818        skip_last: bool = False,
 819    ) -> str:
 820        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 821            return sql
 822
 823        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 824        lines = sql.split("\n")
 825
 826        return "\n".join(
 827            (
 828                line
 829                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 830                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 831            )
 832            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 833        )
 834
 835    def sql(
 836        self,
 837        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 838        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 839        comment: bool = True,
 840    ) -> str:
 841        if not expression:
 842            return ""
 843
 844        if isinstance(expression, str):
 845            return expression
 846
 847        if key:
 848            value = expression.args.get(key)
 849            if value:
 850                return self.sql(value)
 851            return ""
 852
 853        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 854
 855        if callable(transform):
 856            sql = transform(self, expression)
 857        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 858            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 859
 860            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 861                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 862            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 863                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 864            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 865                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 866            else:
 867                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 868        else:
 869            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 870
 871        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 872
 873    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 874        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 875        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 876        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 877
 878    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 879        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 880        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 881        options = expression.args.get("options")
 882        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 883        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 884        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 885        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 886        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 887
 888    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 889        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 890            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 891        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 892        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 893
 894    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 895        return ".".join(
 896            self.sql(part)
 897            for part in (
 898                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 899                expression.args.get("db"),
 900                expression.args.get("table"),
 901                expression.args.get("this"),
 902            )
 903            if part
 904        )
 905
 906    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 907        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 908
 909        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 910            join_mark = ""
 911            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 912
 913        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 914
 915    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 917        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 918        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 919        return f"{position}{this}"
 920
 921    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 922        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 923        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 924        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 925        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 926        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 927        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 928        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 929        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 930
 931        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 932            kind = ""
 933
 934        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 935
 936    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 937        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 938        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 939        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 940
 941    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 942        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 943        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 944            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 945        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 946            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 947        else:
 948            persisted = ""
 949        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 950
 951    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 952        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 953
 954    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 955        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 956            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 957        else:
 958            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 959
 960        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 961
 962    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 963        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 964    ) -> str:
 965        this = ""
 966        if expression.this is not None:
 967            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 968            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 969
 970        start = expression.args.get("start")
 971        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 972        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 973        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 974        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 975        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 976        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 977        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 978        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 979        cycle_sql = ""
 980
 981        if cycle is not None:
 982            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 983            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 984
 985        sequence_opts = ""
 986        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 987            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 988            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 989
 990        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 991        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 992
 993        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 994
 995    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 996        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 997    ) -> str:
 998        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 999        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1000        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1001
1002    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1003        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1004    ) -> str:
1005        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1006
1007    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1008        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1009
1010    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1011        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1012
1013    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1014        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1015        if desc is not None:
1016            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1017        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1018
1019    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1020        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1021        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1022        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1023        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1024        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1025        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1026        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1027        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1028
1029    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1030        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1031
1032    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1033        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1034        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1035        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1036        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1037
1038        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1039
1040        properties_sql = ""
1041        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1042            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1043        ):
1044            properties_sql = self.sql(
1045                exp.Properties(
1046                    expressions=[
1047                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1048                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1049                    ]
1050                )
1051            )
1052
1053            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1054                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1055            elif not self.pretty:
1056                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1057                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1058
1059        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1060        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1061
1062        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1063        if expression_sql:
1064            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1065
1066            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1067                postalias_props_sql = ""
1068                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1069                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1070                        exp.Properties(
1071                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1072                        ),
1073                        wrapped=False,
1074                    )
1075                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1076                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1077
1078        postindex_props_sql = ""
1079        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1080            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1081                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1082                wrapped=False,
1083                prefix=" ",
1084            )
1085
1086        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1087        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1088        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1089
1090        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1091        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1092        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1093
1094        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1095        if clustered is None:
1096            clustered_sql = ""
1097        elif clustered:
1098            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1099        else:
1100            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1101
1102        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1103        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1104            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1105                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1106                sep=" ",
1107                prefix=" ",
1108                wrapped=False,
1109            )
1110
1111        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1112
1113        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1114        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1115            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1116                exp.Properties(
1117                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1118                ),
1119                sep=" ",
1120                prefix=" ",
1121                wrapped=False,
1122            )
1123
1124        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1125        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1126        no_schema_binding = (
1127            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1128        )
1129
1130        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1131        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1132
1133        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1134        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1135
1136    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1137        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1138        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1139        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1140        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1141        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1142        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1143        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1144        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1145        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1146        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1147
1148        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1149        if cache is None:
1150            cache_str = ""
1151        elif cache is True:
1152            cache_str = " CACHE"
1153        else:
1154            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1155
1156        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1157        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1158
1159        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1160
1161    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1162        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1163        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1164        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1165        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1166
1167    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1168        style = expression.args.get("style")
1169        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1170        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1171        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1172        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1173
1174    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1175        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1176        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1177
1178    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1179        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1180        if with_:
1181            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1182        return sql
1183
1184    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1185        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1186        recursive = (
1187            "RECURSIVE "
1188            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1189            else ""
1190        )
1191
1192        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1193
1194    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1195        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1196
1197        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1198        if materialized is False:
1199            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1200        elif materialized:
1201            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1202
1203        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1204
1205    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1206        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1207        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1208        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1209
1210        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1211            columns = ""
1212            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1213
1214        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1215            alias = self._next_name()
1216
1217        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1218
1219    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1220        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1221        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1222            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1223        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1224
1225    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1226        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1227        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1228            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1229        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1230
1231    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1232        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1233        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1234            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1235        return this
1236
1237    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1239        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1240
1241        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1242            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1243            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1244        else:
1245            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1246            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1247
1248        if escape:
1249            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1250            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1251        else:
1252            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1253            escape_sql = ""
1254
1255        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1256            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1257
1258        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1259
1260    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1261        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1262        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1263
1264    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1266        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1267        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1268        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1269
1270    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1271        nested = ""
1272        values = ""
1273        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1274
1275        type_value = expression.this
1276        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1277            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1278        else:
1279            type_sql = (
1280                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1281                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1282                else type_value
1283            )
1284
1285        if interior:
1286            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1287                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1288                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1289                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1290                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1291                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1292            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1293                nested = f" {interior}"
1294            else:
1295                nested = f"({interior})"
1296
1297        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1298        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1299            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1300            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1301        ):
1302            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1303
1304        return type_sql
1305
1306    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1307        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1308        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1309        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1310        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1311
1312    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1313        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1314        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1315        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1316        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1317        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1318        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1319        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1320        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1321        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1322        if self.RETURNING_END:
1323            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1324        else:
1325            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1326        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1327
1328    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1329        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1330        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1331        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1332        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1333        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1334        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1335        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1336        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1337        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1338        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1339        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1340        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1341        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1342        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1343        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1344
1345    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1346        op_type = type(expression)
1347        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1348
1349        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1350        if (
1351            distinct is False
1352            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1353            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1354        ):
1355            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1356
1357        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1358
1359        if distinct is None:
1360            distinct = default_distinct
1361            if distinct is None:
1362                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1363
1364        if distinct is default_distinct:
1365            kind = ""
1366        else:
1367            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1368
1369        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1370        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1371
1372    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1373        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1374            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1375            order = expression.args.get("order")
1376
1377            if limit or order:
1378                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1379
1380                if limit:
1381                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1382                if order:
1383                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1384                return self.sql(select)
1385
1386        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1387        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1388
1389        while stack:
1390            node = stack.pop()
1391
1392            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1393                stack.append(node.expression)
1394                stack.append(
1395                    self.maybe_comment(
1396                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1397                    )
1398                )
1399                stack.append(node.this)
1400            else:
1401                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1402
1403        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1404        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1405        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1406
1407    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1408        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1409        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1410        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1411        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1412        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1413            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1414        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1415        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1416
1417    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1418        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1419            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1420            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1421            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1422
1423        agg = expression.this
1424        agg_arg = agg.this
1425        cond = expression.expression.this
1426        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1427        return self.sql(agg)
1428
1429    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1430        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1431            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1432            return ""
1433
1434        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1435
1436    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1437        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1438        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1439        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1440        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1441        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1442        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1443        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1444        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1445        if include:
1446            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1447        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1448        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1449        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1450        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1451        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1452        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1453
1454        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1455
1456    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1457        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1458        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1459        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1460        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1461        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1462        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1463        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1464
1465        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1466
1467        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1468        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1469
1470    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1471        text = expression.name
1472        lower = text.lower()
1473        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1474        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1475        if (
1476            expression.quoted
1477            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1478            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1479            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1480        ):
1481            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1482        return text
1483
1484    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1485        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1486        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1487            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1488
1489        return text
1490
1491    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1492        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1493        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1494            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1495        return text
1496
1497    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1498        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1499        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1500        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1501        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1502        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1503
1504    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1505        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1506        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1507
1508    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1509        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1510
1511    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1512        root_properties = []
1513        with_properties = []
1514
1515        for p in expression.expressions:
1516            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1517            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1518                with_properties.append(p)
1519            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1520                root_properties.append(p)
1521
1522        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1523        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1524
1525        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1526            with_props = " " + with_props
1527
1528        return root_props + with_props
1529
1530    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1531        if properties.expressions:
1532            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1533        return ""
1534
1535    def properties(
1536        self,
1537        properties: exp.Properties,
1538        prefix: str = "",
1539        sep: str = ", ",
1540        suffix: str = "",
1541        wrapped: bool = True,
1542    ) -> str:
1543        if properties.expressions:
1544            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1545            if expressions:
1546                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1547                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1548        return ""
1549
1550    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1551        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1552
1553    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1554        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1555        for p in properties.expressions:
1556            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1557            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1558                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1559            else:
1560                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1561
1562        return properties_locs
1563
1564    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1565        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1566            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1567        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1568
1569    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1570        property_cls = expression.__class__
1571        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1572            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1573
1574        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1575        if not property_name:
1576            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1577
1578        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1579
1580    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1581        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1582            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1583            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1584
1585            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1586            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1587                like = f"({like})"
1588
1589            return like
1590
1591        if expression.expressions:
1592            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1593
1594        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1595        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1596
1597    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1598        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1599        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1600        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1601
1602    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1603        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1604        local = expression.args.get("local")
1605        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1606        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1607        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1608        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1609        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1610
1611    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1612        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1613        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1614        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1615
1616    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1617        if expression.args.get("default"):
1618            property = "DEFAULT"
1619        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1620            property = "ON"
1621        else:
1622            property = "OFF"
1623        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1624
1625    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1626        if expression.args.get("no"):
1627            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1628        if expression.args.get("default"):
1629            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1630
1631        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1632        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1633
1634    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1635        default = expression.args.get("default")
1636        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1637        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1638        if default or minimum or maximum:
1639            if default:
1640                prop = "DEFAULT"
1641            elif minimum:
1642                prop = "MINIMUM"
1643            else:
1644                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1645            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1646        units = expression.args.get("units")
1647        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1648        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1649
1650    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1651        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1652        always = expression.args.get("always")
1653        default = expression.args.get("default")
1654        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1655        never = expression.args.get("never")
1656
1657        if autotemp is not None:
1658            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1659        elif always:
1660            prop = "ALWAYS"
1661        elif default:
1662            prop = "DEFAULT"
1663        elif manual:
1664            prop = "MANUAL"
1665        elif never:
1666            prop = "NEVER"
1667        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1668
1669    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1670        no = expression.args.get("no")
1671        no = " NO" if no else ""
1672        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1673        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1674        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1675        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1676        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1677
1678    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1679        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1680            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1681        if expression.this:
1682            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1683            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1684            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1685
1686        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1687        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1688        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1689
1690    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1691        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1692
1693        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1694        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1695            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1696        else:
1697            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1698
1699        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1700
1701    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1702        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1703        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1704        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1705        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1706        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1707        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1708        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1709
1710    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1711        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1712        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1713        statistics_sql = ""
1714        if statistics is not None:
1715            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1716        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1717
1718    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1719        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1720        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1721        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1722        data_consistency = (
1723            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1724        )
1725        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1726        retention_period = (
1727            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1728        )
1729
1730        if this:
1731            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1732        else:
1733            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1734
1735        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1736
1737        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1738
1739    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1740        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1741        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1742
1743        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1744            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1745        else:
1746            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1747
1748        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1749        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1750        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1751        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1752        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1753        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1754        if is_function:
1755            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1756        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1757
1758        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1759        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1760        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1761        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1762        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1763        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1764        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1765        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1766
1767        if self.RETURNING_END:
1768            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1769        else:
1770            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1771
1772        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1773        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1774        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1775        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1776
1777        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1778        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1779
1780        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1781        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1782
1783    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1784        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1785
1786    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1787        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1788        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1789        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1790        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1791        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1792
1793    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1794        return expression.name
1795
1796    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1797        return expression.name
1798
1799    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1800        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1801
1802        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1803        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1804
1805        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1806        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1807        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1808
1809        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1810        if expressions:
1811            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1812            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1813
1814        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1815
1816    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1817        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1818
1819    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1820        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1821        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1822        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1823        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1824        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1825        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1826        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1827        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1828        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1829        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1830        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1831        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1832        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1833
1834    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1835        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1836
1837    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1838        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1839        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1840        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1841        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1842
1843    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1844        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1845        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1846        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1847        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1848
1849    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1850        return ".".join(
1851            self.sql(part)
1852            for part in (
1853                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1854                expression.args.get("db"),
1855                expression.args.get("this"),
1856            )
1857            if part is not None
1858        )
1859
1860    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1861        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1862        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1863        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1864        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1865        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1866        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1867        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1868        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1869
1870        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1871        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1872            sample_pre_alias = sample
1873            sample_post_alias = ""
1874        else:
1875            sample_pre_alias = ""
1876            sample_post_alias = sample
1877
1878        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1879        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1880        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1881        joins = self.indent(
1882            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1883        )
1884        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1885
1886        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1887        if file_format:
1888            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1889            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1890            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1891
1892        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1893        if ordinality:
1894            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1895            alias = ""
1896
1897        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1898        if when:
1899            table = f"{table} {when}"
1900
1901        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1902        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1903
1904        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1905        if rows_from:
1906            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1907
1908        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1909
1910    def tablesample_sql(
1911        self,
1912        expression: exp.TableSample,
1913        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1914    ) -> str:
1915        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1916        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1917        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1918        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1919        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1920        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1921        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1922        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1923        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1924
1925        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1926        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1927            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1928
1929        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1930        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1931            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1932
1933        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1934        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1935            expr = f"({expr})"
1936
1937        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1938
1939    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1940        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1941
1942        if expression.this:
1943            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1944            if not expressions:
1945                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1946
1947            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1948            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1949            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1950            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1951            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1952
1953        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1954        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1955        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1956
1957        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1958
1959        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1960        if include_nulls is not None:
1961            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1962        else:
1963            nulls = ""
1964
1965        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1966        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1967        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1968
1969    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1970        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1971        kind = expression.text("kind")
1972        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1973        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1974
1975    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1976        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1977
1978    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1979        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1980        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1981        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1982        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1983        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1984        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1985        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1986        if self.RETURNING_END:
1987            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1988        else:
1989            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1990        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1991        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1992
1993    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1994        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1995
1996        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1997        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1998            args = self.expressions(expression)
1999            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2000            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2001            values = (
2002                f"({values})"
2003                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
2004                else values
2005            )
2006            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2007
2008        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2009        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2010        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2011
2012        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2013
2014        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2015            row = tup.expressions
2016
2017            if i == 0 and column_names:
2018                row = [
2019                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2020                ]
2021
2022            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2023
2024        if self.pretty:
2025            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2026            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2027            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2028            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2029            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2030
2031        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2032        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2033        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2034
2035    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2036        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2037
2038    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2039        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2040        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2041        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2042
2043    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2044        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2045
2046    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2047        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2048        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2049
2050    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2051        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2052        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2053
2054    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2055        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2056        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2057
2058    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2059        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2060        if group_by_all is True:
2061            modifier = " ALL"
2062        elif group_by_all is False:
2063            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2064        else:
2065            modifier = ""
2066
2067        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2068
2069        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2070        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2071        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2072
2073        groupings = csv(
2074            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2075            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2076            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2077            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2078            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2079        )
2080
2081        if (
2082            expression.expressions
2083            and groupings
2084            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2085        ):
2086            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2087
2088        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2089
2090    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2091        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2092        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2093
2094    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2095        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2096        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2097        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2098        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2099        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2100        return start + connect
2101
2102    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2103        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2104
2105    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2106        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2107            side = None
2108        else:
2109            side = expression.side
2110
2111        op_sql = " ".join(
2112            op
2113            for op in (
2114                expression.method,
2115                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2116                side,
2117                expression.kind,
2118                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2119            )
2120            if op
2121        )
2122        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2123        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2124        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2125        using = expression.args.get("using")
2126
2127        if not on_sql and using:
2128            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2129
2130        this = expression.this
2131        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2132
2133        if on_sql:
2134            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2135            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2136            if using:
2137                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2138            else:
2139                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2140        elif not op_sql:
2141            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2142                return f" {this_sql}"
2143
2144            return f", {this_sql}"
2145
2146        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2147            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2148
2149        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2150
2151    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2152        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2153        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2154        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2155
2156    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2157        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2158
2159        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2160        if cross_apply is True:
2161            op = "INNER JOIN "
2162        elif cross_apply is False:
2163            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2164        else:
2165            op = ""
2166
2167        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2168
2169    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2171
2172        if expression.args.get("view"):
2173            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2174            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2175            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2176            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2177            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2178            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2179
2180        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2181        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2182        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2183
2184    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2185        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2186
2187        args = [
2188            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2189            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2190            if e
2191        ]
2192
2193        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2194        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2195        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2196        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2197
2198        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2199
2200    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2201        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2202        value = expression.expression
2203        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2204        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2205        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2206        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2207
2208    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2209        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2210        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2211        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2212        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2213        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2214        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2215        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2216        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2217
2218    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2219        expressions = (
2220            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2221        )
2222        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2223        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2224
2225    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2226        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2227
2228    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2229        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2230            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2231            return ""
2232
2233        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2234        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2235        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2236        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2237
2238        if wait is not None:
2239            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2240                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2241            else:
2242                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2243
2244        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2245
2246    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2247        text = expression.this or ""
2248        if expression.is_string:
2249            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2250        return text
2251
2252    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2253        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2254            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2255            text = "".join(
2256                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2257            )
2258
2259        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2260            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2261        )
2262
2263    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2264        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2265        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2266        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2267        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2268        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2269        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2270        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2271        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2272        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2273        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2274        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2275
2276    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2277        return "NULL"
2278
2279    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2280        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2281
2282    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2283        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2284        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2285        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2286        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2287
2288    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2289        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2290        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2291        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2292        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2293        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2294        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2295        interpolated_values = [
2296            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2297            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2298        ]
2299        interpolate = (
2300            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2301        )
2302        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2303
2304    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2305        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2306
2307    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2308        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2309
2310    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2311        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2312
2313    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2314        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2315        asc = not desc
2316
2317        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2318        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2319        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2320        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2321        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2322
2323        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2324
2325        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2326        nulls_sort_change = ""
2327        if nulls_first and (
2328            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2329        ):
2330            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2331        elif (
2332            nulls_last
2333            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2334            and not nulls_are_last
2335        ):
2336            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2337
2338        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2339        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2340            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2341            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2342                self.unsupported(
2343                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2344                )
2345                nulls_sort_change = ""
2346            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2347                if expression.this.is_int:
2348                    self.unsupported(
2349                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2350                    )
2351                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2352                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2353                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2354                nulls_sort_change = ""
2355
2356        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2357        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2358
2359        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2360
2361    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2362        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2363        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2364
2365        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2366
2367        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2368
2369    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2370        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2371        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2372        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2373        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2374        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2375        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2376        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2377        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2378        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2379        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2380        definition_sqls = [
2381            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2382            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2383        ]
2384        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2385        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2386        body = "".join(
2387            (
2388                partition,
2389                order,
2390                measures,
2391                rows,
2392                after,
2393                pattern,
2394                define,
2395            )
2396        )
2397        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2398        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2399        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2400
2401    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2402        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2403
2404        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2405            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2406        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2407            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2408
2409        return csv(
2410            *sqls,
2411            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2412            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2413            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2414            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2415            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2416            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2417            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2418            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2419            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2420            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2421            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2422            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2423            self.options_modifier(expression),
2424            sep="",
2425        )
2426
2427    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2428        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2429        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2430
2431    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2432        return ""
2433
2434    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2435        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2436    ) -> t.List[str]:
2437        return [
2438            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2439            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2440        ]
2441
2442    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2443        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2444        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2445        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2446
2447    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2448        into = expression.args.get("into")
2449        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2450            into.pop()
2451
2452        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2453        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2454        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2455        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2456
2457        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2458        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2459            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2460            limit.pop()
2461        else:
2462            top = ""
2463
2464        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2465
2466        if kind:
2467            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2468                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2469            else:
2470                if kind == "STRUCT":
2471                    expressions = self.expressions(
2472                        sqls=[
2473                            self.sql(
2474                                exp.Struct(
2475                                    expressions=[
2476                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2477                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2478                                        else e
2479                                        for e in expression.expressions
2480                                    ]
2481                                )
2482                            )
2483                        ]
2484                    )
2485                kind = ""
2486
2487        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2488        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2489        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2490        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2491        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2492            expression,
2493            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2494            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2495            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2496        )
2497
2498        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2499
2500        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2501            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2502                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2503            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2504                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2505            else:
2506                table_kind = ""
2507            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2508
2509        return sql
2510
2511    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2512        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2513        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2514        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2515
2516    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2517        if expression.expressions:
2518            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2519        return ""
2520
2521    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2522        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2523        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2524        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2525        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2526        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2527        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2528        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2529
2530    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2531        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2532        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2533
2534    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2535        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2536        kind = expression.text("kind")
2537        if kind:
2538            kind = f"{kind}."
