sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5from collections import defaultdict
   6from functools import reduce
   7
   8from sqlglot import exp
   9from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  10from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  11from sqlglot.time import format_time
  12from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  13
  14if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  15    from sqlglot._typing import E
  16    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  17
  18logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  19
  20
  21class Generator:
  22    """
  23    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  24
  25    Args:
  26        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  27            Default: False.
  28        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  29            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  30            True or 'always': Always quote.
  31            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  32        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  33            Default: False.
  34        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  35            Default: 2.
  36        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  37            Default: 2.
  38        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  39            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  40            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  41            False: Disables function name normalization.
  42        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  43            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  44        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  45            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  46            Default: 3
  47        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  48            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  49            Default: False
  50        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  51            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  52            line length.
  53            Default: 80
  54        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  55            Default: True
  56    """
  57
  58    TRANSFORMS = {
  59        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  60            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  61        ),
  62        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  63        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  65        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  66        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  67        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  69        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  75        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  76        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  77        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  78        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  79        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  80        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  81        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  82        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  83        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  84        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  85        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  86        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  87        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  93        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  95        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  96        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  97        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  98        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  99        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 100        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 101        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 102        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 104        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 105        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 106        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107    }
 108
 109    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 110    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 111
 112    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 113    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 114
 115    # Always do union distinct or union all
 116    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 117
 118    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 119    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 120
 121    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 122    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 123
 124    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 125    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 126
 127    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 128    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 129
 130    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 131    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 132
 133    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 134    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 135
 136    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 137    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 138
 139    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 140    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 141
 142    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 143    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 144
 145    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 146    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 147
 148    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 149    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 150
 151    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 152    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 153
 154    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 155    JOIN_HINTS = True
 156
 157    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 158    TABLE_HINTS = True
 159
 160    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 161    QUERY_HINTS = True
 162
 163    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 164    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 165
 166    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 167    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 168
 169    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 170    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 171
 172    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 173    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 174
 175    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 176    RETURNING_END = True
 177
 178    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 179    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 180
 181    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 182    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 183
 184    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 185    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 186
 187    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 188    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 189
 190    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 191    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 192
 193    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 194    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 195    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 196    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 197
 198    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 199    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 200
 201    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 202    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 203
 204    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 205    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 206
 207    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 208    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 209
 210    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 211    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 212
 213    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 214    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 215
 216    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 217    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 218
 219    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 220    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 221
 222    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 223    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 224
 225    # Whether or not conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 226    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 227
 228    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 229    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 230
 231    # Whether or not CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 232    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 233
 234    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 235        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 236        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 237        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 238        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 239        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 240        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 241        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 242        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 243        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 244    }
 245
 246    STAR_MAPPING = {
 247        "except": "EXCEPT",
 248        "replace": "REPLACE",
 249    }
 250
 251    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 252        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 253        "seconds": "second",
 254        "minutes": "minute",
 255        "hours": "hour",
 256        "days": "day",
 257        "weeks": "week",
 258        "months": "month",
 259        "quarters": "quarter",
 260        "years": "year",
 261    }
 262
 263    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 264
 265    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 266
 267    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 268
 269    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 270        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 271        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 272        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 273        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 274        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 275        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 276        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 277        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 278        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 279        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 280        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 281        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 282        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 283        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 284        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 285        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 286        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 287        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 288        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 289        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 290        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 291        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 292        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 293        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 294        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 295        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 296        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 297        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 298        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 299        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 300        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 301        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 302        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 303        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 304        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 305        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 306        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 307        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 308        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 309        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 310        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 311        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 312        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 313        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 314        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 315        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 316        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 317        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 318        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 319        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 320        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 321        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 322        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 323        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 324        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 325        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 326        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 327        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 328        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 329        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 330        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 331        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 332        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 333        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 334    }
 335
 336    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 337    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 338
 339    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 340    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 341        exp.Create,
 342        exp.Delete,
 343        exp.Drop,
 344        exp.From,
 345        exp.Insert,
 346        exp.Join,
 347        exp.Select,
 348        exp.Update,
 349        exp.Where,
 350        exp.With,
 351    )
 352
 353    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 354    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 355        exp.Binary,
 356        exp.Union,
 357    )
 358
 359    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 360    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 361        exp.Column,
 362        exp.Literal,
 363        exp.Neg,
 364        exp.Paren,
 365    )
 366
 367    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 368    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 369
 370    KEY_VALUE_DEFINITONS = (exp.Bracket, exp.EQ, exp.PropertyEQ, exp.Slice)
 371
 372    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 373
 374    __slots__ = (
 375        "pretty",
 376        "identify",
 377        "normalize",
 378        "pad",
 379        "_indent",
 380        "normalize_functions",
 381        "unsupported_level",
 382        "max_unsupported",
 383        "leading_comma",
 384        "max_text_width",
 385        "comments",
 386        "dialect",
 387        "unsupported_messages",
 388        "_escaped_quote_end",
 389        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 390    )
 391
 392    def __init__(
 393        self,
 394        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 395        identify: str | bool = False,
 396        normalize: bool = False,
 397        pad: int = 2,
 398        indent: int = 2,
 399        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 400        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 401        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 402        leading_comma: bool = False,
 403        max_text_width: int = 80,
 404        comments: bool = True,
 405        dialect: DialectType = None,
 406    ):
 407        import sqlglot
 408        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 409
 410        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 411        self.identify = identify
 412        self.normalize = normalize
 413        self.pad = pad
 414        self._indent = indent
 415        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 416        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 417        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 418        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 419        self.comments = comments
 420        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 421
 422        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 423        self.normalize_functions = (
 424            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 425        )
 426
 427        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 428        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 429            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 430        )
 431        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 432            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 433        )
 434
 435    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 436        """
 437        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 438
 439        Args:
 440            expression: The syntax tree.
