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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5from collections import defaultdict
   6from functools import reduce
   7
   8from sqlglot import exp
   9from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  10from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  11from sqlglot.time import format_time
  12from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  13
  14if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  15    from sqlglot._typing import E
  16    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  17
  18logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  19
  20
  21class Generator:
  22    """
  23    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  24
  25    Args:
  26        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  27            Default: False.
  28        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  29            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  30            True or 'always': Always quote.
  31            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  32        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  33            Default: False.
  34        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  35            Default: 2.
  36        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  37            Default: 2.
  38        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  39            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  40            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  41            False: Disables function name normalization.
  42        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  43            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  44        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  45            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  46            Default: 3
  47        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  48            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  49            Default: False
  50        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  51            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  52            line length.
  53            Default: 80
  54        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  55            Default: True
  56    """
  57
  58    TRANSFORMS = {
  59        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  60            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  61        ),
  62        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  63        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  65        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  66        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  67        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  69        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  75        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  76        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  77        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  78        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  79        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  80        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  81        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  82        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  83        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  84        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  85        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  86        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  87        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  93        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  95        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  96        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  97        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  98        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  99        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 100        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 101        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 102        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 104        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 105        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 106        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107    }
 108
 109    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 110    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 111
 112    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 113    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 114
 115    # Always do union distinct or union all
 116    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 117
 118    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 119    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 120
 121    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 122    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 123
 124    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 125    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 126
 127    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 128    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 129
 130    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 131    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 132
 133    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 134    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 135
 136    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 137    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 138
 139    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 140    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 141
 142    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 143    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 144
 145    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 146    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 147
 148    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 149    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 150
 151    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 152    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 153
 154    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 155    JOIN_HINTS = True
 156
 157    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 158    TABLE_HINTS = True
 159
 160    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 161    QUERY_HINTS = True
 162
 163    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 164    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 165
 166    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 167    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 168
 169    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 170    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 171
 172    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 173    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 174
 175    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 176    RETURNING_END = True
 177
 178    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 179    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 180
 181    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 182    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 183
 184    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 185    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 186
 187    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 188    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 189
 190    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 191    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 192
 193    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 194    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 195    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 196    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 197
 198    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 199    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 200
 201    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 202    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 203
 204    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 205    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 206
 207    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 208    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 209
 210    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 211    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 212
 213    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 214    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 215
 216    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 217    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 218
 219    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 220    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 221
 222    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 223    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 224
 225    # Whether or not conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 226    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 227
 228    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 229    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 230
 231    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 232        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 233        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 234        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 235        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 236        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 237        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 238        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 239        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 240        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 241    }
 242
 243    STAR_MAPPING = {
 244        "except": "EXCEPT",
 245        "replace": "REPLACE",
 246    }
 247
 248    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 249        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 250        "seconds": "second",
 251        "minutes": "minute",
 252        "hours": "hour",
 253        "days": "day",
 254        "weeks": "week",
 255        "months": "month",
 256        "quarters": "quarter",
 257        "years": "year",
 258    }
 259
 260    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 261
 262    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 263
 264    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 265
 266    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 267        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 268        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 269        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 270        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 271        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 272        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 273        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 274        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 275        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 276        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 277        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 278        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 279        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 280        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 281        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 282        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 283        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 284        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 285        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 286        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 287        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 288        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 289        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 290        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 291        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 292        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 293        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 294        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 295        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 296        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 297        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 298        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 299        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 300        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 301        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 302        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 303        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 304        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 305        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 306        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 307        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 308        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 309        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 310        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 311        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 312        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 313        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 314        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 315        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 316        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 317        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 318        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 319        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 320        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 321        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 322        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 323        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 324        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 325        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 326        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 327        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 328        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 329        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 330        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 331    }
 332
 333    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 334    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 335
 336    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 337    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 338        exp.Create,
 339        exp.Delete,
 340        exp.Drop,
 341        exp.From,
 342        exp.Insert,
 343        exp.Join,
 344        exp.Select,
 345        exp.Update,
 346        exp.Where,
 347        exp.With,
 348    )
 349
 350    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 351    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 352        exp.Binary,
 353        exp.Union,
 354    )
 355
 356    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 357    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 358        exp.Column,
 359        exp.Literal,
 360        exp.Neg,
 361        exp.Paren,
 362    )
 363
 364    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 365    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 366
 367    KEY_VALUE_DEFINITONS = (exp.Bracket, exp.EQ, exp.PropertyEQ, exp.Slice)
 368
 369    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 370
 371    __slots__ = (
 372        "pretty",
 373        "identify",
 374        "normalize",
 375        "pad",
 376        "_indent",
 377        "normalize_functions",
 378        "unsupported_level",
 379        "max_unsupported",
 380        "leading_comma",
 381        "max_text_width",
 382        "comments",
 383        "dialect",
 384        "unsupported_messages",
 385        "_escaped_quote_end",
 386        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 387    )
 388
 389    def __init__(
 390        self,
 391        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 392        identify: str | bool = False,
 393        normalize: bool = False,
 394        pad: int = 2,
 395        indent: int = 2,
 396        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 397        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 398        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 399        leading_comma: bool = False,
 400        max_text_width: int = 80,
 401        comments: bool = True,
 402        dialect: DialectType = None,
 403    ):
 404        import sqlglot
 405        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 406
 407        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 408        self.identify = identify
 409        self.normalize = normalize
 410        self.pad = pad
 411        self._indent = indent
 412        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 413        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 414        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 415        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 416        self.comments = comments
 417        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 418
 419        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 420        self.normalize_functions = (
 421            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 422        )
 423
 424        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 425        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 426            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 427        )
 428        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 429            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 430        )
 431
 432    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 433        """
 434        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 435
 436        Args:
 437            expression: The syntax tree.