2539        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2540
2541    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2542        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2543
2544    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2545        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2546        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2547        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2548        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2549            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2550
2551            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2552            expression.set("sample", None)
2553
2554        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2555        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2556        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2557
2558    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2559        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2560        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2561
2562    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2563        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2564
2565        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2566        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2567
2568        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2569            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2570                alias.append("columns", offset)
2571
2572        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2573            columns = alias.columns
2574            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2575        else:
2576            alias = self.sql(alias)
2577
2578        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2579        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2580            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2581        else:
2582            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2583                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2584            elif offset:
2585                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2586            else:
2587                suffix = alias
2588
2589        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2590
2591    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2592        return ""
2593
2594    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2595        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2596        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2597
2598    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2599        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2600        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2601        order = expression.args.get("order")
2602        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2603        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2604        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2605        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2606
2607        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2608
2609        first = expression.args.get("first")
2610        if first is None:
2611            first = ""
2612        else:
2613            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2614
2615        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2616            return f"{this} {alias}"
2617
2618        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2619        return f"{this} ({args})"
2620
2621    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2622        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2623        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2624
2625    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2626        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2627        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2628        end = (
2629            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2630            or "CURRENT ROW"
2631        )
2632        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2633
2634    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2635        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2636        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2637        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2638
2639    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2640        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2641        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2642        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2643        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2644
2645    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2646        return apply_index_offset(
2647            expression.this,
2648            expression.expressions,
2649            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2650        )
2651
2652    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2653        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2654        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2655        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2656
2657    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2658        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2659
2660    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2661        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2662        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2663            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2664                this = self.wrap(this)
2665            return f"ANY{this}"
2666        return f"ANY {this}"
2667
2668    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2669        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2670
2671    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2672        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2673        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2674
2675        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2676            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2677            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2678
2679        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2680
2681        if default:
2682            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2683
2684        statements.append("END")
2685
2686        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2687            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2688
2689        return " ".join(statements)
2690
2691    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2692        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2693        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2694        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2695
2696    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2697        order = expression.args.get("order")
2698        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2699        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2700
2701    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2702        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2703        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2704        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2705
2706    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2707        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2708
2709        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2710            func_name = "LTRIM"
2711        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2712            func_name = "RTRIM"
2713        else:
2714            func_name = "TRIM"
2715
2716        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2717
2718    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2719        args = expression.expressions
2720        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2721            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2722
2723        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2724            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2725
2726        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2727            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2728
2729        return args
2730
2731    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2732        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2733
2734        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2735        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2736            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2737
2738        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2739
2740    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2741        return self.func(
2742            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2743        )
2744
2745    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2746        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2747        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2748
2749    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2750        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2751        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2752        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2753        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2754        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2755        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2756        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2757        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2758
2759    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2760        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2761        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2762        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2763        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2764
2765    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2766        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2767
2768    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2769        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2770        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2771        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2772
2773    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2774        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2775
2776    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2777        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2778
2779        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2780            path = self.escape_str(path)
2781
2782        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2783            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2784
2785        return path
2786
2787    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2788        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2789            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2790            if not callable(transform):
2791                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2792                return ""
2793
2794            return transform(self, expression)
2795
2796        if isinstance(expression, int):
2797            return str(expression)
2798
2799        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2800            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2801            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2802        else:
2803            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2804            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2805
2806        return escaped
2807
2808    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2809        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2810
2811    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2812        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2813        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2814
2815        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2816        if unique_keys is not None:
2817            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2818        else:
2819            unique_keys = ""
2820
2821        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2822        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2823        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2824        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2825
2826        return self.func(
2827            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2828            *expression.expressions,
2829            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2830        )
2831
2832    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2833        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2834
2835    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2836        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2837        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2838        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2839        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2840        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2841        return self.func(
2842            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2843        )
2844
2845    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2846        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2847        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2848        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2849        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2850        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2851        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2852        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2853        return self.func(
2854            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2855            this,
2856            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2857        )
2858
2859    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2860        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2861        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2862        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2863
2864        if nested_schema:
2865            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2866
2867        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2868        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2869        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2870        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2871
2872    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2873        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2874
2875    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2877        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2878        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2879        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2880        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2881        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2882        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2883        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2884        return self.func(
2885            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2886        )
2887
2888    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2889        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2890        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2891        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2892        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2893        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2894        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2895
2896    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2897        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2898        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2899        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2900        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2901        with_ = (
2902            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2903            if expressions
2904            else ""
2905        )
2906        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2907
2908    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2909        query = expression.args.get("query")
2910        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2911        field = expression.args.get("field")
2912        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2913
2914        if query:
2915            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2916        elif unnest:
2917            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2918        elif field:
2919            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2920        else:
2921            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2922
2923        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2924
2925    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2926        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2927
2928    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2929        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2930        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2931            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2932        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2933
2934        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2935            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2936            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2937
2938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2939        if this:
2940            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2941            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2942
2943        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2944
2945    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2946        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2947
2948    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2949        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2950        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2951        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2952        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2953        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2954        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2955
2956    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2957        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
2958        parent = expression.parent
2959        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
2960        return self.func(
2961            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
2962        )
2963
2964    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2965        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2966        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2967
2968    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2969        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2970        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2971        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2972        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2973
2974    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2975        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2976
2977    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2978        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2979        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2980        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2981
2982    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2983        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2984
2985        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2986        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
2987
2988        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2989            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2990        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2991            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2992
2993        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2994
2995    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2996        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2997
2998    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2999        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3000        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3001        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3002
3003    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3004        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3005        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3006        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3007
3008    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3009        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3010        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3011        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3012
3013    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3014        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3015
3016    def and_sql(
3017        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3018    ) -> str:
3019        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3020
3021    def or_sql(
3022        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3023    ) -> str:
3024        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3025
3026    def xor_sql(
3027        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3028    ) -> str:
3029        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3030
3031    def connector_sql(
3032        self,
3033        expression: exp.Connector,
3034        op: str,
3035        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3036    ) -> str:
3037        if stack is not None:
3038            if expression.expressions:
3039                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3040            else:
3041                stack.append(expression.right)
3042                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3043                    for comment in expression.comments:
3044                        if comment:
3045                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3046                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3047            return op
3048
3049        stack = [expression]
3050        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3051        ops = set()
3052
3053        while stack:
3054            node = stack.pop()
3055            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3056                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3057            else:
3058                sql = self.sql(node)
3059                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3060                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3061                else:
3062                    sqls.append(sql)
3063
3064        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3065        return sep.join(sqls)
3066
3067    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3068        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3069
3070    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3071        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3072
3073    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3074        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3075
3076    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3077        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3078
3079    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3080        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3081
3082    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3083        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3084
3085    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3086        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3087        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3088        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3089        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3090        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3091        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3092        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3093
3094    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3095        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3096        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3097
3098    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3099        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3100            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3101        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3102
3103    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3104        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3105
3106    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3107        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3108        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3109        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3110        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3111        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3112        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3113
3114    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3115        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3116        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3117        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3118        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3119        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3120        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3121        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3122        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3123        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3124
3125    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3126        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3127        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3128        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3129        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3130
3131        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3132            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3133
3134        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3135
3136    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3137        return "BEGIN"
3138
3139    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3140        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3141        if chain is not None:
3142            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3143
3144        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3145
3146    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3147        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3148        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3149        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3150
3151    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3152        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3153
3154        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3155        if dtype:
3156            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3157            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3158            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3159            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3160            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3161
3162        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3163        if default:
3164            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3165
3166        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3167        if comment:
3168            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3169
3170        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3171        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3172
3173        if not drop and not allow_null:
3174            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3175
3176        if allow_null is not None:
3177            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3178            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3179
3180        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3181
3182    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3183        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3184        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3185            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3186        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3187
3188    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3189        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3190        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3191        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3192        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3193        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3194
3195    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3196        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3197            # Remove db from tables
3198            expression = expression.transform(
3199                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3200            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3201        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3202        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3203
3204    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3205        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3206        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3207        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3208        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3209
3210    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3211        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3212        return f"SET {exprs}"
3213
3214    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3215        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3216
3217        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3218            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3219        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3220            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3221        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3222            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3223        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3224            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3225        else:
3226            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3227
3228        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3229        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3230        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3231        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3232        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3233        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3234        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3235        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3236
3237        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3238
3239    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3240        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3241            return self.expressions(
3242                expression,
3243                key="actions",
3244                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3245                skip_first=True,
3246            )
3247        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3248
3249    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3250        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3251        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3252        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3253
3254    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3255        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3256
3257    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3258        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3259
3260        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3261            case = exp.case()
3262            for arg in expression.expressions:
3263                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3264            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3265
3266        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3267
3268        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3269        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3270        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3271
3272    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3273        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3274
3275    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3276        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3277
3278    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3279        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3280        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3281        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3282        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3283
3284    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3285        return self.sql(
3286            exp.Cast(
3287                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3288                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3289            )
3290        )
3291
3292    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3293        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3294            return self.func(
3295                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3296            )
3297        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3298
3299    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3300        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3301
3302        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3303            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3304
3305        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3306            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3307                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3308
3309        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3310            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3311                return self.sql(
3312                    exp.cast(
3313                        l / r,
3314                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3315                    )
3316                )
3317
3318        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3319
3320    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3321        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3322
3323    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3324        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3325
3326    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3327        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3328
3329    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3330        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3331
3332    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3333        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3334
3335    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3336        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3337
3338    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3339        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3340
3341    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3342        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3343
3344    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3345        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3346
3347    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3348        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3349
3350    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3351        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3352
3353    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3354        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3355            return self.sql(
3356                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3357            )
3358        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3359
3360    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3361        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3362
3363    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3364        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3365
3366    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3367        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3368
3369    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3370        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3371
3372    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3373        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3374
3375    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3376        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3377
3378    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3379        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3380
3381    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3382        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3383
3384    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3385        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3386
3387    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3388        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3389
3390    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3391        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3392
3393    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3394        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3395
3396    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3397        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3398
3399    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3400        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3401            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3402            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3403
3404        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3405
3406    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3407        this = expression.this
3408        expr = expression.expression
3409
3410        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3411            this, expr = expr, this
3412        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3413            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3414                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3415
3416            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3417
3418        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3419
3420    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3421        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3422        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3423        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3424        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3425        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3426
3427    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3428        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3429        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3430        binary_type = type(expression)
3431
3432        while stack:
3433            node = stack.pop()
3434
3435            if type(node) is binary_type:
3436                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3437                if op_func:
3438                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3439
3440                stack.append(node.right)
3441                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3442                stack.append(node.left)
3443            else:
3444                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3445
3446        return "".join(sqls)
3447
3448    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3449        args = []
3450
3451        for key in expression.arg_types:
3452            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3453
3454            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3455                for value in arg_value:
3456                    args.append(value)
3457            elif arg_value is not None:
3458                args.append(arg_value)
3459
3460        if self.normalize_functions:
3461            name = expression.sql_name()
3462        else:
3463            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3464
3465        return self.func(name, *args)
3466
3467    def func(
3468        self,
3469        name: str,
3470        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3471        prefix: str = "(",
3472        suffix: str = ")",
3473        normalize: bool = True,
3474    ) -> str:
3475        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3476        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3477
3478    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3479        arg_sqls = tuple(
3480            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3481        )
3482        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3483            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3484        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3485
3486    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3487        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3488
3489    def format_time(
3490        self,
3491        expression: exp.Expression,
3492        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3493        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3494    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3495        return format_time(
3496            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3497            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3498            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3499        )
3500
3501    def expressions(
3502        self,
3503        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3504        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3505        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3506        flat: bool = False,
3507        indent: bool = True,
3508        skip_first: bool = False,
3509        skip_last: bool = False,
3510        sep: str = ", ",
3511        prefix: str = "",
3512        dynamic: bool = False,
3513        new_line: bool = False,
3514    ) -> str:
3515        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3516
3517        if not expressions:
3518            return ""
3519
3520        if flat:
3521            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3522
3523        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3524        result_sqls = []
3525
3526        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3527            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3528            if not sql:
3529                continue
3530
3531            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3532
3533            if self.pretty:
3534                if self.leading_comma:
3535                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3536                else:
3537                    result_sqls.append(
3538                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3539                    )
3540            else:
3541                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3542
3543        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3544            if new_line:
3545                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3546                result_sqls.append("")
3547            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3548        else:
3549            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3550
3551        return (
3552            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3553            if indent
3554            else result_sql
3555        )
3556
3557    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3558        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3559        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3560        if flat:
3561            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3562        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3563
3564    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3565        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3566        if not property_name:
3567            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3568        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3569
3570    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3571        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3572
3573    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3574        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3575
3576    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3577        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3578        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3579        expressions = (
3580            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3581        )
3582        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3583
3584    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3585        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3586        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3587        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3588
3589    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3590        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3591
3592    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3593        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3594        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3595        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3596        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3597
3598        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3599        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3600            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3601            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3602            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3603            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3604        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3605            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3606                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3607            else:
3608                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3609        else:
3610            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3611        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3612
3613    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3614        table = expression.this
3615        table_alias = ""
3616
3617        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3618        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3619            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3620            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3621
3622        this = self.sql(table)
3623        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3624        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3625        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3626        sep = self.sep()
3627        returning = self.expressions(expression, key="returning", indent=False)
3628        returning = f"RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
3629
3630        return self.prepend_ctes(
3631            expression,
3632            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}{sep}{returning}",
3633        )
3634
3635    @unsupported_args("format")
3636    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3637        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3638
3639    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3640        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3641            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3642            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3643
3644        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3645        if not fmt:
3646            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3647            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3648
3649        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3650
3651    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3652        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3653        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3654        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3655        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3656        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3657
3658    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3659        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3660        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3661        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3662        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3663
3664    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3665        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3666
3667    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3668        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3669
3670    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3671    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3672        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3673        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3674        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3675        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3676        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3677        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3678        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3679
3680    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3681        return ""
3682
3683    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3684        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3685        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3686        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3687        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3688        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3689
3690    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3691        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3692        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3693
3694        if having:
3695            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3696
3697        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3698
3699    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3700        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3701        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3702        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3703        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3704        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3705        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3706        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3707        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3708        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3709        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3710        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3711        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3712        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3713
3714    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3715        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3716        if key_block_size:
3717            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3718
3719        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3720        if using:
3721            return f"USING {using}"
3722
3723        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3724        if parser:
3725            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3726
3727        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3728        if comment:
3729            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3730
3731        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3732        if visible is not None:
3733            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3734