 441            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 442                it is safer to copy.
 443
 444        Returns:
 445            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 446        """
 447        if copy:
 448            expression = expression.copy()
 449
 450        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 451
 452        self.unsupported_messages = []
 453        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 454
 455        if self.pretty:
 456            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 457
 458        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 459            return sql
 460
 461        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 462            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 463                logger.warning(msg)
 464        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 465            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 466
 467        return sql
 468
 469    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 470        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 471        if (
 472            not expression.parent
 473            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 474            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 475        ):
 476            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 477
 478            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 479
 480        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 481            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 482
 483            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 484
 485        return expression
 486
 487    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 488        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 489            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 490        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 491
 492    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 493        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 494
 495    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 496        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 497
 498    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 499        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 500        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 501        return comment
 502
 503    def maybe_comment(
 504        self,
 505        sql: str,
 506        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 507        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 508    ) -> str:
 509        comments = (
 510            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 511            if self.comments
 512            else None
 513        )
 514
 515        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 516            return sql
 517
 518        comments_sql = " ".join(
 519            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 520        )
 521
 522        if not comments_sql:
 523            return sql
 524
 525        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 526            return (
 527                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 528                if sql[0].isspace()
 529                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 530            )
 531
 532        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 533
 534    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 535        this_sql = self.indent(
 536            self.sql(expression)
 537            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 538            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 539            level=1,
 540            pad=0,
 541        )
 542        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 543
 544    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 545        original = self.identify
 546        self.identify = False
 547        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 548        self.identify = original
 549        return result
 550
 551    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 552        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 553            return name.upper()
 554        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 555            return name.lower()
 556        return name
 557
 558    def indent(
 559        self,
 560        sql: str,
 561        level: int = 0,
 562        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 563        skip_first: bool = False,
 564        skip_last: bool = False,
 565    ) -> str:
 566        if not self.pretty:
 567            return sql
 568
 569        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 570        lines = sql.split("\n")
 571
 572        return "\n".join(
 573            line
 574            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 575            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 576            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 577        )
 578
 579    def sql(
 580        self,
 581        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 582        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 583        comment: bool = True,
 584    ) -> str:
 585        if not expression:
 586            return ""
 587
 588        if isinstance(expression, str):
 589            return expression
 590
 591        if key:
 592            value = expression.args.get(key)
 593            if value:
 594                return self.sql(value)
 595            return ""
 596
 597        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 598
 599        if callable(transform):
 600            sql = transform(self, expression)
 601        elif transform:
 602            sql = transform
 603        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 604            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 605
 606            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 607                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 608            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 609                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 610            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 611                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 612            else:
 613                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 614        else:
 615            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 616
 617        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 618
 619    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 620        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 621        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 622        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 623
 624    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 625        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 626        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 627        options = expression.args.get("options")
 628        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 629        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 630        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 631        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 632        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 633
 634    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 635        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 636            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 637        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 638        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 639
 640    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 641        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 642
 643        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 644            join_mark = ""
 645            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 646
 647        column = ".".join(
 648            self.sql(part)
 649            for part in (
 650                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 651                expression.args.get("db"),
 652                expression.args.get("table"),
 653                expression.args.get("this"),
 654            )
 655            if part
 656        )
 657
 658        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 659
 660    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 661        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 662        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 663        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 664        return f"{position}{this}"
 665
 666    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 667        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 668        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 669        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 670        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 671        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 672        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 673        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 674        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 675
 676        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 677            kind = ""
 678
 679        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 680
 681    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 682        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 683        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 684        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 685
 686    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 687        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 688        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 689            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 690        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 691            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 692        else:
 693            persisted = ""
 694        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 695
 696    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 697        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 698
 699    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 700        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 701            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 702        else:
 703            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 704
 705        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 706
 707    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 708        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 709    ) -> str:
 710        this = ""
 711        if expression.this is not None:
 712            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 713            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 714
 715        start = expression.args.get("start")
 716        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 717        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 718        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 719        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 720        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 721        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 722        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 723        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 724        cycle_sql = ""
 725
 726        if cycle is not None:
 727            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 728            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 729
 730        sequence_opts = ""
 731        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 732            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 733            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 734
 735        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 736        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 737
 738        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 739
 740    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 741        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 742    ) -> str:
 743        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
 744        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 745        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 746
 747    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 748        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 749    ) -> str:
 750        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 751
 752    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 753        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 754
 755    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 756        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 757
 758    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 759        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 760        if desc is not None:
 761            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 762        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 763
 764    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 765        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 766        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 767        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 768        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 769        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 770
 771    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 772        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 773
 774    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 775        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 776        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 777        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 778
 779        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 780
 781        properties_sql = ""
 782        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 783            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 784        ):
 785            properties_sql = self.sql(
 786                exp.Properties(
 787                    expressions=[
 788                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 789                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 790                    ]
 791                )
 792            )
 793
 794        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 795        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 796
 797        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 798        if expression_sql:
 799            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 800
 801            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 802                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 803                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 804                        exp.Properties(
 805                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 806                        ),
 807                        wrapped=False,
 808                    )
 809                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 810                else:
 811                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 812
 813        postindex_props_sql = ""
 814        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 815            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 816                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 817                wrapped=False,
 818                prefix=" ",
 819            )
 820
 821        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 822        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 823        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 824
 825        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 826        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 827
 828        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 829        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 830            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 831                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 832                sep=" ",
 833                prefix=" ",
 834                wrapped=False,
 835            )
 836
 837        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 838
 839        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 840        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 841            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 842                exp.Properties(