 438            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 439                it is safer to copy.
 440
 441        Returns:
 442            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 443        """
 444        if copy:
 445            expression = expression.copy()
 446
 447        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 448
 449        self.unsupported_messages = []
 450        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 451
 452        if self.pretty:
 453            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 454
 455        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 456            return sql
 457
 458        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 459            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 460                logger.warning(msg)
 461        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 462            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 463
 464        return sql
 465
 466    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 467        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 468        if (
 469            not expression.parent
 470            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 471            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 472        ):
 473            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 474
 475            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 476
 477        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 478            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 479
 480            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 481
 482        return expression
 483
 484    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 485        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 486            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 487        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 488
 489    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 490        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 491
 492    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 493        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 494
 495    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 496        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 497        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 498        return comment
 499
 500    def maybe_comment(
 501        self,
 502        sql: str,
 503        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 504        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 505    ) -> str:
 506        comments = (
 507            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 508            if self.comments
 509            else None
 510        )
 511
 512        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 513            return sql
 514
 515        comments_sql = " ".join(
 516            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 517        )
 518
 519        if not comments_sql:
 520            return sql
 521
 522        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 523            return (
 524                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 525                if sql[0].isspace()
 526                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 527            )
 528
 529        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 530
 531    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 532        this_sql = self.indent(
 533            self.sql(expression)
 534            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 535            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 536            level=1,
 537            pad=0,
 538        )
 539        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 540
 541    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 542        original = self.identify
 543        self.identify = False
 544        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 545        self.identify = original
 546        return result
 547
 548    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 549        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 550            return name.upper()
 551        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 552            return name.lower()
 553        return name
 554
 555    def indent(
 556        self,
 557        sql: str,
 558        level: int = 0,
 559        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 560        skip_first: bool = False,
 561        skip_last: bool = False,
 562    ) -> str:
 563        if not self.pretty:
 564            return sql
 565
 566        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 567        lines = sql.split("\n")
 568
 569        return "\n".join(
 570            line
 571            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 572            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 573            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 574        )
 575
 576    def sql(
 577        self,
 578        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 579        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 580        comment: bool = True,
 581    ) -> str:
 582        if not expression:
 583            return ""
 584
 585        if isinstance(expression, str):
 586            return expression
 587
 588        if key:
 589            value = expression.args.get(key)
 590            if value:
 591                return self.sql(value)
 592            return ""
 593
 594        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 595
 596        if callable(transform):
 597            sql = transform(self, expression)
 598        elif transform:
 599            sql = transform
 600        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 601            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 602
 603            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 604                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 605            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 606                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 607            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 608                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 609            else:
 610                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 611        else:
 612            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 613
 614        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 615
 616    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 617        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 618        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 619        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 620
 621    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 622        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 623        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 624        options = expression.args.get("options")
 625        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 626        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 627        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 628        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 629        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 630
 631    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 632        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 633            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 634        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 635        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 636
 637    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 638        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 639
 640        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 641            join_mark = ""
 642            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 643
 644        column = ".".join(
 645            self.sql(part)
 646            for part in (
 647                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 648                expression.args.get("db"),
 649                expression.args.get("table"),
 650                expression.args.get("this"),
 651            )
 652            if part
 653        )
 654
 655        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 656
 657    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 658        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 659        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 660        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 661        return f"{position}{this}"
 662
 663    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 664        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 665        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 666        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 667        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 668        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 669        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 670        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 671        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 672
 673        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 674            kind = ""
 675
 676        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 677
 678    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 679        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 680        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 681        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 682
 683    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 684        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 685        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 686            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 687        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 688            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 689        else:
 690            persisted = ""
 691        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 692
 693    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 694        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 695
 696    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 697        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 698            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 699        else:
 700            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 701
 702        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 703
 704    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 705        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 706    ) -> str:
 707        this = ""
 708        if expression.this is not None:
 709            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 710            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 711
 712        start = expression.args.get("start")
 713        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 714        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 715        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 716        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 717        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 718        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 719        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 720        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 721        cycle_sql = ""
 722
 723        if cycle is not None:
 724            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 725            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 726
 727        sequence_opts = ""
 728        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 729            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 730            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 731
 732        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 733        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 734
 735        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 736
 737    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 738        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 739    ) -> str:
 740        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
 741        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 742        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 743
 744    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 745        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 746    ) -> str:
 747        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 748
 749    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 750        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 751
 752    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 753        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 754
 755    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 756        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 757        if desc is not None:
 758            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 759        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 760
 761    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 762        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 763        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 764        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 765        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 766        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 767
 768    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 769        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 770
 771    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 772        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 773        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 774        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 775
 776        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 777
 778        properties_sql = ""
 779        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 780            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 781        ):
 782            properties_sql = self.sql(
 783                exp.Properties(
 784                    expressions=[
 785                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 786                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 787                    ]
 788                )
 789            )
 790
 791        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 792        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 793
 794        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 795        if expression_sql:
 796            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 797
 798            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 799                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 800                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 801                        exp.Properties(
 802                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 803                        ),
 804                        wrapped=False,
 805                    )
 806                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 807                else:
 808                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 809
 810        postindex_props_sql = ""
 811        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 812            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 813                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 814                wrapped=False,
 815                prefix=" ",
 816            )
 817
 818        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 819        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 820        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 821
 822        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 823        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 824
 825        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 826        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 827            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 828                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 829                sep=" ",
 830                prefix=" ",
 831                wrapped=False,
 832            )
 833
 834        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 835
 836        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 837        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 838            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 839                exp.Properties(
 840                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 841                ),
 842                sep=" ",
 843                prefix=" ",
 844                wrapped=False,
 845            )
 846
 847        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 848        no_schema_binding = (
 849            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 850        )
 851
 852        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 853        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 854