3735        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3736        if engine_attr:
3737            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3738
3739        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3740        if secondary_engine_attr:
3741            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3742
3743        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3744        return ""
3745
3746    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3747        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3748        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3749
3750    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3751        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3752        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3753        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3754        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3755        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3756        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3757        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3758        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3759        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3760        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3761        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3762
3763    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3764        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3765            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3766
3767        case = exp.Case().when(
3768            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3769            expression.args["true"],
3770            copy=False,
3771        )
3772        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3773        if else_cond:
3774            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3775
3776        return self.sql(case)
3777
3778    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3780        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3781        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3782        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3783        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3784        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3785
3786    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3787        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3788
3789    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3790        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3791
3792    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3793        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3794        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3795        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3796        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3797        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3798        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3799
3800    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3802        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3803        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3804
3805    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3807        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3808        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3809
3810    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3811        arg = expression.this
3812        if not arg.type:
3813            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3814
3815            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3816
3817        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3818            return self.sql(arg)
3819
3820        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3821        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3822
3823    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3824        this = expression.this
3825        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3826            return self.sql(this)
3827
3828        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3829
3830    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3831        this = expression.this
3832        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3833            return self.sql(this)
3834
3835        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3836
3837    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3838        this = expression.this
3839        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3840
3841        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3842            return self.sql(
3843                exp.cast(
3844                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3845                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3846                )
3847            )
3848
3849        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3850            return self.sql(this)
3851
3852        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3853
3854    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3855        return self.sql(
3856            exp.func(
3857                "DATEDIFF",
3858                expression.this,
3859                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3860                "day",
3861            )
3862        )
3863
3864    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3865        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3866            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3867
3868        unit = expression.text("unit")
3869        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3870            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3871
3872        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3873
3874    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3875        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3876
3877        return self.func(
3878            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3879        )
3880
3881    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3882        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3883            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3884            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3885            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3886            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3887
3888        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3889
3890        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3891        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3892            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3893
3894        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3895
3896    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3897        expression.set(
3898            "expressions",
3899            [
3900                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3901                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3902                else e
3903                for e in expression.expressions
3904            ],
3905        )
3906
3907        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3908
3909    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3910        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3911        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3912
3913        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3914
3915    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3916        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3917        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3918
3919        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3920
3921        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3922        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3923
3924        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3925        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3926
3927        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3928        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3929
3930        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3931        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3932
3933        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3934
3935    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3936    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3937    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3938        to = expression.this
3939        value = expression.expression
3940        style = expression.args.get("style")
3941        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3942        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3943
3944        if not to or not value:
3945            return ""
3946
3947        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3948        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3949            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3950
3951        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3952        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3953
3954        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3955        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3956            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3957
3958            style_value = style.name
3959            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3960            if not converted_style:
3961                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3962
3963            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3964
3965            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3966                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3967            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3968                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3969            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3970                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3971            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3972                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3973
3974        if not transformed:
3975            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3976
3977        return self.sql(transformed)
3978
3979    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3980        this = expression.this
3981        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3982            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3983            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3984
3985        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3986            return f".{this}"
3987
3988        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3989        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3990
3991    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3992        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3993        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3994
3995    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3996        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3997            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3998
3999            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4000
4001        return expression
4002
4003    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4004        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4005            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4006            mods = sorted(
4007                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4008                key=lambda x: 0
4009                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4010                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4011            )
4012
4013            if mods:
4014                mod = mods[0]
4015                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4016                this.meta["inline"] = True
4017                mod.this.replace(this)
4018                return self.sql(expression.this)
4019
4020            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4021
4022            if agg_func:
4023                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4024
4025        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4026
4027    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4028        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4029        if self.pretty:
4030            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4031        return string
4032
4033    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4034        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4035
4036        if expression.expressions:
4037            upper = option.upper()
4038
4039            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4040            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4041
4042            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4043            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4044            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4045            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4046
4047        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4048
4049        if not value:
4050            return option
4051
4052        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4053
4054        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4055
4056    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4057        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4058        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4059            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4060            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4061            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4062        else:
4063            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4064            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4065            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4066
4067        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4068        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4069
4070        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4071        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4072
4073        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4074        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4075
4076        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4077        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4078
4079        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4080
4081    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4083        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4084
4085        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4086        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4087        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4088        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4089
4090        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4091        params = self.expressions(
4092            expression,
4093            key="params",
4094            sep=sep,
4095            new_line=True,
4096            skip_last=True,
4097            skip_first=True,
4098            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4099        )
4100
4101        if params:
4102            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4103                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4104            elif not self.pretty:
4105                params = f" {params}"
4106
4107        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4108
4109    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4110        return ""
4111
4112    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4113        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4114        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4115        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4116        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4117        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4118
4119        if filter_col or retention_period:
4120            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4121
4122        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4123
4124    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4125        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4126    ) -> str:
4127        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4128        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4129        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4130        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4131
4132    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4134        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4135        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4136
4137    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4138        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4139
4140    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4141        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4142        expr = expression.expression
4143
4144        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4145            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4146            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4147        else:
4148            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4149
4150        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4151
4152    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4153        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4154            return self.sql(expression.this)
4155
4156        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4157
4158    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4159        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4160        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4161
4162        if lower and upper:
4163            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4164        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4165
4166    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4167        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4168        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4169        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4170        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4171        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4172        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4173
4174        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4175
4176    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4177        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4178
4179        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4180        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4181            fill_pattern = "' '"
4182
4183        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4184
4185    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4186        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4187        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4188
4189    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4190        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4191
4192        parent = expression.parent
4193        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4194            parent = parent.parent
4195
4196        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4197            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4198
4199        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4200            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4201
4202        return self.sql(generate_series)
4203
4204    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4205        exprs = expression.expressions
4206        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4207            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4208        else:
4209            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4210
4211        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4212
4213    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4214        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4215            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4216
4217        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4218        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4219        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4220
4221        if source_tz and timestamp:
4222            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4223                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4224            )
4225
4226        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4227
4228        return self.sql(expr)
4229
4230    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4231        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4232        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4233
4234        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4235
4236        if _with is None:
4237            with_sql = ""
4238        elif not _with:
4239            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4240        else:
4241            with_sql = " WITH"
4242
4243        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4244
4245        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4246
4247    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4248        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4249            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4250
4251        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4252        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4253        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4254
4255        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4256        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4257
4258        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4259
4260    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4261        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4262        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4263        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4264        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4265        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4266
4267    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4268        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4269        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4270        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4271        return res
4272
4273    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4274        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4275        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4276        empty = (
4277            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4278            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4279            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4280        )
4281
4282        error = expression.args.get("error")
4283        error = (
4284            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4285            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4286            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4287        )
4288
4289        if error and empty:
4290            error = (
4291                f"{empty} {error}"
4292                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4293                else f"{error} {empty}"
4294            )
4295            empty = ""
4296
4297        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4298
4299        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4300
4301    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4302        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4303        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4304
4305        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4306        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4307
4308        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4309        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4310
4311        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4312
4313        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4314
4315    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4316        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4317
4318        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4319            parent = expression.parent
4320            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4321                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4322                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4323            else:
4324                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {self.sql(expression, 'this')} IS NOT NULL)"
4325
4326        return array_agg
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
def unsupported_args( *args: Union[str, Tuple[str, str]]) -> Callable[[Callable[[~G, ~E], str]], Callable[[~G, ~E], str]]:
30def unsupported_args(
31    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
32) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
33    """
34    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
35    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
36    """
37    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
38    for arg in args:
39        if isinstance(arg, str):
40            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
41        else:
42            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
43
44    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
45        @wraps(func)
46        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
47            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
48            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
49
50            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
51                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
52                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
53                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
54                    )
55                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
56
57            return func(generator, expression)
58
59        return _func
60
61    return decorator

Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an Expression subclass as unsupported. It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).

class Generator:
  75class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  76    """
  77    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  78
  79    Args:
  80        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  81            Default: False.
  82        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  83            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  84            True or 'always': Always quote.
  85            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  86        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  87            Default: False.
  88        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  89            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  90            Default: 2.
  91        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  92            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  93            Default: 2.
  94        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  95            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  96            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  97            False: Disables function name normalization.
  98        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  99            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
 100        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 101            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 102            Default: 3
 103        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 104            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 105            Default: False
 106        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 107            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 108            line length.
 109            Default: 80
 110        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 111            Default: True
 112    """
 113
 114    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 115        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 116        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 117        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 118        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 119        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 121        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 122        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 124        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 126        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 127        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 131        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 134        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 135        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 136        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 137        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 138        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 139        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 140        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 141        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 142        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 143        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 144        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 145        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 146        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 149        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 150        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 151        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 152        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 153        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 154        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 155        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 156        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 157        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 158        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 159        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 160        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 161        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 162        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 163        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 164        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 165        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 166        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 167        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 168        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 169        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 170        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 171            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 172        ),
 173        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 174        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 175        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 176        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 177        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 178        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 179        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 180        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 181        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 182        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 183        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 184        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 185        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 186        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 187        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 188        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 189        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 190        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 191        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 192        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 193        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 194        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 195        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 196        exp.UnpackColumns: lambda self, e: f"*{self.sql(e.this)}",
 197        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 198        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 199        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 200        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 201        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 202        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 203        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 205    }
 206
 207    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 208    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 209    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 210
 211    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 212    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 213    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 214
 215    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 216    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 217
 218    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 219    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 220
 221    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 222    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 223
 224    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 225    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 226
 227    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 228    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 229
 230    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 231    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 232
 233    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 234    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 235
 236    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 237    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 238
 239    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 240    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 241
 242    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 243    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 244
 245    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 246    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 247
 248    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 249    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 250
 251    # Whether join hints should be generated
 252    JOIN_HINTS = True
 253
 254    # Whether table hints should be generated
 255    TABLE_HINTS = True
 256
 257    # Whether query hints should be generated
 258    QUERY_HINTS = True
 259
 260    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 261    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 262
 263    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 264    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 265
 266    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 267    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 268
 269    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 270    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 271
 272    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 273    RETURNING_END = True
 274
 275    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 276    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 277
 278    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 279    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 280
 281    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 282    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 283
 284    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 285    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 286
 287    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 288    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 289    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 290    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 291
 292    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 293    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 294
 295    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 296    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 297
 298    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 299    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 300
 301    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 302    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 303
 304    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 305    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 306
 307    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 308    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 309
 310    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 311    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 312
 313    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 314    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 315
 316    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 317    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 318
 319    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 320    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 321
 322    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 323    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 324
 325    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 326    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 327
 328    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 329    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 330
 331    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 332    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 333
 334    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 335    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 336
 337    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 338    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 339
 340    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 341    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 342
 343    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 344    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 345
 346    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 347    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 348
 349    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 350    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 351
 352    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 353    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 354
 355    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 356    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 357
 358    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 359    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 360
 361    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 362    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 363
 364    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 365    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 366
 367    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 368    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 369    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 370
 371    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 372    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 373
 374    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 375    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 376
 377    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 378    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 379
 380    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 381    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 382
 383    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 384    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 385
 386    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 387    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 388
 389    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 390    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 391    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 392    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 393
 394    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 395    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 396
 397    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 398    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 399
 400    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 401    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 402
 403    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 404    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 405
 406    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 407    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 408
 409    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 410    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 411
 412    # The HEX function name
 413    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 414
 415    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 416    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 417
 418    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 419    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 420
 421    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 422    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 423
 424    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 425    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 426
 427    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 428    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 429
 430    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 431    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 432
 433    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 434    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 435
 436    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 437        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 438        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 439        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 440        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 441        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 442        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 443        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 444        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 445        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 446        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 447    }
 448
 449    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 450        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 451        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 452        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 453        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 454        "DAYS": "DAY",
 455        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 456        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 457        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 458        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 459    }
 460
 461    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 462        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 463        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 464        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 465        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 466            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 467            if e.args.get("windows")
 468            else ""
 469        ),
 470        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 471    }
 472
 473    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 474
 475    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 476
 477    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 478    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 479
 480    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 481        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 483        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 487        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 489        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 496        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 498        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 501        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 507        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 508        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 509        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 510        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 511        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 512        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 513        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 514        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 515        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 516        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 517        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 522        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 523        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 524        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 525        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 526        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 527        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 528        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 529        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 530        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 531        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 532        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 533        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 534        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 535        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 536        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 539        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 541        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 542        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 543        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 544        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 545        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 546        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 547        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 548        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 549        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 550        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 551        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 552        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 553        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 554        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 555        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 556        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 557        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 558        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 559        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 560        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 561        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 562        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 563        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 564        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 565        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 566        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 567        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 568    }
 569
 570    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 571    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 572
 573    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 574    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 575        exp.Command,
 576        exp.Create,
 577        exp.Delete,
 578        exp.Drop,
 579        exp.From,
 580        exp.Insert,
 581        exp.Join,
 582        exp.MultitableInserts,
 583        exp.Select,
 584        exp.SetOperation,
 585        exp.Update,
 586        exp.Where,
 587        exp.With,
 588    )
 589
 590    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 591    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 592        exp.Binary,
 593        exp.SetOperation,
 594    )
 595
 596    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 597    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 598        exp.Column,
 599        exp.Literal,
 600        exp.Neg,
 601        exp.Paren,
 602    )
 603
 604    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 605        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 606        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 607        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 608        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 609    }
 610
 611    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 612    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 613
 614    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 615
 616    __slots__ = (
 617        "pretty",
 618        "identify",
 619        "normalize",
 620        "pad",
 621        "_indent",
 622        "normalize_functions",
 623        "unsupported_level",
 624        "max_unsupported",
 625        "leading_comma",
 626        "max_text_width",
 627        "comments",
 628        "dialect",
 629        "unsupported_messages",
 630        "_escaped_quote_end",
 631        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 632        "_next_name",
 633        "_identifier_start",
 634        "_identifier_end",
 635    )
 636
 637    def __init__(
 638        self,
 639        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 640        identify: str | bool = False,
 641        normalize: bool = False,
 642        pad: int = 2,
 643        indent: int = 2,
 644        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 645        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 646        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 647        leading_comma: bool = False,
 648        max_text_width: int = 80,
 649        comments: bool = True,
 650        dialect: DialectType = None,
 651    ):
 652        import sqlglot
 653        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 654
 655        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 656        self.identify = identify
 657        self.normalize = normalize
 658        self.pad = pad
 659        self._indent = indent
 660        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 661        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 662        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 663        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 664        self.comments = comments
 665        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 666
 667        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 668        self.normalize_functions = (
 669            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 670        )
 671
 672        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 673        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 674            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 675        )
 676        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 677            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 678        )
 679
 680        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 681
 682        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 683        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 684
 685    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 686        """
 687        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 688
 689        Args:
 690            expression: The syntax tree.
 691            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 692                it is safer to copy.