 843                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 844                ),
 845                sep=" ",
 846                prefix=" ",
 847                wrapped=False,
 848            )
 849
 850        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 851        no_schema_binding = (
 852            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 853        )
 854
 855        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 856        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 857
 858        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 859        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 860
 861    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 862        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 863        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 864        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 865        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 866
 867    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 868        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 869
 870    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 871        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 872        if with_:
 873            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 874        return sql
 875
 876    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 877        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 878        recursive = (
 879            "RECURSIVE "
 880            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 881            else ""
 882        )
 883
 884        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 885
 886    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 887        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 888        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 889
 890    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 891        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 892        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 893        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 894
 895        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 896            alias = "_t"
 897
 898        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 899
 900    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 902        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
 903            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
 904        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 905
 906    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 907        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 908        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
 909            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
 910        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 911
 912    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 913        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 914        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
 915            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
 916        return this
 917
 918    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 919        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 920        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
 921
 922    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 924        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 925        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 926        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 927
 928    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 929        type_value = expression.this
 930
 931        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 932            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 933        else:
 934            type_sql = (
 935                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 936                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 937                else type_value
 938            )
 939
 940        nested = ""
 941        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 942        values = ""
 943
 944        if interior:
 945            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 946                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 947                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 948                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 949                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 950                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 951            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 952                nested = f" {interior}"
 953            else:
 954                nested = f"({interior})"
 955
 956        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 957        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 958            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 959            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 960        ):
 961            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 962
 963        return type_sql
 964
 965    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 966        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 967        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 968        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 969        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 970
 971    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 972        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 973        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 974        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 975        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 976        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 977        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 978        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 979        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 980        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 981        if self.RETURNING_END:
 982            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 983        else:
 984            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 985        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 986
 987    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 988        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 989        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 990        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 991        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 992        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 993        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 994        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 995        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 996        return (
 997            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 998        )
 999
1000    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1001        return self.prepend_ctes(
1002            expression,
1003            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1004        )
1005
1006    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1007        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1008
1009    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1010        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1011        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
1012        count = expression.args.get("count")
1013        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1014        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1015            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1016        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1017        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1018
1019    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1020        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1021            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1022            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1023            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1024
1025        agg = expression.this
1026        agg_arg = agg.this
1027        cond = expression.expression.this
1028        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1029        return self.sql(agg)
1030
1031    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1032        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1033            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1034            return ""
1035
1036        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1037
1038    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1039        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1040        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1041        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1042        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1043        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1044        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1045        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1046        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1047        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1048        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1049        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1050        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1051        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1052        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1053        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1054        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1055
1056    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1057        text = expression.name
1058        lower = text.lower()
1059        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1060        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1061        if (
1062            expression.quoted
1063            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1064            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1065            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1066        ):
1067            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1068        return text
1069
1070    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1071        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1072        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1073        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1074        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1075        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1076
1077    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1078        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1079        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1080
1081    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1082        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1083
1084    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1085        root_properties = []
1086        with_properties = []
1087
1088        for p in expression.expressions:
1089            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1090            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1091                with_properties.append(p)
1092            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1093                root_properties.append(p)
1094
1095        return self.root_properties(
1096            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1097        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1098
1099    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1100        if properties.expressions:
1101            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1102        return ""
1103
1104    def properties(
1105        self,
1106        properties: exp.Properties,
1107        prefix: str = "",
1108        sep: str = ", ",
1109        suffix: str = "",
1110        wrapped: bool = True,
1111    ) -> str:
1112        if properties.expressions:
1113            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1114            if expressions:
1115                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1116                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1117        return ""
1118
1119    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1120        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1121
1122    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1123        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1124        for p in properties.expressions:
1125            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1126            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1127                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1128            else:
1129                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1130
1131        return properties_locs
1132
1133    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1134        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1135            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1136        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1137
1138    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1139        property_cls = expression.__class__
1140        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1141            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1142
1143        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1144        if not property_name:
1145            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1146
1147        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1148
1149    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1150        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1151        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1152        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1153
1154    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1155        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1156        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1157        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1158
1159    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1160        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1161        local = expression.args.get("local")
1162        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1163        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1164        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1165        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1166        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1167
1168    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1169        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1170        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1171        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1172
1173    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1174        if expression.args.get("default"):
1175            property = "DEFAULT"
1176        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1177            property = "ON"
1178        else:
1179            property = "OFF"
1180        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1181
1182    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1183        if expression.args.get("no"):
1184            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1185        if expression.args.get("default"):
1186            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1187
1188        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1189        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1190
1191    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1192        default = expression.args.get("default")
1193        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1194        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1195        if default or minimum or maximum:
1196            if default:
1197                prop = "DEFAULT"
1198            elif minimum:
1199                prop = "MINIMUM"
1200            else:
1201                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1202            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1203        units = expression.args.get("units")
1204        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1205        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1206
1207    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1208        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1209        always = expression.args.get("always")