 855        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 856        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 857
 858    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 860        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 861        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 862        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 863        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 864
 865        if when:
 866            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 867            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 868            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 869
 870        return this
 871
 872    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 873        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 874
 875    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 876        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 877        if with_:
 878            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 879        return sql
 880
 881    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 882        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 883        recursive = (
 884            "RECURSIVE "
 885            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 886            else ""
 887        )
 888
 889        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 890
 891    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 892        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 893        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 894
 895    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 896        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 897        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 898        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 899
 900        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 901            alias = "_t"
 902
 903        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 904
 905    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 906        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 907        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
 908            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
 909        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 910
 911    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 912        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 913        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
 914            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
 915        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 916
 917    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 918        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 919        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
 920            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
 921        return this
 922
 923    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 924        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 925        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
 926
 927    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 928        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 929        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 930        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 931        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 932
 933    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 934        type_value = expression.this
 935
 936        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 937            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 938        else:
 939            type_sql = (
 940                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 941                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 942                else type_value
 943            )
 944
 945        nested = ""
 946        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 947        values = ""
 948
 949        if interior:
 950            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 951                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 952                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 953                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 954                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 955                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 956            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 957                nested = f" {interior}"
 958            else:
 959                nested = f"({interior})"
 960
 961        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 962        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 963            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 964            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 965        ):
 966            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 967
 968        return type_sql
 969
 970    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 971        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 972        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 973        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 974        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 975
 976    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 977        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 978        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 979        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 980        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 981        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 982        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 983        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 984        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 985        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 986        if self.RETURNING_END:
 987            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 988        else:
 989            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 990        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 991
 992    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 993        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 994        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 995        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 996        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 997        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 998        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 999        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1000        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1001        return (
1002            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1003        )
1004
1005    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1006        return self.prepend_ctes(
1007            expression,
1008            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1009        )
1010
1011    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1012        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1013
1014    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1015        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1016        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
1017        count = expression.args.get("count")
1018        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1019        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1020            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1021        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1022        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1023
1024    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1025        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1026            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1027            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1028            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1029
1030        agg = expression.this
1031        agg_arg = agg.this
1032        cond = expression.expression.this
1033        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1034        return self.sql(agg)
1035
1036    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1037        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1038            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1039            return ""
1040
1041        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1042
1043    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1044        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1045        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1046        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1047        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1048        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1049        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1050        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1051        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1052        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1053        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1054        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1055        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1056        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1057        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1058        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1059        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1060
1061    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1062        text = expression.name
1063        lower = text.lower()
1064        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1065        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1066        if (
1067            expression.quoted
1068            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1069            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1070            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1071        ):
1072            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1073        return text
1074
1075    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1076        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1077        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1078        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1079        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1080        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1081
1082    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1083        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1084        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1085
1086    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1087        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1088
1089    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1090        root_properties = []
1091        with_properties = []
1092
1093        for p in expression.expressions:
1094            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1095            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1096                with_properties.append(p)
1097            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1098                root_properties.append(p)
1099
1100        return self.root_properties(
1101            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1102        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1103
1104    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1105        if properties.expressions:
1106            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1107        return ""
1108
1109    def properties(
1110        self,
1111        properties: exp.Properties,
1112        prefix: str = "",
1113        sep: str = ", ",
1114        suffix: str = "",
1115        wrapped: bool = True,
1116    ) -> str:
1117        if properties.expressions:
1118            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1119            if expressions:
1120                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1121                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1122        return ""
1123
1124    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1125        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1126
1127    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1128        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1129        for p in properties.expressions:
1130            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1131            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1132                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1133            else:
1134                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1135
1136        return properties_locs
1137
1138    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1139        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1140            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1141        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1142
1143    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1144        property_cls = expression.__class__
1145        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1146            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1147
1148        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1149        if not property_name:
1150            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1151
1152        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1153
1154    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1155        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1156        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1157        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1158
1159    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1160        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1161        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1162        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1163
1164    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1165        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1166        local = expression.args.get("local")
1167        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1168        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1169        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1170        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1171        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1172
1173    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1174        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1175        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1176        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1177
1178    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1179        if expression.args.get("default"):
1180            property = "DEFAULT"
1181        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1182            property = "ON"
1183        else:
1184            property = "OFF"
1185        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1186
1187    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1188        if expression.args.get("no"):
1189            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1190        if expression.args.get("default"):
1191            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1192
1193        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1194        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1195
1196    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1197        default = expression.args.get("default")
1198        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1199        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1200        if default or minimum or maximum:
1201            if default:
1202                prop = "DEFAULT"
1203            elif minimum:
1204                prop = "MINIMUM"
1205            else:
1206                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1207            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1208        units = expression.args.get("units")
1209        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1210        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1211
1212    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1213        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1214        always = expression.args.get("always")
1215        default = expression.args.get("default")
1216        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1217        never = expression.args.get("never")
1218
1219        if autotemp is not None:
1220            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1221        elif always:
1222            prop = "ALWAYS"
1223        elif default:
1224            prop = "DEFAULT"
1225        elif manual:
1226            prop = "MANUAL"
1227        elif never:
1228            prop = "NEVER"
1229        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1230
1231    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1232        no = expression.args.get("no")