 693
 694        Returns:
 695            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 696        """
 697        if copy:
 698            expression = expression.copy()
 699
 700        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 701
 702        self.unsupported_messages = []
 703        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 704
 705        if self.pretty:
 706            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 707
 708        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 709            return sql
 710
 711        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 712            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 713                logger.warning(msg)
 714        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 715            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 716
 717        return sql
 718
 719    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 720        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 721        if (
 722            not expression.parent
 723            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 724            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 725        ):
 726            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 727
 728            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 729
 730        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 731            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 732
 733            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 734
 735        return expression
 736
 737    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 738        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 739            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 740        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 741
 742    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 743        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 744
 745    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 746        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 747
 748    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 749        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 750        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 751        return comment
 752
 753    def maybe_comment(
 754        self,
 755        sql: str,
 756        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 757        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 758        separated: bool = False,
 759    ) -> str:
 760        comments = (
 761            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 762            if self.comments
 763            else None
 764        )
 765
 766        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 767            return sql
 768
 769        comments_sql = " ".join(
 770            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 771        )
 772
 773        if not comments_sql:
 774            return sql
 775
 776        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 777
 778        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 779            return (
 780                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 781                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 782                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 783            )
 784
 785        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 786
 787    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 788        this_sql = (
 789            self.sql(expression)
 790            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 791            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 792        )
 793        if not this_sql:
 794            return "()"
 795
 796        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 797        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 798
 799    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 800        original = self.identify
 801        self.identify = False
 802        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 803        self.identify = original
 804        return result
 805
 806    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 807        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 808            return name.upper()
 809        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 810            return name.lower()
 811        return name
 812
 813    def indent(
 814        self,
 815        sql: str,
 816        level: int = 0,
 817        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 818        skip_first: bool = False,
 819        skip_last: bool = False,
 820    ) -> str:
 821        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 822            return sql
 823
 824        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 825        lines = sql.split("\n")
 826
 827        return "\n".join(
 828            (
 829                line
 830                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 831                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 832            )
 833            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 834        )
 835
 836    def sql(
 837        self,
 838        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 839        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 840        comment: bool = True,
 841    ) -> str:
 842        if not expression:
 843            return ""
 844
 845        if isinstance(expression, str):
 846            return expression
 847
 848        if key:
 849            value = expression.args.get(key)
 850            if value:
 851                return self.sql(value)
 852            return ""
 853
 854        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 855
 856        if callable(transform):
 857            sql = transform(self, expression)
 858        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 859            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 860
 861            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 862                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 863            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 864                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 865            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 866                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 867            else:
 868                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 869        else:
 870            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 871
 872        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 873
 874    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 875        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 876        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 877        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 878
 879    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 880        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 881        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 882        options = expression.args.get("options")
 883        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 884        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 885        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 886        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 887        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 888
 889    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 890        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 891            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 892        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 893        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 894
 895    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 896        return ".".join(
 897            self.sql(part)
 898            for part in (
 899                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 900                expression.args.get("db"),
 901                expression.args.get("table"),
 902                expression.args.get("this"),
 903            )
 904            if part
 905        )
 906
 907    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 908        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 909
 910        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 911            join_mark = ""
 912            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 913
 914        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 915
 916    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 917        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 918        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 919        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 920        return f"{position}{this}"
 921
 922    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 923        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 924        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 925        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 926        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 927        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 928        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 929        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 930        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 931
 932        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 933            kind = ""
 934
 935        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 936
 937    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 939        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 940        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 941
 942    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 943        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 944        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 945            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 946        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 947            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 948        else:
 949            persisted = ""
 950        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 951
 952    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 953        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 954
 955    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 956        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 957            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 958        else:
 959            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 960
 961        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 962
 963    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 964        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 965    ) -> str:
 966        this = ""
 967        if expression.this is not None:
 968            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 969            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 970
 971        start = expression.args.get("start")
 972        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 973        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 974        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 975        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 976        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 977        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 978        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 979        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 980        cycle_sql = ""
 981
 982        if cycle is not None:
 983            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 984            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 985
 986        sequence_opts = ""
 987        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 988            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 989            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 990
 991        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 992        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 993
 994        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 995
 996    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 997        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 998    ) -> str:
 999        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1000        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1001        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1002
1003    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1004        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1005    ) -> str:
1006        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1007
1008    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1009        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1010
1011    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1012        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1013
1014    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1015        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1016        if desc is not None:
1017            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1018        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1019
1020    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1022        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1023        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1024        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1025        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1026        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1027        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1028        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1029
1030    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1031        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1032
1033    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1034        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1035        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1036        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1037        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1038
1039        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1040
1041        properties_sql = ""
1042        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1043            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1044        ):
1045            properties_sql = self.sql(
1046                exp.Properties(
1047                    expressions=[
1048                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1049                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1050                    ]
1051                )
1052            )
1053
1054            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1055                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1056            elif not self.pretty:
1057                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1058                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1059
1060        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1061        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1062
1063        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1064        if expression_sql:
1065            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1066
1067            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1068                postalias_props_sql = ""
1069                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1070                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1071                        exp.Properties(
1072                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1073                        ),
1074                        wrapped=False,
1075                    )
1076                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1077                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1078
1079        postindex_props_sql = ""
1080        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1081            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1082                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1083                wrapped=False,
1084                prefix=" ",
1085            )
1086
1087        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1088        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1089        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1090
1091        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1092        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1093        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1094
1095        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1096        if clustered is None:
1097            clustered_sql = ""
1098        elif clustered:
1099            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1100        else:
1101            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1102
1103        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1104        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1105            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1106                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1107                sep=" ",
1108                prefix=" ",
1109                wrapped=False,
1110            )
1111
1112        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1113
1114        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1115        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1116            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1117                exp.Properties(
1118                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1119                ),
1120                sep=" ",
1121                prefix=" ",
1122                wrapped=False,
1123            )
1124
1125        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1126        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1127        no_schema_binding = (
1128            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1129        )
1130
1131        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1132        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1133
1134        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1135        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1136
1137    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1138        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1139        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1140        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1141        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1142        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1143        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1144        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1145        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1146        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1147        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1148
1149        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1150        if cache is None:
1151            cache_str = ""
1152        elif cache is True:
1153            cache_str = " CACHE"
1154        else:
1155            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1156
1157        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1158        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1159
1160        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1161
1162    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1163        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1164        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1165        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1166        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1167
1168    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1169        style = expression.args.get("style")
1170        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1171        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1172        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1173        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1174
1175    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1176        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1177        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1178
1179    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1180        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1181        if with_:
1182            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1183        return sql
1184
1185    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1186        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1187        recursive = (
1188            "RECURSIVE "
1189            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1190            else ""
1191        )
1192
1193        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1194
1195    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1196        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1197
1198        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1199        if materialized is False:
1200            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1201        elif materialized:
1202            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1203
1204        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1205
1206    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1207        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1208        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1209        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1210
1211        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1212            columns = ""
1213            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1214
1215        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1216            alias = self._next_name()
1217
1218        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1219
1220    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1221        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1222        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1223            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1224        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1225
1226    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1227        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1228        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1229            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1230        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1231
1232    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1234        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1235            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1236        return this
1237
1238    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1239        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1240        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1241
1242        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1243            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1244            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1245        else:
1246            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1247            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1248
1249        if escape:
1250            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1251            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1252        else:
1253            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1254            escape_sql = ""
1255
1256        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1257            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1258
1259        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1260
1261    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1262        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1263        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1264
1265    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1266        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1267        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1268        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1269        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1270
1271    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1272        nested = ""
1273        values = ""
1274        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1275
1276        type_value = expression.this
1277        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1278            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1279        else:
1280            type_sql = (
1281                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1282                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1283                else type_value
1284            )
1285
1286        if interior:
1287            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1288                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1289                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1290                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1291                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1292                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1293            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1294                nested = f" {interior}"
1295            else:
1296                nested = f"({interior})"
1297
1298        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1299        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1300            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1301            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1302        ):
1303            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1304
1305        return type_sql
1306
1307    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1308        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1309        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1310        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1311        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1312
1313    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1314        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1315        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1316        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1317        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1318        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1319        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1320        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1321        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1322        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1323        if self.RETURNING_END:
1324            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1325        else:
1326            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1327        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1328
1329    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1330        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1331        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1332        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1333        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1334        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1335        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1336        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1337        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1338        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1339        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1340        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1341        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1342        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1343        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1344        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1345
1346    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1347        op_type = type(expression)
1348        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1349
1350        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1351        if (
1352            distinct is False
1353            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1354            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1355        ):
1356            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1357
1358        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1359
1360        if distinct is None:
1361            distinct = default_distinct
1362            if distinct is None:
1363                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1364
1365        if distinct is default_distinct:
1366            kind = ""
1367        else:
1368            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1369
1370        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1371        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1372
1373    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1374        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1375            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1376            order = expression.args.get("order")
1377
1378            if limit or order:
1379                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1380
1381                if limit:
1382                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1383                if order:
1384                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1385                return self.sql(select)
1386
1387        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1388        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1389
1390        while stack:
1391            node = stack.pop()
1392
1393            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1394                stack.append(node.expression)
1395                stack.append(
1396                    self.maybe_comment(
1397                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1398                    )
1399                )
1400                stack.append(node.this)
1401            else:
1402                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1403
1404        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1405        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1406        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1407
1408    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1409        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1410        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1411        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1412        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1413        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1414            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1415        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1416        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1417
1418    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1419        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1420            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1421            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1422            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1423
1424        agg = expression.this
1425        agg_arg = agg.this
1426        cond = expression.expression.this
1427        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1428        return self.sql(agg)
1429
1430    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1431        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1432            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1433            return ""
1434
1435        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1436
1437    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1438        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1439        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1440        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1441        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1442        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1443        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1444        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1445        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1446        if include:
1447            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1448        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1449        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1450        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1451        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1452        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1453        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1454
1455        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1456
1457    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1458        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1459        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1460        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1461        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1462        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1463        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1464        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1465
1466        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1467
1468        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1469        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1470
1471    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1472        text = expression.name
1473        lower = text.lower()
1474        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1475        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1476        if (
1477            expression.quoted
1478            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1479            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1480            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1481        ):
1482            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1483        return text
1484
1485    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1486        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1487        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1488            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1489
1490        return text
1491
1492    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1493        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1494        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1495            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1496        return text
1497
1498    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1499        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1500        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1501        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1502        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1503        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1504
1505    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1506        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1507        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1508
1509    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1510        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1511
1512    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1513        root_properties = []
1514        with_properties = []
1515
1516        for p in expression.expressions:
1517            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1518            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1519                with_properties.append(p)
1520            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1521                root_properties.append(p)
1522
1523        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1524        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1525
1526        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1527            with_props = " " + with_props
1528
1529        return root_props + with_props
1530
1531    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1532        if properties.expressions:
1533            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1534        return ""
1535
1536    def properties(
1537        self,
1538        properties: exp.Properties,
1539        prefix: str = "",
1540        sep: str = ", ",
1541        suffix: str = "",
1542        wrapped: bool = True,
1543    ) -> str:
1544        if properties.expressions:
1545            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1546            if expressions:
1547                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1548                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1549        return ""
1550
1551    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1552        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1553
1554    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1555        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1556        for p in properties.expressions:
1557            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1558            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1559                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1560            else:
1561                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1562
1563        return properties_locs
1564
1565    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1566        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1567            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1568        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1569
1570    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1571        property_cls = expression.__class__
1572        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1573            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1574
1575        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1576        if not property_name:
1577            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1578
1579        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1580
1581    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1582        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1583            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1584            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1585
1586            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1587            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1588                like = f"({like})"
1589
1590            return like
1591
1592        if expression.expressions:
1593            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1594
1595        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1596        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1597
1598    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1599        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1600        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1601        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1602
1603    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1604        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1605        local = expression.args.get("local")
1606        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1607        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1608        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1609        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1610        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1611
1612    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1613        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1614        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1615        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1616
1617    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1618        if expression.args.get("default"):
1619            property = "DEFAULT"
1620        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1621            property = "ON"
1622        else:
1623            property = "OFF"
1624        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1625
1626    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1627        if expression.args.get("no"):
1628            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1629        if expression.args.get("default"):
1630            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1631
1632        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1633        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1634
1635    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1636        default = expression.args.get("default")
1637        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1638        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1639        if default or minimum or maximum:
1640            if default:
1641                prop = "DEFAULT"
1642            elif minimum:
1643                prop = "MINIMUM"
1644            else:
1645                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1646            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1647        units = expression.args.get("units")
1648        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1649        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1650
1651    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1652        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1653        always = expression.args.get("always")
1654        default = expression.args.get("default")
1655        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1656        never = expression.args.get("never")
1657
1658        if autotemp is not None:
1659            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1660        elif always:
1661            prop = "ALWAYS"
1662        elif default:
1663            prop = "DEFAULT"
1664        elif manual:
1665            prop = "MANUAL"
1666        elif never:
1667            prop = "NEVER"
1668        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1669
1670    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1671        no = expression.args.get("no")
1672        no = " NO" if no else ""
1673        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1674        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1675        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1676        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1677        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1678
1679    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1680        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1681            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1682        if expression.this:
1683            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1684            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1685            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1686
1687        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1688        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1689        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1690
1691    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1692        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1693
1694        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1695        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1696            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1697        else:
1698            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1699
1700        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1701
1702    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1703        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1704        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1705        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1706        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1707        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1708        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1709        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1710
1711    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1712        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1713        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1714        statistics_sql = ""
1715        if statistics is not None:
1716            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1717        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1718
1719    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1720        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1721        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1722        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1723        data_consistency = (
1724            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1725        )
1726        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1727        retention_period = (
1728            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1729        )
1730
1731        if this:
1732            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1733        else:
1734            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1735
1736        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1737
1738        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1739
1740    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1741        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1742        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1743
1744        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1745            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1746        else:
1747            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1748
1749        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1750        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1751        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1752        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1753        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1754        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1755        if is_function:
1756            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1757        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1758
1759        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1760        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1761        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1762        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1763        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1764        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1765        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1766        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1767
1768        if self.RETURNING_END:
1769            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1770        else:
1771            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1772
1773        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1774        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1775        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1776        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1777
1778        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1779        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1780
1781        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1782        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1783
1784    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1785        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1786
1787    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1788        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1789        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1790        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1791        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1792        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1793
1794    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1795        return expression.name
1796
1797    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1798        return expression.name
1799
1800    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1801        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1802
1803        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1804        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1805
1806        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1807        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1808        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1809
1810        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1811        if expressions:
1812            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1813            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1814
1815        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1816
1817    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1818        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1819
1820    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1821        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1822        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1823        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1824        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1825        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1826        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1827        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1828        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1829        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1830        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1831        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1832        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1833        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1834
1835    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1836        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1837
1838    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1839        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1840        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1841        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1842        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1843
1844    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1845        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1846        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1847        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1848        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1849
1850    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1851        return ".".join(
1852            self.sql(part)
1853            for part in (
1854                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1855                expression.args.get("db"),
1856                expression.args.get("this"),
1857            )
1858            if part is not None
1859        )
1860
1861    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1862        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1863        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1864        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1865        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1866        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1867        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1868        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1869        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1870
1871        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1872        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1873            sample_pre_alias = sample
1874            sample_post_alias = ""
1875        else:
1876            sample_pre_alias = ""
1877            sample_post_alias = sample
1878
1879        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1880        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1881        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1882        joins = self.indent(
1883            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1884        )
1885        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1886
1887        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1888        if file_format:
1889            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1890            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1891            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1892
1893        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1894        if ordinality:
1895            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1896            alias = ""
1897
1898        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1899        if when:
1900            table = f"{table} {when}"
1901
1902        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1903        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1904
1905        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1906        if rows_from:
1907            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1908
1909        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1910
1911    def tablesample_sql(
1912        self,
1913        expression: exp.TableSample,
1914        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1915    ) -> str:
1916        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1917        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1918        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1919        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1920        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1921        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1922        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1923        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1924        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1925
1926        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1927        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1928            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1929
1930        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1931        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1932            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1933
1934        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1935        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1936            expr = f"({expr})"
1937
1938        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1939
1940    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1941        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1942
1943        if expression.this:
1944            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1945            if not expressions:
1946                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1947
1948            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1949            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1950            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1951            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1952            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1953
1954        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1955        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1956        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1957
1958        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1959
1960        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1961        if include_nulls is not None:
1962            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1963        else:
1964            nulls = ""
1965
1966        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1967        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1968        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1969
1970    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1971        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1972        kind = expression.text("kind")
1973        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1974        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1975
1976    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1977        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1978
1979    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1980        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1981        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1982        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1983        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1984        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1985        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1986        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1987        if self.RETURNING_END:
1988            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1989        else:
1990            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1991        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1992        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1993
1994    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1995        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1996
1997        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1998        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1999            args = self.expressions(expression)
2000            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2001            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2002            values = (
2003                f"({values})"
2004                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
2005                else values
2006            )
2007            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2008
2009        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2010        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2011        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2012
2013        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2014
2015        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2016            row = tup.expressions
2017
2018            if i == 0 and column_names:
2019                row = [
2020                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2021                ]
2022
2023            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2024
2025        if self.pretty:
2026            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2027            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2028            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2029            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2030            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2031
2032        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2033        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2034        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2035
2036    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2037        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2038
2039    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2040        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2041        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2042        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2043
2044    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2045        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2046
2047    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2048        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2049        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2050
2051    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2052        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2053        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2054
2055    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2056        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2057        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2058
2059    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2060        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2061        if group_by_all is True:
2062            modifier = " ALL"
2063        elif group_by_all is False:
2064            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2065        else:
2066            modifier = ""
2067
2068        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2069
2070        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2071        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2072        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2073
2074        groupings = csv(
2075            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2076            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2077            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2078            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2079            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2080        )
2081
2082        if (
2083            expression.expressions
2084            and groupings
2085            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2086        ):
2087            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2088
2089        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2090
2091    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2092        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2093        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2094
2095    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2096        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2097        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2098        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2099        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2100        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2101        return start + connect
2102
2103    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2104        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2105
2106    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2107        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2108            side = None
2109        else:
2110            side = expression.side
2111
2112        op_sql = " ".join(
2113            op
2114            for op in (
2115                expression.method,
2116                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2117                side,
2118                expression.kind,
2119                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2120            )
2121            if op
2122        )
2123        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2124        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2125        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2126        using = expression.args.get("using")
2127
2128        if not on_sql and using:
2129            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2130
2131        this = expression.this
2132        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2133
2134        if on_sql:
2135            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2136            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2137            if using:
2138                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2139            else:
2140                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2141        elif not op_sql:
2142            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2143                return f" {this_sql}"
2144
2145            return f", {this_sql}"
2146
2147        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2148            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2149
2150        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2151
2152    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2153        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2154        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2155        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2156
2157    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2158        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2159
2160        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2161        if cross_apply is True:
2162            op = "INNER JOIN "
2163        elif cross_apply is False:
2164            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2165        else:
2166            op = ""
2167
2168        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2169
2170    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2171        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2172
2173        if expression.args.get("view"):
2174            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2175            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2176            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2177            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2178            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2179            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2180
2181        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2182        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2183        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2184
2185    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2186        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2187
2188        args = [
2189            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2190            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2191            if e
2192        ]
2193
2194        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2195        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2196        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2197        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2198
2199        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2200
2201    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2202        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2203        value = expression.expression
2204        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2205        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2206        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2207        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2208
2209    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2210        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2211        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2212        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2213        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2214        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2215        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2216        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2217        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2218
2219    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2220        expressions = (
2221            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2222        )
2223        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2224        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2225
2226    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2227        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2228
2229    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2230        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2231            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2232            return ""
2233
2234        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2235        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2236        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2237        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2238
2239        if wait is not None:
2240            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2241                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2242            else:
2243                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2244
2245        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2246
2247    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2248        text = expression.this or ""
2249        if expression.is_string:
2250            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2251        return text
2252
2253    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2254        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2255            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2256            text = "".join(
2257                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2258            )
2259
2260        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2261            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2262        )
2263
2264    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2265        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2266        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2267        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2268        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2269        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2270        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2271        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2272        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2273        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2274        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2275        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2276
2277    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2278        return "NULL"
2279
2280    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2281        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2282
2283    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2284        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2285        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2286        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2287        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2288
2289    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2290        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2291        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2292        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2293        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2294        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2295        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2296        interpolated_values = [
2297            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2298            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2299        ]
2300        interpolate = (
2301            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2302        )
2303        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2304
2305    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2306        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2307
2308    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2309        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2310
2311    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2312        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2313
2314    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2315        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2316        asc = not desc
2317
2318        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2319        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2320        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2321        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2322        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2323
2324        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2325
2326        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2327        nulls_sort_change = ""
2328        if nulls_first and (
2329            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2330        ):
2331            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2332        elif (
2333            nulls_last
2334            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2335            and not nulls_are_last
2336        ):
2337            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2338
2339        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2340        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2341            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2342            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2343                self.unsupported(
2344                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2345                )
2346                nulls_sort_change = ""
2347            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2348                if expression.this.is_int:
2349                    self.unsupported(
2350                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2351                    )
2352                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2353                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2354                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2355                nulls_sort_change = ""
2356
2357        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2358        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2359
2360        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2361
2362    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2363        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2364        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2365
2366        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2367
2368        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2369
2370    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2371        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2372        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2373        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2374        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2375        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2376        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2377        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2378        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2379        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2380        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2381        definition_sqls = [
2382            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2383            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2384        ]
2385        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2386        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2387        body = "".join(
2388            (
2389                partition,
2390                order,
2391                measures,
2392                rows,
2393                after,
2394                pattern,
2395                define,
2396            )
2397        )
2398        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2399        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2400        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2401
2402    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2403        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2404
2405        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2406            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2407        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2408            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2409
2410        return csv(
2411            *sqls,
2412            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2413            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2414            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2415            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2416            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2417            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2418            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2419            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2420            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2421            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2422            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2423            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2424            self.options_modifier(expression),
2425            sep="",
2426        )
2427
2428    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2429        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2430        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2431
2432    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2433        return ""
2434
2435    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2436        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2437    ) -> t.List[str]:
2438        return [
2439            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2440            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2441        ]
2442
2443    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2444        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2445        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2446        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2447
2448    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2449        into = expression.args.get("into")
2450        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2451            into.pop()
2452
2453        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2454        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2455        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2456        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2457
2458        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2459        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2460            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2461            limit.pop()
2462        else:
2463            top = ""
2464
2465        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2466
2467        if kind:
2468            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2469                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2470            else:
2471                if kind == "STRUCT":
2472                    expressions = self.expressions(
2473                        sqls=[
2474                            self.sql(
2475                                exp.Struct(
2476                                    expressions=[
2477                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2478                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2479                                        else e
2480                                        for e in expression.expressions
2481                                    ]
2482                                )
2483                            )
2484                        ]
2485                    )
2486                kind = ""
2487
2488        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2489        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2490        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2491        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2492        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2493            expression,
2494            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2495            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2496            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2497        )
2498
2499        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2500
2501        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2502            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2503                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2504            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2505                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2506            else:
2507                table_kind = ""
2508            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2509
2510        return sql
2511
2512    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2513        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2514        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2515        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2516
2517    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2518        if expression.expressions:
2519            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2520        return ""
2521
2522    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2523        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2524        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2525        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2526        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2527        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2528        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2529        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2530
2531    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2532        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2533        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2534
2535    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2537        kind = expression.text("kind")
2538        if kind:
2539            kind = f"{kind}."