1210        default = expression.args.get("default")
1211        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1212        never = expression.args.get("never")
1213
1214        if autotemp is not None:
1215            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1216        elif always:
1217            prop = "ALWAYS"
1218        elif default:
1219            prop = "DEFAULT"
1220        elif manual:
1221            prop = "MANUAL"
1222        elif never:
1223            prop = "NEVER"
1224        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1225
1226    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1227        no = expression.args.get("no")
1228        no = " NO" if no else ""
1229        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1230        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1231
1232        for_ = ""
1233        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1234            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1235        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1236            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1237        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1238            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1239        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1240
1241    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1242        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1243            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1244        if expression.this:
1245            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1246            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1247            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1248
1249        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1250        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1251        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1252
1253    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1254        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1255
1256        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1257        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1258            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1259        else:
1260            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1261
1262        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1263
1264    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1265        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1266        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1267        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1268        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1269        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1270        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1271        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1272
1273    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1274        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1275        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1276        statistics_sql = ""
1277        if statistics is not None:
1278            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1279        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1280
1281    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1282        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1283
1284        if expression.this:
1285            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1286            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1287
1288            if expression.expression:
1289                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1290                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1291
1292            sql = f"{sql})"
1293
1294        return f"{sql})"
1295
1296    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1297        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1298
1299        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1300            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1301        else:
1302            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1303
1304        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1305        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1306        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1307
1308        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1309
1310        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1311        partition_sql = (
1312            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1313        )
1314        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1315        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1316        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1317        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1318        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1319        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1320
1321        if self.RETURNING_END:
1322            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1323        else:
1324            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1325
1326        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1327        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1328
1329    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1330        return self.prepend_ctes(
1331            expression,
1332            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1333        )
1334
1335    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1336        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1337
1338    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1339        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1340
1341    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1342        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1343        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1344        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1345        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1346        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1347
1348    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1349        return expression.name.upper()
1350
1351    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1352        return expression.name.upper()
1353
1354    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1355        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1356        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1357        if constraint:
1358            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1359        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1360        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1361        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1362        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1363        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1364        if expressions:
1365            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1366        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1367
1368    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1369        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1370
1371    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1372        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1373        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1374        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1375        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1376        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1377        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1378        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1379        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1380        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1381        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1382        null = expression.args.get("null")
1383        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1384        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1385
1386    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1387        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1388
1389    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1390        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1391        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1392        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1393        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1394
1395    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1396        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1397        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1398        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1399        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1400
1401    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1402        table = ".".join(
1403            self.sql(part)
1404            for part in (
1405                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1406                expression.args.get("db"),
1407                expression.args.get("this"),
1408            )
1409            if part is not None
1410        )
1411
1412        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1413        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1414        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1415        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1416        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1417        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1418        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1419        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1420        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1421        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1422
1423        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1424        if file_format:
1425            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1426            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1427            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1428
1429        index = self.sql(expression, "index")
1430        index = f" AT {index}" if index else ""
1431
1432        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1433        if ordinality:
1434            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1435            alias = ""
1436
1437        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1438        if when:
1439            table = f"{table} {when}"
1440
1441        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{index}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1442
1443    def tablesample_sql(
1444        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1445    ) -> str:
1446        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1447            table = expression.this.copy()
1448            table.set("alias", None)
1449            this = self.sql(table)
1450            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1451        else:
1452            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1453            alias = ""
1454
1455        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1456        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1457        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1458        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1459        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1460        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1461        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1462        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1463        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1464        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1465        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1466
1467        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1468        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1469            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1470
1471        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1472        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1473        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1474
1475        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1476        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1477            expr = f"({expr})"
1478
1479        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1480
1481    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1482        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1483
1484        if expression.this:
1485            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1486            if not expressions:
1487                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1488
1489            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1490            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1491            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1492            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1493            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1494
1495        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1496        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1497        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1498        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1499        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1500        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1501        if include_nulls is not None:
1502            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1503        else:
1504            nulls = ""
1505        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1506
1507    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1508        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1509        kind = expression.text("kind")
1510        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1511        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1512
1513    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1514        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1515
1516    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1517        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1518        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1519        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1520        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1521        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1522        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1523        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1524        if self.RETURNING_END:
1525            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1526        else:
1527            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1528        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1529        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1530
1531    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1532        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1533        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1534            args = self.expressions(expression)
1535            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1536            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1537            values = (
1538                f"({values})"
1539                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1540                else values
1541            )
1542            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1543
1544        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1545        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1546        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1547
1548        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1549
1550        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1551            row = tup.expressions
1552
1553            if i == 0 and column_names:
1554                row = [
1555                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1556                ]
1557
1558            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1559
1560        if self.pretty:
1561            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1562            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1563            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1564            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1565            return self.subquery_sql(
1566                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1567            )
1568