1233        no = " NO" if no else ""
1234        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1235        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1236
1237        for_ = ""
1238        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1239            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1240        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1241            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1242        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1243            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1244        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1245
1246    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1247        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1248            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1249        if expression.this:
1250            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1251            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1252            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1253
1254        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1255        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1256        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1257
1258    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1259        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1260
1261        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1262        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1263            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1264        else:
1265            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1266
1267        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1268
1269    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1270        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1271        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1272        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1273        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1274        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1275        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1276        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1277
1278    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1279        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1280        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1281        statistics_sql = ""
1282        if statistics is not None:
1283            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1284        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1285
1286    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1287        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1288
1289        if expression.this:
1290            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1291            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1292
1293            if expression.expression:
1294                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1295                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1296
1297            sql = f"{sql})"
1298
1299        return f"{sql})"
1300
1301    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1302        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1303
1304        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1305            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1306        else:
1307            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1308
1309        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1310        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1311        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1312
1313        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1314
1315        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1316        partition_sql = (
1317            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1318        )
1319        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1320        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1321        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1322        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1323        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1324        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1325
1326        if self.RETURNING_END:
1327            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1328        else:
1329            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1330
1331        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1332        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1333
1334    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1335        return self.prepend_ctes(
1336            expression,
1337            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1338        )
1339
1340    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1341        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1342
1343    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1344        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1345
1346    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1347        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1348        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1349        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1350        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1351        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1352
1353    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1354        return expression.name.upper()
1355
1356    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1357        return expression.name.upper()
1358
1359    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1360        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1361        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1362        if constraint:
1363            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1364        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1365        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1366        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1367        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1368        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1369        if expressions:
1370            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1371        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1372
1373    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1374        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1375
1376    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1377        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1378        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1379        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1380        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1381        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1382        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1383        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1384        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1385        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1386        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1387        null = expression.args.get("null")
1388        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1389        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1390
1391    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1392        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1393
1394    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1395        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1396        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1397        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1398        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1399
1400    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1401        table = ".".join(
1402            self.sql(part)
1403            for part in (
1404                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1405                expression.args.get("db"),
1406                expression.args.get("this"),
1407            )
1408            if part is not None
1409        )
1410
1411        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1412        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1413        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1414        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1415        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1416        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1417        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1418        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1419        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1420        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1421
1422        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1423        if file_format:
1424            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1425            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1426            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1427
1428        index = self.sql(expression, "index")
1429        index = f" AT {index}" if index else ""
1430
1431        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1432        if ordinality:
1433            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1434            alias = ""
1435
1436        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{index}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1437
1438    def tablesample_sql(
1439        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1440    ) -> str:
1441        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1442            table = expression.this.copy()
1443            table.set("alias", None)
1444            this = self.sql(table)
1445            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1446        else:
1447            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1448            alias = ""
1449
1450        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1451        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1452        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1453        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1454        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1455        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1456        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1457        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1458        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1459        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1460        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1461
1462        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1463        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1464            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1465
1466        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1467        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1468        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1469
1470        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1471        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1472            expr = f"({expr})"
1473
1474        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1475
1476    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1477        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1478
1479        if expression.this:
1480            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1481            if not expressions:
1482                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1483
1484            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1485            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1486            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1487            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1488            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1489
1490        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1491        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1492        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1493        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1494        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1495        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1496        if include_nulls is not None:
1497            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1498        else:
1499            nulls = ""
1500        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1501
1502    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1503        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1504        kind = expression.text("kind")
1505        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1506        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1507
1508    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1509        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1510
1511    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1512        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1513        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1514        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1515        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1516        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1517        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1518        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1519        if self.RETURNING_END:
1520            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1521        else:
1522            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1523        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1524        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1525
1526    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1527        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1528        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1529            args = self.expressions(expression)
1530            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1531            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1532            values = (
1533                f"({values})"
1534                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1535                else values
1536            )
1537            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1538
1539        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1540        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1541        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1542
1543        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1544
1545        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1546            row = tup.expressions
1547
1548            if i == 0 and column_names:
1549                row = [
1550                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1551                ]
1552
1553            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1554
1555        if self.pretty:
1556            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1557            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1558            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1559            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1560            return self.subquery_sql(
1561                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1562            )
1563
1564        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1565        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1566        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1567
1568    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1569        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1570
1571    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1572        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1573        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1574        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1575
1576    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1577        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1578
1579    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1580        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1581
1582        if expression.args.get("all"):
1583            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1584
1585        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1586        grouping_sets = (
1587            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1588        )
1589
1590        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1591        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1592            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1593        else:
1594            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1595            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1596
1597        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1598        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1599            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1600        else:
1601            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1602            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1603
1604        groupings = csv(
1605            grouping_sets,
1606            cube_sql,
1607            rollup_sql,
1608            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1609            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1610        )
1611
1612        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1613            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1614
1615        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1616
1617    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1618        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1619        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1620
1621    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1622        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1623        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1624        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1625        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1626        return start + connect
1627
1628    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1629        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1630
1631    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1632        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1633            side = None
1634        else:
1635            side = expression.side
1636
1637        op_sql = " ".join(
1638            op
1639            for op in (
1640                expression.method,
1641                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1642                side,
1643                expression.kind,
1644                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1645            )
1646            if op
1647        )
1648        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1649        using = expression.args.get("using")
1650
1651        if not on_sql and using:
1652            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1653
1654        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1655
1656        if on_sql:
1657            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1658            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1659            if using:
1660                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1661            else:
1662                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1663        elif not op_sql:
1664            return f", {this_sql}"
1665
1666        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1667        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1668
1669    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1670        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1671        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1672        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1673
1674    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1675        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1676
1677        if expression.args.get("view"):
1678            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1679            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1680            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1681            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1682            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1683            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1684
1685        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1686        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1687        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1688
1689    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1690        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1691
1692        args = [
1693            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1694            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1695            if e
1696        ]
1697
1698        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1699        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1700        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}"
1701
1702    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1703        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1704        expression = expression.expression
1705        expression = (
1706            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1707        )
1708        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1709
1710    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1711        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1712        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1713        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1714        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1715        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1716        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1717        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1718        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1719
1720    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1721        expressions = (
1722            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1723        )
1724        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1725        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1726
1727    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1728        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1729
1730    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1731        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1732            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1733            return ""
1734
1735        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1736        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1737        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1738        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1739
1740        if wait is not None:
1741            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1742                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1743            else:
1744                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1745
1746        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1747
1748    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1749        text = expression.this or ""
1750        if expression.is_string:
1751            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1752        return text
1753
1754    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1755        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1756        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1757            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1758        elif self.pretty:
1759            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1760        return text
1761
1762    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1763        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1764        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1765        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1766        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1767        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1768        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1769        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1770        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1771        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1772        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1773        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1774
1775    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1776        return "NULL"
1777
1778    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1779        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1780
1781    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1782        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1783        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1784        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1785
1786    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1787        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1788
1789    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1790        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1791
1792    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1793        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1794
1795    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1796        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1797        asc = not desc
1798
1799        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1800        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1801        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1802        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1803        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1804
1805        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1806
1807        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1808        nulls_sort_change = ""
1809        if nulls_first and (
1810            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1811        ):
1812            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1813        elif (
1814            nulls_last
1815            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1816            and not nulls_are_last
1817        ):
1818            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1819
1820        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1821        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1822            null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
1823            this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
1824            nulls_sort_change = ""
1825
1826        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1827
1828    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1829        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1830        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1831        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1832        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1833        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1834        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1835        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1836        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1837        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1838        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1839        definition_sqls = [
1840            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1841            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1842        ]
1843        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1844        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1845        body = "".join(
1846            (
1847                partition,
1848                order,
1849                measures,
1850                rows,
1851                after,
1852                pattern,
1853                define,
1854            )
1855        )
1856        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1857        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1858        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1859
1860    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1861        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1862
1863        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1864        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1865
1866        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1867            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1868        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1869            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1870
1871        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1872
1873        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1874            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1875            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1876            else []
1877        )
1878
1879        return csv(
1880            *sqls,
1881            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1882            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1883            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1884            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1885            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1886            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1887            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1888            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1889            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1890            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1891            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1892            sep="",
1893        )
1894
1895    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1896        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1897    ) -> t.List[str]:
1898        return [
1899            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1900            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1901        ]
1902
1903    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1904        return [
1905            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1906            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1907            if expression.args.get("windows")
1908            else "",
1909            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1910            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1911            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1912        ]
1913
1914    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1915        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1916        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1917        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1918
1919    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1920        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1921        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1922        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1923        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1924        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1925        top = (
1926            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1927            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1928            else ""
1929        )
1930
1931        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1932
1933        if kind:
1934            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1935                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1936            else:
1937                if kind == "STRUCT":
1938                    expressions = self.expressions(
1939                        sqls=[
1940                            self.sql(
1941                                exp.Struct(
1942                                    expressions=[
1943                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1944                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1945                                        )
1946                                        for e in expression.expressions
1947                                    ]
1948                                )
1949                            )
1950                        ]
1951                    )
1952                kind = ""
1953
1954        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
1955        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
1956        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
1957        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1958        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1959            expression,
1960            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1961            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1962            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1963        )
1964        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1965
1966    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1967        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1968        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1969        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
1970
1971    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1972        if expression.expressions:
1973            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1974        return ""
1975
1976    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1977        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1978        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1979        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1980        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1981        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1982
1983    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1984        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1985        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1986