2540        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2541
2542    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2543        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2544
2545    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2546        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2547        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2548        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2549        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2550            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2551
2552            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2553            expression.set("sample", None)
2554
2555        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2556        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2557        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2558
2559    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2560        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2561        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2562
2563    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2564        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2565
2566        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2567        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2568
2569        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2570            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2571                alias.append("columns", offset)
2572
2573        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2574            columns = alias.columns
2575            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2576        else:
2577            alias = self.sql(alias)
2578
2579        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2580        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2581            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2582        else:
2583            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2584                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2585            elif offset:
2586                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2587            else:
2588                suffix = alias
2589
2590        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2591
2592    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2593        return ""
2594
2595    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2596        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2597        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2598
2599    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2600        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2601        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2602        order = expression.args.get("order")
2603        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2604        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2605        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2606        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2607
2608        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2609
2610        first = expression.args.get("first")
2611        if first is None:
2612            first = ""
2613        else:
2614            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2615
2616        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2617            return f"{this} {alias}"
2618
2619        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2620        return f"{this} ({args})"
2621
2622    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2623        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2624        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2625
2626    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2627        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2628        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2629        end = (
2630            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2631            or "CURRENT ROW"
2632        )
2633        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2634
2635    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2636        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2637        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2638        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2639
2640    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2641        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2642        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2643        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2644        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2645
2646    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2647        return apply_index_offset(
2648            expression.this,
2649            expression.expressions,
2650            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2651        )
2652
2653    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2654        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2655        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2656        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2657
2658    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2659        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2660
2661    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2662        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2663        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2664            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2665                this = self.wrap(this)
2666            return f"ANY{this}"
2667        return f"ANY {this}"
2668
2669    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2670        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2671
2672    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2673        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2674        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2675
2676        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2677            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2678            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2679
2680        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2681
2682        if default:
2683            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2684
2685        statements.append("END")
2686
2687        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2688            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2689
2690        return " ".join(statements)
2691
2692    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2693        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2694        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2695        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2696
2697    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2698        order = expression.args.get("order")
2699        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2700        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2701
2702    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2703        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2704        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2705        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2706
2707    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2708        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2709
2710        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2711            func_name = "LTRIM"
2712        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2713            func_name = "RTRIM"
2714        else:
2715            func_name = "TRIM"
2716
2717        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2718
2719    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2720        args = expression.expressions
2721        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2722            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2723
2724        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2725            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2726
2727        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2728            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2729
2730        return args
2731
2732    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2733        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2734
2735        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2736        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2737            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2738
2739        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2740
2741    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2742        return self.func(
2743            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2744        )
2745
2746    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2747        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2748        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2749
2750    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2751        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2752        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2753        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2754        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2755        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2756        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2757        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2758        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2759
2760    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2761        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2762        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2763        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2764        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2765
2766    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2767        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2768
2769    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2770        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2771        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2772        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2773
2774    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2775        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2776
2777    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2778        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2779
2780        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2781            path = self.escape_str(path)
2782
2783        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2784            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2785
2786        return path
2787
2788    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2789        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2790            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2791            if not callable(transform):
2792                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2793                return ""
2794
2795            return transform(self, expression)
2796
2797        if isinstance(expression, int):
2798            return str(expression)
2799
2800        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2801            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2802            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2803        else:
2804            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2805            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2806
2807        return escaped
2808
2809    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2810        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2811
2812    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2813        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2814        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2815
2816        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2817        if unique_keys is not None:
2818            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2819        else:
2820            unique_keys = ""
2821
2822        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2823        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2824        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2825        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2826
2827        return self.func(
2828            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2829            *expression.expressions,
2830            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2831        )
2832
2833    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2834        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2835
2836    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2837        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2838        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2839        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2840        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2841        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2842        return self.func(
2843            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2844        )
2845
2846    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2847        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2848        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2849        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2850        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2851        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2852        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2853        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2854        return self.func(
2855            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2856            this,
2857            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2858        )
2859
2860    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2861        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2862        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2863        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2864
2865        if nested_schema:
2866            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2867
2868        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2869        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2870        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2871        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2872
2873    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2874        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2875
2876    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2877        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2878        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2879        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2880        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2881        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2882        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2883        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2884        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2885        return self.func(
2886            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2887        )
2888
2889    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2890        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2891        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2892        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2893        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2894        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2895        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2896
2897    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2898        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2899        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2900        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2901        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2902        with_ = (
2903            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2904            if expressions
2905            else ""
2906        )
2907        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2908
2909    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2910        query = expression.args.get("query")
2911        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2912        field = expression.args.get("field")
2913        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2914
2915        if query:
2916            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2917        elif unnest:
2918            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2919        elif field:
2920            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2921        else:
2922            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2923
2924        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2925
2926    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2927        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2928
2929    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2930        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2931        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2932            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2933        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2934
2935        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2936            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2937            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2938
2939        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2940        if this:
2941            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2942            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2943
2944        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2945
2946    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2947        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2948
2949    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2951        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2952        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2953        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2954        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2955        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2956
2957    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2958        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
2959        parent = expression.parent
2960        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
2961        return self.func(
2962            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
2963        )
2964
2965    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2966        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2967        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2968
2969    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2970        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2971        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2972        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2973        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2974
2975    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2976        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2977
2978    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2979        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2980        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2981        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2982
2983    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2984        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2985
2986        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2987        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
2988
2989        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2990            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2991        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2992            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2993
2994        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2995
2996    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2997        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2998
2999    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3000        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3001        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3002        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3003
3004    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3005        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3006        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3007        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3008
3009    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3011        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3012        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3013
3014    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3015        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3016
3017    def and_sql(
3018        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3019    ) -> str:
3020        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3021
3022    def or_sql(
3023        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3024    ) -> str:
3025        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3026
3027    def xor_sql(
3028        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3029    ) -> str:
3030        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3031
3032    def connector_sql(
3033        self,
3034        expression: exp.Connector,
3035        op: str,
3036        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3037    ) -> str:
3038        if stack is not None:
3039            if expression.expressions:
3040                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3041            else:
3042                stack.append(expression.right)
3043                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3044                    for comment in expression.comments:
3045                        if comment:
3046                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3047                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3048            return op
3049
3050        stack = [expression]
3051        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3052        ops = set()
3053
3054        while stack:
3055            node = stack.pop()
3056            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3057                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3058            else:
3059                sql = self.sql(node)
3060                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3061                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3062                else:
3063                    sqls.append(sql)
3064
3065        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3066        return sep.join(sqls)
3067
3068    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3069        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3070
3071    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3072        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3073
3074    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3075        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3076
3077    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3078        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3079
3080    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3081        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3082
3083    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3084        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3085
3086    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3087        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3088        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3089        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3090        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3091        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3092        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3093        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3094
3095    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3096        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3097        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3098
3099    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3100        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3101            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3102        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3103
3104    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3105        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3106
3107    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3108        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3109        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3110        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3111        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3112        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3113        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3114
3115    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3116        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3117        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3118        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3119        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3120        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3121        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3122        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3123        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3124        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3125
3126    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3127        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3128        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3129        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3130        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3131
3132        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3133            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3134
3135        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3136
3137    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3138        return "BEGIN"
3139
3140    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3141        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3142        if chain is not None:
3143            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3144
3145        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3146
3147    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3148        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3149        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3150        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3151
3152    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3153        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3154
3155        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3156        if dtype:
3157            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3158            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3159            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3160            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3161            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3162
3163        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3164        if default:
3165            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3166
3167        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3168        if comment:
3169            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3170
3171        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3172        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3173
3174        if not drop and not allow_null:
3175            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3176
3177        if allow_null is not None:
3178            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3179            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3180
3181        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3182
3183    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3184        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3185        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3186            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3187        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3188
3189    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3190        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3191        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3192        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3193        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3194        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3195
3196    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3197        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3198            # Remove db from tables
3199            expression = expression.transform(
3200                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3201            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3202        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3203        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3204
3205    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3206        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3207        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3208        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3209        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3210
3211    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3212        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3213        return f"SET {exprs}"
3214
3215    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3216        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3217
3218        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3219            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3220        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3221            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3222        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3223            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3224        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3225            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3226        else:
3227            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3228
3229        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3230        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3231        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3232        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3233        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3234        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3235        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3236        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3237
3238        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3239
3240    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3241        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3242            return self.expressions(
3243                expression,
3244                key="actions",
3245                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3246                skip_first=True,
3247            )
3248        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3249
3250    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3251        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3252        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3253        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3254
3255    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3256        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3257
3258    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3259        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3260
3261        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3262            case = exp.case()
3263            for arg in expression.expressions:
3264                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3265            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3266
3267        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3268
3269        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3270        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3271        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3272
3273    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3274        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3275
3276    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3277        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3278
3279    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3280        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3281        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3282        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3283        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3284
3285    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3286        return self.sql(
3287            exp.Cast(
3288                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3289                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3290            )
3291        )
3292
3293    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3294        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3295            return self.func(
3296                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3297            )
3298        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3299
3300    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3301        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3302
3303        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3304            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3305
3306        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3307            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3308                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3309
3310        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3311            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3312                return self.sql(
3313                    exp.cast(
3314                        l / r,
3315                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3316                    )
3317                )
3318
3319        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3320
3321    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3322        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3323
3324    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3325        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3326
3327    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3328        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3329
3330    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3331        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3332
3333    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3334        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3335
3336    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3337        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3338
3339    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3340        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3341
3342    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3343        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3344
3345    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3346        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3347
3348    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3349        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3350
3351    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3352        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3353
3354    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3355        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3356            return self.sql(
3357                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3358            )
3359        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3360
3361    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3362        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3363
3364    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3365        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3366
3367    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3368        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3369
3370    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3371        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3372
3373    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3374        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3375
3376    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3377        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3378
3379    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3380        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3381
3382    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3383        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3384
3385    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3386        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3387
3388    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3389        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3390
3391    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3392        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3393
3394    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3395        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3396
3397    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3398        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3399
3400    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3401        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3402            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3403            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3404
3405        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3406
3407    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3408        this = expression.this
3409        expr = expression.expression
3410
3411        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3412            this, expr = expr, this
3413        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3414            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3415                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3416
3417            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3418
3419        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3420
3421    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3422        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3423        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3424        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3425        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3426        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3427
3428    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3429        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3430        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3431        binary_type = type(expression)
3432
3433        while stack:
3434            node = stack.pop()
3435
3436            if type(node) is binary_type:
3437                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3438                if op_func:
3439                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3440
3441                stack.append(node.right)
3442                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3443                stack.append(node.left)
3444            else:
3445                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3446
3447        return "".join(sqls)
3448
3449    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3450        args = []
3451
3452        for key in expression.arg_types:
3453            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3454
3455            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3456                for value in arg_value:
3457                    args.append(value)
3458            elif arg_value is not None:
3459                args.append(arg_value)
3460
3461        if self.normalize_functions:
3462            name = expression.sql_name()
3463        else:
3464            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3465
3466        return self.func(name, *args)
3467
3468    def func(
3469        self,
3470        name: str,
3471        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3472        prefix: str = "(",
3473        suffix: str = ")",
3474        normalize: bool = True,
3475    ) -> str:
3476        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3477        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3478
3479    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3480        arg_sqls = tuple(
3481            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3482        )
3483        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3484            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3485        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3486
3487    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3488        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3489
3490    def format_time(
3491        self,
3492        expression: exp.Expression,
3493        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3494        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3495    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3496        return format_time(
3497            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3498            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3499            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3500        )
3501
3502    def expressions(
3503        self,
3504        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3505        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3506        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3507        flat: bool = False,
3508        indent: bool = True,
3509        skip_first: bool = False,
3510        skip_last: bool = False,
3511        sep: str = ", ",
3512        prefix: str = "",
3513        dynamic: bool = False,
3514        new_line: bool = False,
3515    ) -> str:
3516        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3517
3518        if not expressions:
3519            return ""
3520
3521        if flat:
3522            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3523
3524        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3525        result_sqls = []
3526
3527        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3528            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3529            if not sql:
3530                continue
3531
3532            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3533
3534            if self.pretty:
3535                if self.leading_comma:
3536                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3537                else:
3538                    result_sqls.append(
3539                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3540                    )
3541            else:
3542                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3543
3544        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3545            if new_line:
3546                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3547                result_sqls.append("")
3548            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3549        else:
3550            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3551
3552        return (
3553            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3554            if indent
3555            else result_sql
3556        )
3557
3558    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3559        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3560        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3561        if flat:
3562            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3563        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3564
3565    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3566        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3567        if not property_name:
3568            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3569        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3570
3571    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3572        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3573
3574    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3575        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3576
3577    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3578        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3579        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3580        expressions = (
3581            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3582        )
3583        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3584
3585    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3586        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3587        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3588        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3589
3590    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3591        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3592
3593    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3594        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3595        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3596        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3597        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3598
3599        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3600        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3601            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3602            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3603            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3604            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3605        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3606            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3607                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3608            else:
3609                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3610        else:
3611            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3612        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3613
3614    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3615        table = expression.this
3616        table_alias = ""
3617
3618        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3619        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3620            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3621            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3622
3623        this = self.sql(table)
3624        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3625        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3626        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3627        sep = self.sep()
3628        returning = self.expressions(expression, key="returning", indent=False)
3629        returning = f"RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
3630
3631        return self.prepend_ctes(
3632            expression,
3633            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}{sep}{returning}",
3634        )
3635
3636    @unsupported_args("format")
3637    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3638        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3639
3640    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3641        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3642            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3643            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3644
3645        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3646        if not fmt:
3647            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3648            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3649
3650        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3651
3652    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3653        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3654        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3655        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3656        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3657        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3658
3659    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3660        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3661        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3662        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3663        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3664
3665    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3666        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3667
3668    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3669        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3670
3671    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3672    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3673        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3674        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3675        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3676        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3677        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3678        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3679        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3680
3681    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3682        return ""
3683
3684    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3685        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3686        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3687        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3688        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3689        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3690
3691    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3692        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3693        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3694
3695        if having:
3696            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3697
3698        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3699
3700    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3701        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3702        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3703        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3704        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3705        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3706        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3707        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3708        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3709        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3710        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3711        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3712        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3713        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3714
3715    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3716        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3717        if key_block_size:
3718            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3719
3720        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3721        if using:
3722            return f"USING {using}"
3723
3724        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3725        if parser:
3726            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3727
3728        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3729        if comment:
3730            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3731
3732        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3733        if visible is not None:
3734            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3735
3736        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3737        if engine_attr:
3738            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3739
3740        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3741        if secondary_engine_attr:
3742            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3743
3744        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3745        return ""
3746
3747    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3748        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3749        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3750
3751    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3752        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3753        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3754        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3755        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3756        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3757        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3758        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3759        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3760        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3761        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3762        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3763
3764    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3765        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3766            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3767
3768        case = exp.Case().when(