1569        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1570        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1571        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1572
1573    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1574        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1575
1576    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1577        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1578        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1579        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1580
1581    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1582        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1583
1584    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1585        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1586
1587        if expression.args.get("all"):
1588            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1589
1590        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1591        grouping_sets = (
1592            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1593        )
1594
1595        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1596        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1597            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1598        else:
1599            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1600            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1601
1602        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1603        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1604            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1605        else:
1606            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1607            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1608
1609        groupings = csv(
1610            grouping_sets,
1611            cube_sql,
1612            rollup_sql,
1613            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1614            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1615        )
1616
1617        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1618            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1619
1620        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1621
1622    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1623        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1624        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1625
1626    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1627        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1628        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1629        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1630        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1631        return start + connect
1632
1633    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1634        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1635
1636    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1637        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1638            side = None
1639        else:
1640            side = expression.side
1641
1642        op_sql = " ".join(
1643            op
1644            for op in (
1645                expression.method,
1646                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1647                side,
1648                expression.kind,
1649                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1650            )
1651            if op
1652        )
1653        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1654        using = expression.args.get("using")
1655
1656        if not on_sql and using:
1657            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1658
1659        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1660
1661        if on_sql:
1662            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1663            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1664            if using:
1665                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1666            else:
1667                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1668        elif not op_sql:
1669            return f", {this_sql}"
1670
1671        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1672        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1673
1674    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1675        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1676        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1677        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1678
1679    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1680        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1681
1682        if expression.args.get("view"):
1683            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1684            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1685            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1686            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1687            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1688            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1689
1690        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1691        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1692        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1693
1694    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1695        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1696
1697        args = [
1698            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1699            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1700            if e
1701        ]
1702
1703        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1704        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1705        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}"
1706
1707    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1708        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1709        expression = expression.expression
1710        expression = (
1711            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1712        )
1713        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1714
1715    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1716        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1717        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1718        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1719        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1720        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1721        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1722        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1723        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1724
1725    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1726        expressions = (
1727            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1728        )
1729        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1730        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1731
1732    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1733        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1734
1735    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1736        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1737            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1738            return ""
1739
1740        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1741        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1742        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1743        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1744
1745        if wait is not None:
1746            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1747                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1748            else:
1749                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1750
1751        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1752
1753    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1754        text = expression.this or ""
1755        if expression.is_string:
1756            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1757        return text
1758
1759    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1760        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1761        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1762            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1763        elif self.pretty:
1764            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1765        return text
1766
1767    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1768        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1769        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1770        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1771        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1772        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1773        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1774        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1775        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1776        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1777        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1778        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1779
1780    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1781        return "NULL"
1782
1783    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1784        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1785
1786    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1787        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1788        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1789        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1790
1791    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1792        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1793
1794    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1795        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1796
1797    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1798        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1799
1800    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1801        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1802        asc = not desc
1803
1804        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1805        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1806        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1807        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1808        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1809
1810        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1811
1812        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1813        nulls_sort_change = ""
1814        if nulls_first and (
1815            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1816        ):
1817            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1818        elif (
1819            nulls_last
1820            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1821            and not nulls_are_last
1822        ):
1823            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1824
1825        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1826        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1827            null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
1828            this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
1829            nulls_sort_change = ""
1830
1831        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1832
1833    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1834        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1835        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1836        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1837        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1838        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1839        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1840        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1841        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1842        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1843        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1844        definition_sqls = [
1845            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1846            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1847        ]
1848        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1849        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1850        body = "".join(
1851            (
1852                partition,
1853                order,
1854                measures,
1855                rows,
1856                after,
1857                pattern,
1858                define,
1859            )
1860        )
1861        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1862        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1863        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1864
1865    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1866        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1867
1868        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1869        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1870
1871        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1872            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1873        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1874            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1875
1876        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1877
1878        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1879            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1880            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1881            else []
1882        )
1883
1884        return csv(
1885            *sqls,
1886            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1887            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1888            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1889            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1890            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1891            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1892            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1893            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1894            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1895            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1896            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1897            sep="",
1898        )
1899
1900    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1901        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1902    ) -> t.List[str]:
1903        return [
1904            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1905            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1906        ]
1907
1908    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1909        return [
1910            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1911            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1912            if expression.args.get("windows")
1913            else "",
1914            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1915            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1916            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1917        ]
1918
1919    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1920        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1921        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1922        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1923
1924    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1925        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1926        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1927        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1928        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1929        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1930        top = (
1931            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1932            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1933            else ""
1934        )
1935
1936        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1937
1938        if kind:
1939            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1940                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1941            else:
1942                if kind == "STRUCT":
1943                    expressions = self.expressions(
1944                        sqls=[
1945                            self.sql(