1987    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1988        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1989        kind = expression.text("kind")
1990        if kind:
1991            kind = f"{kind}."
1992        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1993
1994    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1995        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1996
1997    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1998        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1999        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2000
2001        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2002        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2003
2004        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2005        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2006
2007    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2008        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2009        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2010
2011    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2012        return self.prepend_ctes(
2013            expression,
2014            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2015        )
2016
2017    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2018        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2019        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2020        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2021        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2022
2023    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2024        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2025
2026        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2027        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2028
2029        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2030            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2031                alias.append("columns", offset)
2032
2033        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2034            columns = alias.columns
2035            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2036        else:
2037            alias = self.sql(alias)
2038
2039        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2040        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2041            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2042        else:
2043            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2044                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2045            elif offset:
2046                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2047            else:
2048                suffix = alias
2049
2050        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2051
2052    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2053        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2054        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2055
2056    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2057        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2058        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2059        order = expression.args.get("order")
2060        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2061        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2062        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2063        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2064
2065        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2066
2067        first = expression.args.get("first")
2068        if first is None:
2069            first = ""
2070        else:
2071            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2072
2073        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2074            return f"{this} {alias}"
2075
2076        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2077        return f"{this} ({args})"
2078
2079    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2080        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2081        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2082
2083    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2084        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2085        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2086        end = (
2087            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2088            or "CURRENT ROW"
2089        )
2090        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2091
2092    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2093        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2094        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2095        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2096
2097    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2098        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2099        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2100        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2101        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2102
2103    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2104        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2105            expression.this,
2106            expression.expressions,
2107            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2108        )
2109        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2110        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2111
2112    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2113        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2114
2115    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2116        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2117        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2118            this = self.wrap(this)
2119        return f"ANY {this}"
2120
2121    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2122        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2123
2124    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2125        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2126        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2127
2128        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2129            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2130            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2131
2132        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2133
2134        if default:
2135            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2136
2137        statements.append("END")
2138
2139        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2140            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2141
2142        return " ".join(statements)
2143
2144    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2145        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2146        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2147        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2148
2149    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2150        order = expression.args.get("order")
2151        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2152        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2153
2154    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2155        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2156        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2157        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2158
2159    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2160        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2161
2162        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2163            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2164        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2165            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2166        else:
2167            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2168
2169    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2170        expressions = expression.expressions
2171        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2172            expressions = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions]
2173        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2174
2175    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2176        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2177        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2178
2179    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2180        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2181        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2182        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2183        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2184        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2185        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2186        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2187        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2188
2189    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2190        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2191        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2192        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2193        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2194
2195    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2196        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2197
2198    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2199        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2200        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2201        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2202
2203    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2204        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2205
2206    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2207        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2208
2209    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2210        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2211        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2212        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2213        if unique_keys is not None:
2214            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2215        else:
2216            unique_keys = ""
2217        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2218        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2219        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2220        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2221        return self.func(
2222            "JSON_OBJECT",
2223            *expression.expressions,
2224            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2225        )
2226
2227    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2228        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2229        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2230        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2231        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2232        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2233        return self.func(
2234            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2235        )
2236
2237    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2239        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2240        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2241        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2242        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2243        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2244        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2245        return self.func(
2246            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2247            this,
2248            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2249        )
2250
2251    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2252        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2253        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2254        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2255
2256        if nested_schema:
2257            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2258
2259        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2260        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2261        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2262        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2263
2264    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2265        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2266
2267    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2268        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2269        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2270        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2271        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2272        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2273        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2274        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2275        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2276        return self.func(
2277            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2278        )
2279
2280    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2281        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2282        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2283        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2284        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2285        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2286        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2287
2288    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2289        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2290        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2291        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2292        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2293        with_ = (
2294            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2295            if expressions
2296            else ""
2297        )
2298        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2299
2300    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2301        query = expression.args.get("query")
2302        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2303        field = expression.args.get("field")
2304        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2305
2306        if query:
2307            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2308        elif unnest:
2309            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2310        elif field:
2311            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2312        else:
2313            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2314
2315        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2316
2317    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2318        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2319
2320    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2321        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2322        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2323            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2324        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2325
2326        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2327            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2328            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2329
2330        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2331        if this:
2332            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2333            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2334
2335        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2336
2337    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2338        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2339
2340    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2341        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2342        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2343        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2344        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2345        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2346        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2347
2348    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2349        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2350
2351    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2352        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2353            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2354        else:
2355            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2356            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2357
2358        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2359