3769            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3770            expression.args["true"],
3771            copy=False,
3772        )
3773        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3774        if else_cond:
3775            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3776
3777        return self.sql(case)
3778
3779    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3780        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3781        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3782        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3783        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3784        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3785        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3786
3787    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3788        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3789
3790    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3791        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3792
3793    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3794        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3795        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3796        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3797        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3798        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3799        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3800
3801    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3802        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3803        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3804        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3805
3806    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3807        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3808        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3809        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3810
3811    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3812        arg = expression.this
3813        if not arg.type:
3814            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3815
3816            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3817
3818        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3819            return self.sql(arg)
3820
3821        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3822        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3823
3824    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3825        this = expression.this
3826        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3827            return self.sql(this)
3828
3829        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3830
3831    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3832        this = expression.this
3833        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3834            return self.sql(this)
3835
3836        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3837
3838    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3839        this = expression.this
3840        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3841
3842        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3843            return self.sql(
3844                exp.cast(
3845                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3846                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3847                )
3848            )
3849
3850        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3851            return self.sql(this)
3852
3853        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3854
3855    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3856        return self.sql(
3857            exp.func(
3858                "DATEDIFF",
3859                expression.this,
3860                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3861                "day",
3862            )
3863        )
3864
3865    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3866        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3867            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3868
3869        unit = expression.text("unit")
3870        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3871            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3872
3873        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3874
3875    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3876        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3877
3878        return self.func(
3879            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3880        )
3881
3882    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3883        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3884            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3885            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3886            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3887            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3888
3889        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3890
3891        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3892        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3893            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3894
3895        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3896
3897    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3898        expression.set(
3899            "expressions",
3900            [
3901                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3902                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3903                else e
3904                for e in expression.expressions
3905            ],
3906        )
3907
3908        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3909
3910    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3911        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3912        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3913
3914        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3915
3916    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3917        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3918        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3919
3920        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3921
3922        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3923        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3924
3925        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3926        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3927
3928        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3929        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3930
3931        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3932        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3933
3934        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3935
3936    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3937    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3938    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3939        to = expression.this
3940        value = expression.expression
3941        style = expression.args.get("style")
3942        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3943        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3944
3945        if not to or not value:
3946            return ""
3947
3948        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3949        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3950            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3951
3952        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3953        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3954
3955        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3956        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3957            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3958
3959            style_value = style.name
3960            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3961            if not converted_style:
3962                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3963
3964            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3965
3966            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3967                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3968            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3969                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3970            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3971                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3972            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3973                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3974
3975        if not transformed:
3976            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3977
3978        return self.sql(transformed)
3979
3980    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3981        this = expression.this
3982        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3983            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3984            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3985
3986        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3987            return f".{this}"
3988
3989        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3990        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3991
3992    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3993        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3994        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3995
3996    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3997        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3998            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3999
4000            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4001
4002        return expression
4003
4004    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4005        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4006            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4007            mods = sorted(
4008                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4009                key=lambda x: 0
4010                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4011                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4012            )
4013
4014            if mods:
4015                mod = mods[0]
4016                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4017                this.meta["inline"] = True
4018                mod.this.replace(this)
4019                return self.sql(expression.this)
4020
4021            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4022
4023            if agg_func:
4024                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4025
4026        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4027
4028    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4029        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4030        if self.pretty:
4031            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4032        return string
4033
4034    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4035        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4036
4037        if expression.expressions:
4038            upper = option.upper()
4039
4040            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4041            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4042
4043            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4044            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4045            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4046            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4047
4048        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4049
4050        if not value:
4051            return option
4052
4053        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4054
4055        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4056
4057    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4058        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4059        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4060            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4061            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4062            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4063        else:
4064            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4065            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4066            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4067
4068        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4069        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4070
4071        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4072        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4073
4074        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4075        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4076
4077        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4078        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4079
4080        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4081
4082    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4083        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4084        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4085
4086        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4087        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4088        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4089        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4090
4091        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4092        params = self.expressions(
4093            expression,
4094            key="params",
4095            sep=sep,
4096            new_line=True,
4097            skip_last=True,
4098            skip_first=True,
4099            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4100        )
4101
4102        if params:
4103            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4104                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4105            elif not self.pretty:
4106                params = f" {params}"
4107
4108        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4109
4110    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4111        return ""
4112
4113    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4114        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4115        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4116        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4117        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4118        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4119
4120        if filter_col or retention_period:
4121            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4122
4123        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4124
4125    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4126        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4127    ) -> str:
4128        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4129        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4130        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4131        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4132
4133    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4134        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4135        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4136        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4137
4138    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4139        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4140
4141    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4142        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4143        expr = expression.expression
4144
4145        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4146            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4147            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4148        else:
4149            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4150
4151        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4152
4153    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4154        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4155            return self.sql(expression.this)
4156
4157        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4158
4159    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4160        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4161        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4162
4163        if lower and upper:
4164            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4165        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4166
4167    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4168        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4169        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4170        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4171        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4172        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4173        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4174
4175        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4176
4177    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4178        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4179
4180        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4181        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4182            fill_pattern = "' '"
4183
4184        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4185
4186    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4187        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4188        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4189
4190    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4191        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4192
4193        parent = expression.parent
4194        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4195            parent = parent.parent
4196
4197        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4198            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4199
4200        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4201            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4202
4203        return self.sql(generate_series)
4204
4205    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4206        exprs = expression.expressions
4207        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4208            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4209        else:
4210            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4211
4212        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4213
4214    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4215        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4216            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4217
4218        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4219        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4220        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4221
4222        if source_tz and timestamp:
4223            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4224                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4225            )
4226
4227        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4228
4229        return self.sql(expr)
4230
4231    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4232        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4233        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4234
4235        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4236
4237        if _with is None:
4238            with_sql = ""
4239        elif not _with:
4240            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4241        else:
4242            with_sql = " WITH"
4243
4244        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4245
4246        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4247
4248    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4249        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4250            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4251
4252        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4253        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4254        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4255
4256        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4257        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4258
4259        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4260
4261    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4262        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4263        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4264        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4265        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4266        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4267
4268    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4269        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4270        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4271        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4272        return res
4273
4274    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4275        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4276        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4277        empty = (
4278            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4279            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4280            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4281        )
4282
4283        error = expression.args.get("error")
4284        error = (
4285            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4286            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4287            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4288        )
4289
4290        if error and empty:
4291            error = (
4292                f"{empty} {error}"
4293                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4294                else f"{error} {empty}"
4295            )
4296            empty = ""
4297
4298        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4299
4300        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4301
4302    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4303        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4304        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4305
4306        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4307        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4308
4309        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4310        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4311
4312        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4313
4314        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4315
4316    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4317        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4318
4319        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4320            parent = expression.parent
4321            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4322                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4323                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4324            else:
4325                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {self.sql(expression, 'this')} IS NOT NULL)"
4326
4327        return array_agg

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
637    def __init__(
638        self,
639        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
640        identify: str | bool = False,
641        normalize: bool = False,
642        pad: int = 2,
643        indent: int = 2,
644        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
645        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
646        max_unsupported: int = 3,
647        leading_comma: bool = False,
648        max_text_width: int = 80,
649        comments: bool = True,
650        dialect: DialectType = None,
651    ):
652        import sqlglot
653        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
654
655        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
656        self.identify = identify
657        self.normalize = normalize
658        self.pad = pad
659        self._indent = indent
660        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
661        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
662        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
663        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
664        self.comments = comments
665        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
666
667        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
668        self.normalize_functions = (
669            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
670        )
671
672        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
673        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
674            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
675        )
676        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
677            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
678        )
679
680        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
681
682        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
683        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ConnectByRoot'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Except'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Intersect'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Operator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PivotAny'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Stream'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TagColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnpackColumns'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Uuid'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
PARSE_JSON_NAME: Optional[str] = 'PARSE_JSON'
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
685    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
686        """
687        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
688
689        Args:
690            expression: The syntax tree.
691            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
692                it is safer to copy.
693
694        Returns:
695            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
696        """
697        if copy:
698            expression = expression.copy()
699
700        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
701
702        self.unsupported_messages = []
703        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
704
705        if self.pretty:
706            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
707
708        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
709            return sql
710
711        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
712            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
713                logger.warning(msg)
714        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
715            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
716
717        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
719    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
720        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
721        if (
722            not expression.parent
723            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
724            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
725        ):
726            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
727
728            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
729
730        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
731            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
732
733            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
734
735        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
737    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
738        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
739            raise UnsupportedError(message)
740        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
742    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
743        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
745    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
746        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
748    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
749        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
750        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
751        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
753    def maybe_comment(
754        self,
755        sql: str,
756        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
757        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
758        separated: bool = False,
759    ) -> str:
760        comments = (
761            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
762            if self.comments
763            else None
764        )
765
766        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
767            return sql
768
769        comments_sql = " ".join(
770            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
771        )
772
773        if not comments_sql:
774            return sql
775
776        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
777
778        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
779            return (
780                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
781                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
782                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
783            )
784
785        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
787    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
788        this_sql = (
789            self.sql(expression)
790            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
791            else self.sql(expression, "this")
792        )
793        if not this_sql:
794            return "()"
795
796        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
797        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
799    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
800        original = self.identify
801        self.identify = False
802        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
803        self.identify = original
804        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
806    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
807        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
808            return name.upper()
809        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
810            return name.lower()
811        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
813    def indent(
814        self,
815        sql: str,
816        level: int = 0,
817        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
818        skip_first: bool = False,
819        skip_last: bool = False,
820    ) -> str:
821        if not self.pretty or not sql:
822            return sql
823
824        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
825        lines = sql.split("\n")
826
827        return "\n".join(
828            (
829                line
830                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
831                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
832            )
833            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
834        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
836    def sql(
837        self,
838        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
839        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
840        comment: bool = True,
841    ) -> str:
842        if not expression:
843            return ""
844
845        if isinstance(expression, str):
846            return expression
847
848        if key:
849            value = expression.args.get(key)
850            if value:
851                return self.sql(value)
852            return ""
853
854        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
855
856        if callable(transform):
857            sql = transform(self, expression)
858        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
859            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
860
861            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
862                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
863            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
864                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
865            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
866                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
867            else:
868                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
869        else:
870            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
871
872        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
874    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
875        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
876        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
877        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
879    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
880        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
881        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
882        options = expression.args.get("options")
883        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
884        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
885        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
886        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
887        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
889    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
890        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
891            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
892        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
893        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
895    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
896        return ".".join(
897            self.sql(part)
898            for part in (
899                expression.args.get("catalog"),
900                expression.args.get("db"),
901                expression.args.get("table"),
902                expression.args.get("this"),
903            )
904            if part
905        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
907    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
908        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
909
910        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
911            join_mark = ""
912            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
913
914        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
916    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
917        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
918        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
919        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
920        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
922    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
923        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
924        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
925        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
926        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
927        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
928        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
929        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
930        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
931
932        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
933            kind = ""
934
935        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
937    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
939        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
940        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
942    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
943        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
944        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
945            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
946        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
947            persisted = " PERSISTED"
948        else:
949            persisted = ""
950        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
952    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
953        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
955    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
956        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
957            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
958        else:
959            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
960
961        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
963    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
964        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
965    ) -> str:
966        this = ""
967        if expression.this is not None:
968            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
969            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
970
971        start = expression.args.get("start")
972        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
973        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
974        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
975        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
976        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
977        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
978        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
979        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
980        cycle_sql = ""
981
982        if cycle is not None:
983            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
984            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
985
986        sequence_opts = ""
987        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
988            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
989            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
990
991        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
992        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
993
994        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
 996    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 997        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 998    ) -> str:
 999        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1000        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1001        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
1003    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1004        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1005    ) -> str:
1006        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1008    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1009        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1011    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1012        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1014    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1015        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1016        if desc is not None:
1017            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1018        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1020    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1022        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1023        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1024        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1025        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1026        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1027        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1028        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
1030    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1031        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
1033    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1034        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1035        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1036        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1037        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1038
1039        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1040
1041        properties_sql = ""
1042        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1043            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1044        ):
1045            properties_sql = self.sql(
1046                exp.Properties(
1047                    expressions=[
1048                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1049                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1050                    ]
1051                )
1052            )
1053
1054            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1055                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1056            elif not self.pretty:
1057                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1058                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1059
1060        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1061        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1062
1063        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1064        if expression_sql:
1065            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1066
1067            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1068                postalias_props_sql = ""
1069                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1070                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1071                        exp.Properties(
1072                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1073                        ),
1074                        wrapped=False,
1075                    )
1076                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1077                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1078
1079        postindex_props_sql = ""
1080        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1081            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1082                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1083                wrapped=False,
1084                prefix=" ",
1085            )
1086
1087        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1088        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1089        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1090
1091        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1092        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1093        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1094
1095        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1096        if clustered is None:
1097            clustered_sql = ""
1098        elif clustered:
1099            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1100        else:
1101            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1102
1103        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1104        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1105            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1106                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1107                sep=" ",
1108                prefix=" ",
1109                wrapped=False,
1110            )
1111
1112        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1113
1114        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1115        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1116            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1117                exp.Properties(
1118                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1119                ),
1120                sep=" ",
1121                prefix=" ",
1122                wrapped=False,
1123            )
1124
1125        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1126        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1127        no_schema_binding = (
1128            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1129        )
1130
1131        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1132        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1133
1134        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1135        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1137    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1138        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1139        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1140        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1141        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1142        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1143        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1144        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1145        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1146        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1147        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1148
1149        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1150        if cache is None:
1151            cache_str = ""
1152        elif cache is True:
1153            cache_str = " CACHE"
1154        else:
1155            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1156
1157        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1158        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1159
1160        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1162    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1163        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1164        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1165        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1166        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1168    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1169        style = expression.args.get("style")
1170        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1171        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1172        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1173        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1175    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1176        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1177        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1179    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1180        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1181        if with_:
1182            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1183        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1185    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1186        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1187        recursive = (
1188            "RECURSIVE "
1189            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1190            else ""
1191        )
1192
1193        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1195    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1196        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1197
1198        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1199        if materialized is False:
1200            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1201        elif materialized:
1202            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1203
1204        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1206    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1207        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1208        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1209        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1210
1211        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1212            columns = ""
1213            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1214
1215        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1216            alias = self._next_name()
1217
1218        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1220    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1221        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1222        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1223            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1224        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1226    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1227        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1228        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1229            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1230        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1232    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1234        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1235            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1236        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1238    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1239        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1240        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1241
1242        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1243            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1244            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1245        else:
1246            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1247            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1248
1249        if escape:
1250            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1251            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1252        else:
1253            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1254            escape_sql = ""
1255
1256        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1257            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1258
1259        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1261    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1262        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1263        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1265    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1266        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1267        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1268        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1269        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1271    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1272        nested = ""
1273        values = ""
1274        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1275
1276        type_value = expression.this
1277        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1278            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1279        else:
1280            type_sql = (
1281                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1282                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1283                else type_value
1284            )
1285
1286        if interior:
1287            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1288                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1289                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1290                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1291                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1292                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1293            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1294                nested = f" {interior}"
1295            else:
1296                nested = f"({interior})"
1297
1298        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1299        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1300            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1301            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1302        ):
1303            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1304
1305        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1307    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1308        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1309        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1310        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1311        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1313    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1314        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1315        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1316        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1317        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1318        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1319        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1320        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1321        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1322        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1323        if self.RETURNING_END:
1324            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1325        else:
1326            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1327        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1329    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1330        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1331        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1332        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1333        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1334        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1335        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1336        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1337        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1338        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1339        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1340        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1341        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1342        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1343        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1344        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