1946                                exp.Struct(
1947                                    expressions=[
1948                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1949                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1950                                        )
1951                                        for e in expression.expressions
1952                                    ]
1953                                )
1954                            )
1955                        ]
1956                    )
1957                kind = ""
1958
1959        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
1960        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
1961        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
1962        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1963        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1964            expression,
1965            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1966            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1967            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1968        )
1969        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1970
1971    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1972        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1973        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1974        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
1975
1976    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1977        if expression.expressions:
1978            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1979        return ""
1980
1981    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1982        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1983        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1984        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1985        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1986        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1987
1988    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1989        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1990        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1991
1992    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1993        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1994        kind = expression.text("kind")
1995        if kind:
1996            kind = f"{kind}."
1997        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1998
1999    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2000        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2001
2002    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2003        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2004        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2005
2006        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2007        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2008
2009        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2010        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2011
2012    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2013        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2014        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2015
2016    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2017        return self.prepend_ctes(
2018            expression,
2019            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2020        )
2021
2022    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2023        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2024        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2025        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2026        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2027
2028    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2029        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2030
2031        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2032        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2033
2034        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2035            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2036                alias.append("columns", offset)
2037
2038        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2039            columns = alias.columns
2040            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2041        else:
2042            alias = self.sql(alias)
2043
2044        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2045        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2046            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2047        else:
2048            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2049                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2050            elif offset:
2051                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2052            else:
2053                suffix = alias
2054
2055        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2056
2057    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2058        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2059        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2060
2061    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2062        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2063        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2064        order = expression.args.get("order")
2065        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2066        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2067        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2068        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2069
2070        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2071
2072        first = expression.args.get("first")
2073        if first is None:
2074            first = ""
2075        else:
2076            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2077
2078        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2079            return f"{this} {alias}"
2080
2081        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2082        return f"{this} ({args})"
2083
2084    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2085        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2086        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2087
2088    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2089        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2090        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2091        end = (
2092            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2093            or "CURRENT ROW"
2094        )
2095        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2096
2097    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2098        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2099        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2100        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2101
2102    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2104        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2105        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2106        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2107
2108    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2109        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2110            expression.this,
2111            expression.expressions,
2112            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2113        )
2114        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2115        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2116
2117    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2118        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2119
2120    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2121        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2122        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2123            this = self.wrap(this)
2124        return f"ANY {this}"
2125
2126    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2127        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2128
2129    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2130        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2131        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2132
2133        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2134            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2135            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2136
2137        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2138
2139        if default:
2140            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2141
2142        statements.append("END")
2143
2144        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2145            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2146
2147        return " ".join(statements)
2148
2149    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2150        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2151        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2152        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2153
2154    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2155        order = expression.args.get("order")
2156        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2157        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2158
2159    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2160        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2161        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2162        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2163
2164    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2165        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2166
2167        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2168            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2169        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2170            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2171        else:
2172            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2173
2174    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2175        args = expression.expressions
2176        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2177            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2178
2179        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2180            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2181
2182        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2183            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2184
2185        return args
2186
2187    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2188        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2189
2190        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2191        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2192            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2193
2194        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2195
2196    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2197        return self.func(
2198            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2199        )
2200
2201    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2202        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2203        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2204
2205    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2206        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2207        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2208        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2209        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2210        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2211        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2212        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2213        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2214
2215    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2216        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2217        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2218        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2219        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2220
2221    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2222        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2223
2224    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2225        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2226        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2227        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2228
2229    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2230        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2231
2232    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2233        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2234
2235    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2236        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2237        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2238        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2239        if unique_keys is not None:
2240            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2241        else:
2242            unique_keys = ""
2243        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2244        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2245        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2246        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2247        return self.func(
2248            "JSON_OBJECT",
2249            *expression.expressions,
2250            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2251        )
2252
2253    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2254        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2255        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2256        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2257        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2258        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2259        return self.func(
2260            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2261        )
2262
2263    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2264        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2265        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2266        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2267        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2268        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2269        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2270        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2271        return self.func(
2272            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2273            this,
2274            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2275        )
2276
2277    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2278        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2279        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2280        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2281
2282        if nested_schema:
2283            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2284
2285        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2286        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2287        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2288        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2289
2290    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2291        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2292
2293    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2294        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2295        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2296        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2297        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2298        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2299        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2300        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2301        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2302        return self.func(
2303            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2304        )
2305
2306    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2307        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2308        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2309        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2310        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2311        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2312        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2313