2360    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2361        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2362        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2363        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2364        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2365
2366    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2367        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2368
2369    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2370        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2371        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2372        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2373
2374    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2375        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2376
2377    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2378        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2379        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2380        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2381
2382    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2383        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2384
2385    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2386        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2387
2388    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2389        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2390
2391    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2392        if not self.pretty:
2393            return self.binary(expression, op)
2394
2395        sqls = tuple(
2396            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2397            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2398        )
2399
2400        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2401        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2402
2403    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2404        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2405
2406    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2407        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2408
2409    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2410        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2411
2412    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2413        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2414
2415    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2416        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2417
2418    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2419        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2420
2421    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2422        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2423        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2424        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2425        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2426        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
2427
2428    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2429        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2430        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2431
2432    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2433        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2434            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2435        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2436
2437    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2438        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2439
2440    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2441        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2442        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2443        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2444        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2445        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2446
2447    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2449        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2450        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2451        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2452        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2453        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2454        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2455        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2456        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2457
2458    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2459        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2460        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2461        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2462        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2463
2464        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2465            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2466
2467        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2468
2469    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2470        return "BEGIN"
2471
2472    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2473        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2474        if chain is not None:
2475            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2476
2477        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2478
2479    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2480        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2481        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2482        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2483
2484    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2485        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2486
2487        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2488        if dtype:
2489            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2490            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2491            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2492            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2493            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2494
2495        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2496        if default:
2497            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2498
2499        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2500            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2501
2502        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2503
2504    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2505        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2506            # Remove db from tables
2507            expression = expression.transform(
2508                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2509            )
2510        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2511        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2512
2513    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2514        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2515
2516        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2517            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2518        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2519            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2520        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2521            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2522        else:
2523            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2524
2525        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2526        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2527        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2528
2529    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2530        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2531            return self.expressions(
2532                expression,
2533                key="actions",
2534                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2535            )
2536        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2537
2538    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2539        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2540        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2541        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2542
2543    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2544        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2545        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2546        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2547
2548        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2549        if enforced is not None:
2550            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2551
2552        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2553
2554    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2555        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2556        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2557
2558        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2559        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2560        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2561
2562    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2563        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2564
2565    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2566        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2567
2568    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2569        return self.sql(
2570            exp.Cast(
2571                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2572                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2573            )
2574        )
2575
2576    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2577        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2578            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2579        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2580
2581    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2582        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2583
2584        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2585            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2586
2587        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2588            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2589                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2590            ):
2591                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2592
2593        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2594            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2595                return self.sql(
2596                    exp.cast(
2597                        l / r,
2598                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2599                    )
2600                )
2601
2602        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2603
2604    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2605        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2606
2607    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2608        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2609
2610    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2611        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2612
2613    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2614        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2615
2616    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2617        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
2618
2619    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2620        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2621
2622    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2623        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2624
2625    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2626        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2627
2628    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2629        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2630
2631    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2632        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2633
2634    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2635        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2636
2637    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2638        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2639            return self.sql(
2640                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2641            )
2642        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2643
2644    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2645        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2646
2647    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2648        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2649
2650    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2651        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2652
2653    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2654        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2655
2656    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2657        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2658
2659    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2660        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2661
2662    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2663        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2664
2665    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2666        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2667
2668    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2669        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2670
2671    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2672        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2673
2674    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2675        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2676
2677    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2678        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2679
2680    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2681        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2682
2683    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2684        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2685
2686    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2687        this = expression.this
2688        expr = expression.expression
2689
2690        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2691            this, expr = expr, this
2692
2693        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
2694
2695    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2696        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2697        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2698        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2699        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2700        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2701
2702    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2703        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2704        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2705
2706    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2707        args = []
2708
2709        for key in expression.arg_types:
2710            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2711
2712            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2713                for value in arg_value:
2714                    args.append(value)
2715            elif arg_value is not None:
2716                args.append(arg_value)
2717
2718        if self.normalize_functions:
2719            name = expression.sql_name()
2720        else:
2721            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2722
2723        return self.func(name, *args)
2724
2725    def func(
2726        self,
2727        name: str,
2728        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2729        prefix: str = "(",
2730        suffix: str = ")",
2731    ) -> str:
2732        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2733
2734    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2735        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2736        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2737            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2738        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2739
2740    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2741        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2742
2743    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2744        return format_time(
2745            self.sql(expression, "format"),
2746            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
2747            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
2748        )
2749
2750    def expressions(
2751        self,
2752        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2753        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2754        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2755        flat: bool = False,