1346    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1347        op_type = type(expression)
1348        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1349
1350        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1351        if (
1352            distinct is False
1353            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1354            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1355        ):
1356            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1357
1358        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1359
1360        if distinct is None:
1361            distinct = default_distinct
1362            if distinct is None:
1363                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1364
1365        if distinct is default_distinct:
1366            kind = ""
1367        else:
1368            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1369
1370        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1371        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
1373    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1374        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1375            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1376            order = expression.args.get("order")
1377
1378            if limit or order:
1379                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1380
1381                if limit:
1382                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1383                if order:
1384                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1385                return self.sql(select)
1386
1387        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1388        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1389
1390        while stack:
1391            node = stack.pop()
1392
1393            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1394                stack.append(node.expression)
1395                stack.append(
1396                    self.maybe_comment(
1397                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1398                    )
1399                )
1400                stack.append(node.this)
1401            else:
1402                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1403
1404        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1405        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1406        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1408    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1409        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1410        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1411        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1412        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1413        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1414            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1415        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1416        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1418    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1419        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1420            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1421            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1422            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1423
1424        agg = expression.this
1425        agg_arg = agg.this
1426        cond = expression.expression.this
1427        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1428        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1430    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1431        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1432            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1433            return ""
1434
1435        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1437    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1438        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1439        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1440        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1441        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1442        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1443        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1444        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1445        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1446        if include:
1447            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1448        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1449        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1450        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1451        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1452        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1453        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1454
1455        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1457    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1458        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1459        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1460        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1461        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1462        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1463        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1464        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1465
1466        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1467
1468        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1469        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1471    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1472        text = expression.name
1473        lower = text.lower()
1474        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1475        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1476        if (
1477            expression.quoted
1478            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1479            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1480            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1481        ):
1482            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1483        return text
def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str:
1485    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1486        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1487        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1488            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1489
1490        return text
def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str:
1492    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1493        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1494        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1495            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1496        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1498    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1499        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1500        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1501        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1502        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1503        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1505    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1506        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1507        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1509    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1510        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1512    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1513        root_properties = []
1514        with_properties = []
1515
1516        for p in expression.expressions:
1517            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1518            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1519                with_properties.append(p)
1520            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1521                root_properties.append(p)
1522
1523        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1524        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1525
1526        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1527            with_props = " " + with_props
1528
1529        return root_props + with_props
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1531    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1532        if properties.expressions:
1533            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1534        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1536    def properties(
1537        self,
1538        properties: exp.Properties,
1539        prefix: str = "",
1540        sep: str = ", ",
1541        suffix: str = "",
1542        wrapped: bool = True,
1543    ) -> str:
1544        if properties.expressions:
1545            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1546            if expressions:
1547                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1548                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1549        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1551    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1552        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1554    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1555        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1556        for p in properties.expressions:
1557            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1558            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1559                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1560            else:
1561                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1562
1563        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1565    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1566        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1567            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1568        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1570    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1571        property_cls = expression.__class__
1572        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1573            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1574
1575        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1576        if not property_name:
1577            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1578
1579        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1581    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1582        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1583            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1584            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1585
1586            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1587            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1588                like = f"({like})"
1589
1590            return like
1591
1592        if expression.expressions:
1593            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1594
1595        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1596        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1598    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1599        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1600        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1601        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1603    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1604        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1605        local = expression.args.get("local")
1606        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1607        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1608        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1609        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1610        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1612    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1613        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1614        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1615        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1617    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1618        if expression.args.get("default"):
1619            property = "DEFAULT"
1620        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1621            property = "ON"
1622        else:
1623            property = "OFF"
1624        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1626    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1627        if expression.args.get("no"):
1628            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1629        if expression.args.get("default"):
1630            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1631
1632        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1633        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1635    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1636        default = expression.args.get("default")
1637        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1638        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1639        if default or minimum or maximum:
1640            if default:
1641                prop = "DEFAULT"
1642            elif minimum:
1643                prop = "MINIMUM"
1644            else:
1645                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1646            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1647        units = expression.args.get("units")
1648        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1649        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1651    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1652        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1653        always = expression.args.get("always")
1654        default = expression.args.get("default")
1655        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1656        never = expression.args.get("never")
1657
1658        if autotemp is not None:
1659            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1660        elif always:
1661            prop = "ALWAYS"
1662        elif default:
1663            prop = "DEFAULT"
1664        elif manual:
1665            prop = "MANUAL"
1666        elif never:
1667            prop = "NEVER"
1668        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1670    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1671        no = expression.args.get("no")
1672        no = " NO" if no else ""
1673        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1674        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1675        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1676        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1677        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1679    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1680        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1681            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1682        if expression.this:
1683            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1684            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1685            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1686
1687        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1688        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1689        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1691    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1692        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1693
1694        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1695        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1696            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1697        else:
1698            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1699
1700        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1702    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1703        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1704        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1705        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1706        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1707        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1708        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1709        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1711    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1712        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1713        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1714        statistics_sql = ""
1715        if statistics is not None:
1716            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1717        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1719    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1720        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1721        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1722        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1723        data_consistency = (
1724            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1725        )
1726        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1727        retention_period = (
1728            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1729        )
1730
1731        if this:
1732            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1733        else:
1734            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1735
1736        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1737
1738        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1740    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1741        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1742        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1743
1744        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1745            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1746        else:
1747            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1748
1749        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1750        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1751        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1752        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1753        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1754        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1755        if is_function:
1756            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1757        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1758
1759        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1760        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1761        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1762        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1763        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1764        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1765        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1766        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1767
1768        if self.RETURNING_END:
1769            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1770        else:
1771            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1772
1773        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1774        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1775        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1776        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1777
1778        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1779        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1780
1781        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1782        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1784    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1785        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1787    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1788        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1789        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1790        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1791        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1792        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1794    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1795        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1797    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1798        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1800    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1801        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1802
1803        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1804        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1805
1806        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1807        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1808        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1809
1810        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1811        if expressions:
1812            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1813            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1814
1815        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1817    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1818        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1820    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1821        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1822        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1823        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1824        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1825        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1826        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1827        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1828        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1829        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1830        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1831        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1832        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1833        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1835    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1836        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1838    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1839        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1840        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1841        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1842        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1844    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1845        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1846        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1847        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1848        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1850    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1851        return ".".join(
1852            self.sql(part)
1853            for part in (
1854                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1855                expression.args.get("db"),
1856                expression.args.get("this"),
1857            )
1858            if part is not None
1859        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1861    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1862        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1863        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1864        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1865        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1866        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1867        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1868        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1869        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1870
1871        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1872        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1873            sample_pre_alias = sample
1874            sample_post_alias = ""
1875        else:
1876            sample_pre_alias = ""
1877            sample_post_alias = sample
1878
1879        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1880        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1881        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1882        joins = self.indent(
1883            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1884        )
1885        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1886
1887        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1888        if file_format:
1889            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1890            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1891            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1892
1893        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1894        if ordinality:
1895            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1896            alias = ""
1897
1898        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1899        if when:
1900            table = f"{table} {when}"
1901
1902        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1903        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1904
1905        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1906        if rows_from:
1907            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1908
1909        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1911    def tablesample_sql(
1912        self,
1913        expression: exp.TableSample,
1914        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1915    ) -> str:
1916        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1917        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1918        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1919        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1920        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1921        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1922        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1923        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1924        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1925
1926        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1927        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1928            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1929
1930        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1931        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1932            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1933
1934        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1935        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1936            expr = f"({expr})"
1937
1938        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1940    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1941        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1942
1943        if expression.this:
1944            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1945            if not expressions:
1946                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1947
1948            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1949            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1950            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1951            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1952            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1953
1954        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1955        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1956        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1957
1958        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1959
1960        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1961        if include_nulls is not None:
1962            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1963        else:
1964            nulls = ""
1965
1966        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1967        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1968        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1970    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1971        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1972        kind = expression.text("kind")
1973        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1974        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1976    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1977        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1979    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1980        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1981        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1982        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1983        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1984        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1985        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1986        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1987        if self.RETURNING_END:
1988            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1989        else:
1990            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1991        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1992        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1994    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1995        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1996
1997        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1998        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1999            args = self.expressions(expression)
2000            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2001            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2002            values = (
2003                f"({values})"
2004                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
2005                else values
2006            )
2007            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2008
2009        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2010        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2011        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2012
2013        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2014
2015        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2016            row = tup.expressions
2017
2018            if i == 0 and column_names:
2019                row = [
2020                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2021                ]
2022
2023            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2024
2025        if self.pretty:
2026            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2027            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2028            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2029            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2030            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2031
2032        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2033        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2034        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
2036    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2037        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
2039    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2040        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2041        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2042        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
2044    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2045        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GroupingSets) -> str:
2047    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2048        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2049        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
def rollup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollup) -> str:
2051    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2052        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2053        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
def cube_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cube) -> str:
2055    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2056        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2057        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
2059    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2060        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2061        if group_by_all is True:
2062            modifier = " ALL"
2063        elif group_by_all is False:
2064            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2065        else:
2066            modifier = ""
2067
2068        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2069
2070        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2071        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2072        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2073
2074        groupings = csv(
2075            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2076            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2077            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2078            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2079            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2080        )
2081
2082        if (
2083            expression.expressions
2084            and groupings
2085            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2086        ):
2087            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2088
2089        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
2091    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2092        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2093        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
2095    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2096        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2097        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2098        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2099        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2100        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2101        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
2103    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2104        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
2106    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2107        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2108            side = None
2109        else:
2110            side = expression.side
2111
2112        op_sql = " ".join(
2113            op
2114            for op in (
2115                expression.method,
2116                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2117                side,
2118                expression.kind,
2119                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2120            )
2121            if op
2122        )
2123        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2124        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2125        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2126        using = expression.args.get("using")
2127
2128        if not on_sql and using:
2129            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2130
2131        this = expression.this
2132        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2133
2134        if on_sql:
2135            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2136            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2137            if using:
2138                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2139            else:
2140                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2141        elif not op_sql:
2142            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2143                return f" {this_sql}"
2144
2145            return f", {this_sql}"
2146
2147        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2148            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2149
2150        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
2152    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2153        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2154        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2155        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2157    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2158        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2159
2160        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2161        if cross_apply is True:
2162            op = "INNER JOIN "
2163        elif cross_apply is False:
2164            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2165        else:
2166            op = ""
2167
2168        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2170    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2171        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2172
2173        if expression.args.get("view"):
2174            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2175            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2176            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2177            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2178            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2179            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2180
2181        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2182        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2183        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2185    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2186        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2187
2188        args = [
2189            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2190            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2191            if e
2192        ]
2193
2194        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2195        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2196        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2197        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2198
2199        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
2201    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2202        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2203        value = expression.expression
2204        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2205        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2206        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2207        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
2209    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2210        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2211        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2212        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2213        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2214        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2215        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2216        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2217        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2219    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2220        expressions = (
2221            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2222        )
2223        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2224        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2226    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2227        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2229    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2230        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2231            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2232            return ""
2233
2234        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2235        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2236        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2237        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2238
2239        if wait is not None:
2240            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2241                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2242            else:
2243                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2244
2245        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2247    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2248        text = expression.this or ""
2249        if expression.is_string:
2250            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2251        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2253    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2254        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2255            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2256            text = "".join(
2257                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2258            )
2259
2260        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2261            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2262        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2264    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2265        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2266        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2267        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2268        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2269        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2270        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2271        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2272        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2273        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2274        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2275        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2277    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2278        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2280    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2281        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2283    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2284        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2285        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2286        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2287        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2289    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2290        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2291        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2292        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2293        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2294        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2295        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2296        interpolated_values = [
2297            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2298            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2299        ]
2300        interpolate = (
2301            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2302        )
2303        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2305    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2306        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2308    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2309        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2311    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2312        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2314    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2315        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2316        asc = not desc
2317
2318        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2319        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2320        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2321        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2322        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2323
2324        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2325
2326        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2327        nulls_sort_change = ""
2328        if nulls_first and (
2329            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2330        ):
2331            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2332        elif (
2333            nulls_last
2334            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2335            and not nulls_are_last
2336        ):
2337            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2338
2339        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2340        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2341            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2342            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2343                self.unsupported(
2344                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2345                )
2346                nulls_sort_change = ""
2347            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2348                if expression.this.is_int:
2349                    self.unsupported(
2350                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2351                    )
2352                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2353                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2354                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2355                nulls_sort_change = ""
2356
2357        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2358        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2359
2360        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2362    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2363        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2364        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2365
2366        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2367
2368        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2370    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2371        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2372        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2373        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2374        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2375        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2376        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2377        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2378        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2379        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2380        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2381        definition_sqls = [
2382            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2383            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2384        ]
2385        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2386        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2387        body = "".join(
2388            (
2389                partition,
2390                order,
2391                measures,
2392                rows,
2393                after,
2394                pattern,
2395                define,
2396            )
2397        )
2398        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2399        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2400        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2402    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2403        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2404
2405        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2406            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2407        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2408            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2409
2410        return csv(
2411            *sqls,
2412            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2413            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2414            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2415            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2416            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2417            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2418            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2419            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2420            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2421            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2422            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2423            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2424            self.options_modifier(expression),
2425            sep="",
2426        )
def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str:
2428    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2429        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2430        return f" {options}" if options else ""
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2432    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2433        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2435    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2436        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2437    ) -> t.List[str]:
2438        return [
2439            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2440            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2441        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2443    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2444        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2445        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2446        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2448    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2449        into = expression.args.get("into")
2450        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2451            into.pop()
2452
2453        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2454        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2455        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2456        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2457
2458        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2459        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2460            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2461            limit.pop()
2462        else:
2463            top = ""
2464
2465        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2466
2467        if kind:
2468            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2469                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2470            else:
2471                if kind == "STRUCT":
2472                    expressions = self.expressions(
2473                        sqls=[
2474                            self.sql(
2475                                exp.Struct(
2476                                    expressions=[
2477                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2478                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2479                                        else e
2480                                        for e in expression.expressions
2481                                    ]
2482                                )
2483                            )
2484                        ]
2485                    )
2486                kind = ""
2487
2488        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2489        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2490        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2491        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2492        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2493            expression,
2494            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2495            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2496            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2497        )
2498
2499        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2500
2501        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2502            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2503                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2504            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2505                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2506            else:
2507                table_kind = ""
2508            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2509
2510        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2512    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2513        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2514        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2515        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2517    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2518        if expression.expressions:
2519            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2520        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2522    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2523        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2524        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2525        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2526        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2527        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2528        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2529        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2531    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2532        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2533        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2535    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2537        kind = expression.text("kind")
2538        if kind:
2539            kind = f"{kind}."