2314    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2315        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2316        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2317        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2318        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2319        with_ = (
2320            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2321            if expressions
2322            else ""
2323        )
2324        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2325
2326    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2327        query = expression.args.get("query")
2328        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2329        field = expression.args.get("field")
2330        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2331
2332        if query:
2333            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2334        elif unnest:
2335            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2336        elif field:
2337            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2338        else:
2339            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2340
2341        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2342
2343    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2344        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2345
2346    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2347        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2348        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2349            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2350        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2351
2352        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2353            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2354            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2355
2356        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2357        if this:
2358            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2359            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2360
2361        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2362
2363    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2364        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2365
2366    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2367        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2368        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2369        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2370        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2371        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2372        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2373
2374    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2375        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2376
2377    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2378        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2379            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2380        else:
2381            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2382            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2383
2384        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2385
2386    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2387        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2388        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2389        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2390        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2391
2392    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2393        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2394
2395    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2396        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2397        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2398        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2399
2400    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2401        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2402
2403    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2404        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2405        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2406        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2407
2408    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2409        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2410
2411    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2412        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2413
2414    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2415        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2416
2417    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2418        if not self.pretty:
2419            return self.binary(expression, op)
2420
2421        sqls = tuple(
2422            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2423            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2424        )
2425
2426        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2427        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2428
2429    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2430        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2431
2432    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2433        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2434
2435    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2436        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2437
2438    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2439        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2440
2441    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2442        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2443
2444    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2445        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2446
2447    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2448        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2449        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2450        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2451        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2452        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
2453
2454    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2455        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2456        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2457
2458    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2459        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2460            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2461        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2462
2463    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2464        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2465
2466    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2467        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2468        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2469        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2470        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2471        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2472
2473    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2474        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2475        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2476        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2477        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2478        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2479        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2480        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2481        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2482        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2483
2484    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2485        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2486        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2487        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2488        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2489
2490        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2491            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2492
2493        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2494
2495    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2496        return "BEGIN"
2497
2498    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2499        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2500        if chain is not None:
2501            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2502
2503        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2504
2505    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2506        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2507        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2508        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2509
2510    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2511        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2512
2513        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2514        if dtype:
2515            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2516            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2517            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2518            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2519            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2520
2521        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2522        if default:
2523            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2524
2525        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2526            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2527
2528        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2529
2530    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2531        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2532            # Remove db from tables
2533            expression = expression.transform(
2534                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2535            )
2536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2537        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2538
2539    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2540        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2541
2542        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2543            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2544        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2545            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2546        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2547            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2548        else:
2549            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2550
2551        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2552        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2553        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2554
2555    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2556        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2557            return self.expressions(
2558                expression,
2559                key="actions",
2560                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2561            )
2562        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2563
2564    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2565        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2566        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2567        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2568
2569    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2570        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2571        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2572        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2573
2574        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2575        if enforced is not None:
2576            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2577
2578        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2579
2580    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2581        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2582        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2583
2584        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2585        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2586        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2587
2588    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2589        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2590
2591    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2592        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2593
2594    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2595        return self.sql(
2596            exp.Cast(
2597                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2598                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2599            )
2600        )
2601
2602    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2603        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2604            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2605        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2606
2607    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2608        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2609
2610        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2611            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2612
2613        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2614            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2615                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2616            ):
2617                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2618
2619        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2620            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2621                return self.sql(
2622                    exp.cast(
2623                        l / r,
2624                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2625                    )
2626                )
2627
2628        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2629
2630    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2631        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2632
2633    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2634        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2635
2636    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2637        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2638
2639    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2640        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2641
2642    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2643        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
2644
2645    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2646        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2647
2648    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2649        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2650
2651    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2652        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2653
2654    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2655        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2656
2657    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2658        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2659
2660    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2661        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2662
2663    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2664        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2665            return self.sql(
2666                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2667            )
2668        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2669
2670    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2671        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2672
2673    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2674        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2675
2676    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2677        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2678
2679    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2680        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2681
2682    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2683        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2684
2685    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2686        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2687
2688    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2689        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2690
2691    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2692        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2693
2694    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2695        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2696
2697    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2698        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2699
2700    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2701        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2702
2703    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2704        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2705
2706    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2707        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2708
2709    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2710        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2711
2712    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2713        this = expression.this
2714        expr = expression.expression
2715
2716        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2717            this, expr = expr, this
2718
2719        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
2720
2721    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2722        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2723        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2724        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2725        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2726        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2727
2728    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2729        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2730        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2731
2732    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2733        args = []
2734
2735        for key in expression.arg_types:
2736            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2737
2738            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2739                for value in arg_value:
2740                    args.append(value)
2741            elif arg_value is not None:
2742                args.append(arg_value)
2743
2744        if self.normalize_functions:
2745            name = expression.sql_name()
2746        else:
2747            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2748
2749        return self.func(name, *args)
2750
2751    def func(
2752        self,
2753        name: str,
2754        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2755        prefix: str = "(",
2756        suffix: str = ")",
2757    ) -> str:
2758        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2759
2760    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2761        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2762        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2763            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2764        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2765
2766    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2767        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2768
2769    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2770        return format_time(
2771            self.sql(expression, "format"),
2772            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
2773            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
2774        )
2775
2776    def expressions(
2777        self,
2778        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2779        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2780        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2781        flat: bool = False,
2782        indent: bool = True,
2783        skip_first: bool = False,
2784        sep: str = ", ",
2785        prefix: str = "",
2786    ) -> str:
2787        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2788
2789        if not expressions:
2790            return ""
2791
2792        if flat:
2793            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2794
2795        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2796
2797        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2798        pad = " " * self.pad
2799        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2800
2801        result_sqls = []
2802        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2803            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2804            if not sql:
2805                continue
2806
2807            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2808
2809            if self.pretty:
2810                if self.leading_comma:
2811                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2812                else:
2813                    result_sqls.append(
2814                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2815                    )
2816            else:
2817                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2818
2819        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2820        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2821
2822    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2823        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2824        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2825        if flat:
2826            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2827        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2828
2829    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2830        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2831        if not property_name:
2832            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2833        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2834
2835    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2836        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2837        op = self.seg(op)
2838        return self.query_modifiers(
2839            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2840        )
2841
2842    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2843        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2844
2845    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2846        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2847
2848    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2850        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2851        expressions = (
2852            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2853        )
2854        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2855
2856    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2857        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2858        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2859        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2860
2861    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2862        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2863
2864    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2865        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2866        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2867        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2868        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2869
2870        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2871        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2872            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2873            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2874                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2875        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2876            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2877                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2878            else:
2879                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2880        else:
2881            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2882        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2883
2884    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2885        table = expression.this
2886        table_alias = ""
2887
2888        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2889        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2890            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2891            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2892
2893        this = self.sql(table)
2894        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2895        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2896        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2897
2898        return self.prepend_ctes(
2899            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2900        )
2901
2902    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2903        if expression.args.get("format"):
2904            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2905
2906        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2907
2908    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2909        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2910        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2911        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2912        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2913        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2914
2915    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2917        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2918        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2919        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2920
2921    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2922        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2923
2924    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2925        return ""
2926
2927    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2928        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2929        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2930        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2931        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2932        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2933
2934    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2935        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2936        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2937
2938        if having:
2939            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2940
2941        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2942
2943    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2944        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2945        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2946        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2947        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2948        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2949        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2950        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2951        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2952        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2953        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2954        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2955        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2956        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2957
2958    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2959        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2960        if key_block_size:
2961            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2962
2963        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2964        if using:
2965            return f"USING {using}"
2966
2967        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2968        if parser:
2969            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2970
2971        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2972        if comment:
2973            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2974
2975        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2976        if visible is not None:
2977            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2978
2979        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2980        if engine_attr:
2981            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2982
2983        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2984        if secondary_engine_attr:
2985            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2986
2987        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2988        return ""
2989
2990    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2991        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2992        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2993        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2994        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2995        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2996        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2997        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2998        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2999        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3000        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3001        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
3002
3003    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3004        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3005            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3006
3007        case = exp.Case().when(
3008            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3009            expression.args["true"],
3010            copy=False,
3011        )
3012        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3013        if else_cond:
3014            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3015
3016        return self.sql(case)
3017
3018    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3019        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3020        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3021        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3022        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3023        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3024        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3025
3026    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3027        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3028
3029    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3030        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3031
3032    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3033        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3034        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3035        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3036        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3037        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3038        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3039
3040    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3041        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3042        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3043        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3044
3045    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3046        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3047        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3048        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3049
3050    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3051        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3052
3053    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3054        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3055            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3056
3057            expression = simplify(expression)
3058
3059        return expression
3060
3061    def _ensure_string_if_null(self, values: t.List[exp.Expression]) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
3062        return [
3063            exp.func("COALESCE", exp.cast(value, "text"), exp.Literal.string(""))
3064            for value in values
3065            if value
3066        ]