2540        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2542    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2543        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2545    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2546        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2547        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2548        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2549        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2550            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2551
2552            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2553            expression.set("sample", None)
2554
2555        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2556        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2557        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2559    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2560        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2561        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2563    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2564        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2565
2566        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2567        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2568
2569        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2570            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2571                alias.append("columns", offset)
2572
2573        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2574            columns = alias.columns
2575            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2576        else:
2577            alias = self.sql(alias)
2578
2579        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2580        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2581            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2582        else:
2583            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2584                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2585            elif offset:
2586                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2587            else:
2588                suffix = alias
2589
2590        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2592    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2593        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2595    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2596        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2597        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2599    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2600        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2601        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2602        order = expression.args.get("order")
2603        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2604        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2605        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2606        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2607
2608        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2609
2610        first = expression.args.get("first")
2611        if first is None:
2612            first = ""
2613        else:
2614            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2615
2616        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2617            return f"{this} {alias}"
2618
2619        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2620        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2622    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2623        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2624        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2626    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2627        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2628        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2629        end = (
2630            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2631            or "CURRENT ROW"
2632        )
2633        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2635    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2636        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2637        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2638        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2640    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2641        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2642        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2643        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2644        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2646    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2647        return apply_index_offset(
2648            expression.this,
2649            expression.expressions,
2650            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2651        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2653    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2654        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2655        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2656        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2658    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2659        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2661    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2662        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2663        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2664            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2665                this = self.wrap(this)
2666            return f"ANY{this}"
2667        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2669    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2670        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2672    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2673        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2674        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2675
2676        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2677            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2678            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2679
2680        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2681
2682        if default:
2683            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2684
2685        statements.append("END")
2686
2687        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2688            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2689
2690        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2692    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2693        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2694        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2695        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2697    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2698        order = expression.args.get("order")
2699        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2700        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2702    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2703        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2704        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2705        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2707    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2708        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2709
2710        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2711            func_name = "LTRIM"
2712        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2713            func_name = "RTRIM"
2714        else:
2715            func_name = "TRIM"
2716
2717        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2719    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2720        args = expression.expressions
2721        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2722            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2723
2724        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2725            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2726
2727        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2728            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2729
2730        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2732    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2733        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2734
2735        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2736        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2737            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2738
2739        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2741    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2742        return self.func(
2743            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2744        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2746    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2747        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2748        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2750    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2751        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2752        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2753        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2754        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2755        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2756        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2757        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2758        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2760    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2761        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2762        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2763        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2764        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2766    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2767        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2769    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2770        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2771        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2772        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2774    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2775        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2777    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2778        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2779
2780        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2781            path = self.escape_str(path)
2782
2783        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2784            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2785
2786        return path
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2788    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2789        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2790            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2791            if not callable(transform):
2792                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2793                return ""
2794
2795            return transform(self, expression)
2796
2797        if isinstance(expression, int):
2798            return str(expression)
2799
2800        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2801            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2802            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2803        else:
2804            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2805            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2806
2807        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2809    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2810        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2812    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2813        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2814        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2815
2816        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2817        if unique_keys is not None:
2818            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2819        else:
2820            unique_keys = ""
2821
2822        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2823        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2824        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2825        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2826
2827        return self.func(
2828            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2829            *expression.expressions,
2830            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2831        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2833    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2834        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2836    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2837        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2838        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2839        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2840        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2841        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2842        return self.func(
2843            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2844        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2846    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2847        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2848        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2849        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2850        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2851        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2852        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2853        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2854        return self.func(
2855            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2856            this,
2857            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2858        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2860    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2861        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2862        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2863        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2864
2865        if nested_schema:
2866            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2867
2868        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2869        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2870        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2871        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2873    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2874        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2876    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2877        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2878        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2879        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2880        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2881        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2882        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2883        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2884        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2885        return self.func(
2886            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2887        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2889    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2890        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2891        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2892        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2893        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2894        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2895        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2897    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2898        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2899        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2900        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2901        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2902        with_ = (
2903            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2904            if expressions
2905            else ""
2906        )
2907        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2909    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2910        query = expression.args.get("query")
2911        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2912        field = expression.args.get("field")
2913        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2914
2915        if query:
2916            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2917        elif unnest:
2918            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2919        elif field:
2920            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2921        else:
2922            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2923
2924        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2926    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2927        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2929    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2930        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2931        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2932            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2933        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2934
2935        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2936            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2937            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2938
2939        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2940        if this:
2941            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2942            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2943
2944        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2946    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2947        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2949    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2951        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2952        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2953        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2954        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2955        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2957    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2958        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
2959        parent = expression.parent
2960        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
2961        return self.func(
2962            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
2963        )
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2965    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2966        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2967        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2969    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2970        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2971        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2972        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2973        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2975    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2976        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2978    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2979        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2980        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2981        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2983    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2984        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2985
2986        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2987        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
2988
2989        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2990            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2991        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2992            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2993
2994        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2996    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2997        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2999    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3000        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3001        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3002        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3004    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3005        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3006        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3007        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3009    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3011        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3012        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
3014    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3015        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3017    def and_sql(
3018        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3019    ) -> str:
3020        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3022    def or_sql(
3023        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3024    ) -> str:
3025        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3027    def xor_sql(
3028        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3029    ) -> str:
3030        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3032    def connector_sql(
3033        self,
3034        expression: exp.Connector,
3035        op: str,
3036        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3037    ) -> str:
3038        if stack is not None:
3039            if expression.expressions:
3040                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3041            else:
3042                stack.append(expression.right)
3043                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3044                    for comment in expression.comments:
3045                        if comment:
3046                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3047                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3048            return op
3049
3050        stack = [expression]
3051        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3052        ops = set()
3053
3054        while stack:
3055            node = stack.pop()
3056            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3057                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3058            else:
3059                sql = self.sql(node)
3060                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3061                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3062                else:
3063                    sqls.append(sql)
3064
3065        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3066        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3068    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3069        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3071    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3072        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3074    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3075        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3077    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3078        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3080    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3081        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3083    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3084        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3086    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3087        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3088        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3089        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3090        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3091        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3092        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3093        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
3095    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3096        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3097        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
3099    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3100        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3101            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3102        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
3104    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3105        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
3107    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3108        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3109        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3110        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3111        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3112        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3113        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3115    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3116        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3117        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3118        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3119        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3120        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3121        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3122        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3123        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3124        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3126    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3127        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3128        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3129        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3130        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3131
3132        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3133            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3134
3135        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
3137    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3138        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
3140    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3141        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3142        if chain is not None:
3143            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3144
3145        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
3147    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3148        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3149        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3150        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
3152    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3153        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3154
3155        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3156        if dtype:
3157            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3158            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3159            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3160            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3161            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3162
3163        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3164        if default:
3165            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3166
3167        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3168        if comment:
3169            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3170
3171        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3172        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3173
3174        if not drop and not allow_null:
3175            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3176
3177        if allow_null is not None:
3178            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3179            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3180
3181        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3183    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3184        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3185        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3186            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3187        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3189    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3190        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3191        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3192        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3193        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3194        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
3196    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3197        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3198            # Remove db from tables
3199            expression = expression.transform(
3200                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3201            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3202        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3203        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3205    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3206        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3207        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3208        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3209        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str:
3211    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3212        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3213        return f"SET {exprs}"
def alter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3215    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3216        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3217
3218        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3219            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3220        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3221            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3222        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3223            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3224        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3225            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3226        else:
3227            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3228
3229        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3230        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3231        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3232        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3233        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3234        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3235        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3236        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3237
3238        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3240    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3241        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3242            return self.expressions(
3243                expression,
3244                key="actions",
3245                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3246                skip_first=True,
3247            )
3248        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3250    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3251        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3252        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3253        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3255    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3256        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3258    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3259        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3260
3261        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3262            case = exp.case()
3263            for arg in expression.expressions:
3264                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3265            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3266
3267        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3268
3269        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3270        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3271        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3273    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3274        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3276    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3277        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3279    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3280        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3281        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3282        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3283        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3285    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3286        return self.sql(
3287            exp.Cast(
3288                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3289                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3290            )
3291        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3293    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3294        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3295            return self.func(
3296                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3297            )
3298        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3300    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3301        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3302
3303        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3304            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3305
3306        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3307            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3308                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3309
3310        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3311            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3312                return self.sql(
3313                    exp.cast(
3314                        l / r,
3315                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3316                    )
3317                )
3318
3319        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3321    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3322        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3324    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3325        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3327    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3328        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3330    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3331        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3333    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3334        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3336    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3337        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3339    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3340        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3342    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3343        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3345    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3346        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3348    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3349        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3351    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3352        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3354    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3355        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3356            return self.sql(
3357                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3358            )
3359        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3361    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3362        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3364    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3365        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3367    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3368        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3370    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3371        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3373    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3374        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3376    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3377        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3379    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3380        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3382    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3383        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3385    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3386        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3388    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3389        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3391    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3392        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3394    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3395        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3397    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3398        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3400    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3401        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3402            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3403            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3404
3405        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3407    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3408        this = expression.this
3409        expr = expression.expression
3410
3411        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3412            this, expr = expr, this
3413        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3414            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3415                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3416
3417            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3418
3419        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3421    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3422        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3423        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3424        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3425        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3426        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3428    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3429        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3430        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3431        binary_type = type(expression)
3432
3433        while stack:
3434            node = stack.pop()
3435
3436            if type(node) is binary_type:
3437                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3438                if op_func:
3439                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3440
3441                stack.append(node.right)
3442                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3443                stack.append(node.left)
3444            else:
3445                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3446
3447        return "".join(sqls)
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3449    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3450        args = []
3451
3452        for key in expression.arg_types:
3453            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3454
3455            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3456                for value in arg_value:
3457                    args.append(value)
3458            elif arg_value is not None:
3459                args.append(arg_value)
3460
3461        if self.normalize_functions:
3462            name = expression.sql_name()
3463        else:
3464            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3465
3466        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')', normalize: bool = True) -> str:
3468    def func(
3469        self,
3470        name: str,
3471        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3472        prefix: str = "(",
3473        suffix: str = ")",
3474        normalize: bool = True,
3475    ) -> str:
3476        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3477        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3479    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3480        arg_sqls = tuple(
3481            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3482        )
3483        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3484            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3485        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3487    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3488        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3490    def format_time(
3491        self,
3492        expression: exp.Expression,
3493        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3494        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3495    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3496        return format_time(
3497            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3498            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3499            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3500        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3502    def expressions(
3503        self,
3504        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3505        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3506        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3507        flat: bool = False,
3508        indent: bool = True,
3509        skip_first: bool = False,
3510        skip_last: bool = False,
3511        sep: str = ", ",
3512        prefix: str = "",
3513        dynamic: bool = False,
3514        new_line: bool = False,
3515    ) -> str:
3516        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3517
3518        if not expressions:
3519            return ""
3520
3521        if flat:
3522            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3523
3524        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3525        result_sqls = []
3526
3527        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3528            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3529            if not sql:
3530                continue
3531
3532            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3533
3534            if self.pretty:
3535                if self.leading_comma:
3536                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3537                else:
3538                    result_sqls.append(
3539                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3540                    )
3541            else:
3542                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3543
3544        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3545            if new_line:
3546                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3547                result_sqls.append("")
3548            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3549        else:
3550            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3551
3552        return (
3553            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3554            if indent
3555            else result_sql
3556        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3558    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3559        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3560        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3561        if flat:
3562            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3563        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3565    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3566        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3567        if not property_name:
3568            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3569        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3571    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3572        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3574    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3575        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3577    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3578        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3579        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3580        expressions = (
3581            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3582        )
3583        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3585    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3586        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3587        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3588        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3590    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3591        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3593    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3594        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3595        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3596        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3597        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3598
3599        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3600        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3601            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3602            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3603            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3604            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3605        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3606            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3607                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3608            else:
3609                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3610        else:
3611            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3612        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3614    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3615        table = expression.this
3616        table_alias = ""
3617
3618        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3619        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3620            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3621            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3622
3623        this = self.sql(table)
3624        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3625        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3626        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3627        sep = self.sep()
3628        returning = self.expressions(expression, key="returning", indent=False)
3629        returning = f"RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
3630
3631        return self.prepend_ctes(
3632            expression,
3633            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}{sep}{returning}",
3634        )
@unsupported_args('format')
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3636    @unsupported_args("format")
3637    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3638        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3640    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3641        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3642            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3643            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3644
3645        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3646        if not fmt:
3647            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3648            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3649
3650        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3652    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3653        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3654        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3655        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3656        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3657        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3659    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3660        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3661        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3662        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3663        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3665    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3666        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3668    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3669        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3672    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3673        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3674        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3675        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3676        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3677        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3678        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3679        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3681    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3682        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3684    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3685        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3686        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3687        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3688        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3689        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3691    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3692        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3693        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3694
3695        if having:
3696            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3697
3698        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3700    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3701        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3702        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3703        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3704        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3705        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3706        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3707        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3708        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3709        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3710        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3711        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3712        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3713        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3715    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3716        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3717        if key_block_size:
3718            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3719
3720        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3721        if using:
3722            return f"USING {using}"
3723
3724        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3725        if parser:
3726            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3727
3728        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3729        if comment:
3730            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3731
3732        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3733        if visible is not None:
3734            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3735
3736        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3737        if engine_attr:
3738            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3739
3740        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3741        if secondary_engine_attr:
3742            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3743
3744        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3745        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3747    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3748        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3749        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3751    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3752        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3753        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3754        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3755        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3756        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3757        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3758        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3759        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3760        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3761        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3762        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3764    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3765        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3766            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3767
3768        case = exp.Case().when(
3769            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3770            expression.args["true"],
3771            copy=False,
3772        )
3773        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3774        if else_cond:
3775            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3776
3777        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3779    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3780        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3781        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3782        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3783        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3784        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3785        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3787    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3788        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3790    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3791        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3793    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3794        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3795        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3796        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3797        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3798        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3799        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3801    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3802        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3803        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3804        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3806    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3807        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3808        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3809        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3811    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3812        arg = expression.this
3813        if not arg.type:
3814            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3815
3816            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3817
3818        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3819            return self.sql(arg)
3820
3821        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3822        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3824    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3825        this = expression.this
3826        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3827            return self.sql(this)
3828
3829        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3831    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3832        this = expression.this
3833        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3834            return self.sql(this)
3835
3836        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3838    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3839        this = expression.this
3840        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3841
3842        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3843            return self.sql(
3844                exp.cast(
3845                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3846                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3847                )
3848            )
3849
3850        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3851            return self.sql(this)
3852
3853        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3855    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3856        return self.sql(
3857            exp.func(
3858                "DATEDIFF",
3859                expression.this,
3860                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3861                "day",
3862            )
3863        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3865    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3866        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3867            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3868
3869        unit = expression.text("unit")
3870        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3871            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3872
3873        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3875    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3876        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3877
3878        return self.func(
3879            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3880        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3882    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3883        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3884            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3885            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3886            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3887            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3888
3889        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3890
3891        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3892        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3893            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3894
3895        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3897    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3898        expression.set(
3899            "expressions",
3900            [
3901                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3902                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3903                else e
3904                for e in expression.expressions
3905            ],
3906        )
3907
3908        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3910    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3911        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3912        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3913
3914        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3916    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3917        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3918        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3919
3920        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3921
3922        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3923        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3924
3925        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3926        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3927
3928        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3929        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3930
3931        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3932        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3933
3934        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3938    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3939        to = expression.this
3940        value = expression.expression
3941        style = expression.args.get("style")
3942        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3943        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3944
3945        if not to or not value:
3946            return ""
3947
3948        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3949        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3950            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3951
3952        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3953        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3954
3955        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3956        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3957            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3958
3959            style_value = style.name
3960            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3961            if not converted_style:
3962                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3963
3964            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3965
3966            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3967                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3968            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3969                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3970            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3971                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3972            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3973                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3974
3975        if not transformed:
3976            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3977
3978        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
4034    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4035        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4036
4037        if expression.expressions:
4038            upper = option.upper()
4039
4040            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4041            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4042
4043            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4044            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4045            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4046            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4047
4048        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4049
4050        if not value:
4051            return option
4052
4053        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4054
4055        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
4057    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4058        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4059        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4060            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4061            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4062            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4063        else:
4064            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4065            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4066            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4067
4068        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4069        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4070
4071        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4072        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4073
4074        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4075        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4076
4077        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4078        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4079
4080        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
4082    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4083        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4084        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4085
4086        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4087        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4088        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4089        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4090
4091        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4092        params = self.expressions(
4093            expression,
4094            key="params",
4095            sep=sep,
4096            new_line=True,
4097            skip_last=True,
4098            skip_first=True,
4099            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4100        )
4101
4102        if params:
4103            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4104                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4105            elif not self.pretty:
4106                params = f" {params}"
4107
4108        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
4110    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4111        return ""
def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4113    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4114        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4115        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4116        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4117        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4118        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4119
4120        if filter_col or retention_period:
4121            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4122
4123        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str:
4125    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4126        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4127    ) -> str:
4128        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4129        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4130        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4131        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str:
4133    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4134        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4135        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4136        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4138    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4139        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4141    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4142        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4143        expr = expression.expression
4144
4145        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4146            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4147            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4148        else:
4149            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4150
4151        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
def parsejson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ParseJSON) -> str:
4153    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4154        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4155            return self.sql(expression.this)
4156
4157        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
def rand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rand) -> str:
4159    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4160        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4161        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4162
4163        if lower and upper:
4164            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4165        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
def changes_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Changes) -> str:
4167    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4168        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4169        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4170        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4171        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4172        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4173        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4174
4175        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
def pad_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pad) -> str:
4177    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4178        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4179
4180        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4181        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4182            fill_pattern = "' '"
4183
4184        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
def summarize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Summarize) -> str:
4186    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4187        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4188        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4190    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4191        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4192
4193        parent = expression.parent
4194        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4195            parent = parent.parent
4196
4197        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4198            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4199
4200        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4201            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4202
4203        return self.sql(generate_series)
def arrayconcat_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayConcat, name: str = 'ARRAY_CONCAT') -> str:
4205    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4206        exprs = expression.expressions
4207        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4208            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4209        else:
4210            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4211
4212        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4214    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4215        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4216            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4217
4218        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4219        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4220        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4221
4222        if source_tz and timestamp:
4223            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4224                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4225            )
4226
4227        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4228
4229        return self.sql(expr)
def json_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSON) -> str:
4231    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4232        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4233        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4234
4235        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4236
4237        if _with is None:
4238            with_sql = ""
4239        elif not _with:
4240            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4241        else:
4242            with_sql = " WITH"
4243
4244        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4245
4246        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONValue) -> str:
4248    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4249        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4250            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4251
4252        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4253        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4254        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4255
4256        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4257        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4258
4259        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4261    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4262        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4263        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4264        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4265        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4266        return f"{condition}{insert}"
def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4268    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4269        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4270        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4271        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4272        return res
def oncondition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCondition) -> str:
4274    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4275        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4276        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4277        empty = (
4278            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4279            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4280            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4281        )
4282
4283        error = expression.args.get("error")
4284        error = (
4285            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4286            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4287            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4288        )
4289
4290        if error and empty:
4291            error = (
4292                f"{empty} {error}"
4293                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4294                else f"{error} {empty}"
4295            )
4296            empty = ""
4297
4298        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4299
4300        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONExists) -> str:
4302    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4303        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4304        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4305
4306        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4307        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4308
4309        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4310        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4311
4312        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4313
4314        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4316    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4317        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4318
4319        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4320            parent = expression.parent
4321            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4322                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4323                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4324            else:
4325                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {self.sql(expression, 'this')} IS NOT NULL)"
4326
4327        return array_agg