2756        indent: bool = True,
2757        skip_first: bool = False,
2758        sep: str = ", ",
2759        prefix: str = "",
2760    ) -> str:
2761        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2762
2763        if not expressions:
2764            return ""
2765
2766        if flat:
2767            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2768
2769        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2770
2771        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2772        pad = " " * self.pad
2773        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2774
2775        result_sqls = []
2776        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2777            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2778            if not sql:
2779                continue
2780
2781            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2782
2783            if self.pretty:
2784                if self.leading_comma:
2785                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2786                else:
2787                    result_sqls.append(
2788                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2789                    )
2790            else:
2791                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2792
2793        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2794        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2795
2796    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2797        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2798        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2799        if flat:
2800            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2801        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2802
2803    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2804        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2805        if not property_name:
2806            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2807        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2808
2809    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2810        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2811        op = self.seg(op)
2812        return self.query_modifiers(
2813            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2814        )
2815
2816    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2817        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2818
2819    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2820        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2821
2822    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2823        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2824        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2825        expressions = (
2826            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2827        )
2828        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2829
2830    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2831        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2832        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2833        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2834
2835    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2836        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2837
2838    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2839        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2840        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2841        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2842        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2843
2844        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2845        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2846            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2847            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2848                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2849        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2850            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2851                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2852            else:
2853                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2854        else:
2855            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2856        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2857
2858    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2859        table = expression.this
2860        table_alias = ""
2861
2862        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2863        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2864            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2865            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2866
2867        this = self.sql(table)
2868        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2869        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2870        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2871
2872        return self.prepend_ctes(
2873            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2874        )
2875
2876    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2877        if expression.args.get("format"):
2878            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2879
2880        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2881
2882    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2883        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2884        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2885        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2886        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2887        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2888
2889    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2890        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2891        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2892        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2893        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2894
2895    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2896        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2897
2898    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2899        return ""
2900
2901    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2902        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2903        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2904        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2905        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2906        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2907
2908    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2909        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2910        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2911
2912        if having:
2913            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2914
2915        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2916
2917    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2918        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2919        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2920        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2921        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2922        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2923        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2924        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2925        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2926        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2927        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2928        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2929        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2930        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2931
2932    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2933        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2934        if key_block_size:
2935            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2936
2937        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2938        if using:
2939            return f"USING {using}"
2940
2941        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2942        if parser:
2943            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2944
2945        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2946        if comment:
2947            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2948
2949        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2950        if visible is not None:
2951            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2952
2953        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2954        if engine_attr:
2955            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2956
2957        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2958        if secondary_engine_attr:
2959            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2960
2961        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2962        return ""
2963
2964    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2965        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2966        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2967        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2968        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2969        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2970        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2971        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2972        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2973        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2974        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2975        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
2976
2977    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2978        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2979            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2980
2981        case = exp.Case().when(
2982            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2983            expression.args["true"],
2984            copy=False,
2985        )
2986        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2987        if else_cond:
2988            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
2989
2990        return self.sql(case)
2991
2992    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2993        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2994        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2995        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2996        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2997        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2998        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
2999
3000    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3001        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3002
3003    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3004        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3005
3006    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3007        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3008        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3009        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3010        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3011        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3012        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3013
3014    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3015        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3016        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3017        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3018
3019    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3020        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3021        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3022        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3023
3024    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3025        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3026
3027    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3028        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3029            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3030
3031            expression = simplify(expression)
3032
3033        return expression
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  22class Generator:
  23    """
  24    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  25
  26    Args:
  27        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  28            Default: False.
  29        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  30            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  31            True or 'always': Always quote.
  32            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  33        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  34            Default: False.
  35        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  36            Default: 2.
  37        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  38            Default: 2.
  39        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  40            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  41            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  42            False: Disables function name normalization.
  43        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  44            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  45        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  46            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  47            Default: 3
  48        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  49            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  50            Default: False
  51        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  52            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  53            line length.
  54            Default: 80
  55        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  56            Default: True
  57    """
  58
  59    TRANSFORMS = {
  60        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  61            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  62        ),
  63        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  64        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  65        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  67        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  68        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  70        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  74        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  75        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  76        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  77        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  78        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  80        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  81        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  82        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  83        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  84        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  85        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  86        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  87        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  88        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  94        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  96        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  97        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  98        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  99        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
 100        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 101        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 102        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 103        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 104        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 105        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 106        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 107        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 108    }
 109
 110    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 111    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 112
 113    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 114    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 115
 116    # Always do union distinct or union all
 117    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 118
 119    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 120    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 123    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 124
 125    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 126    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 127
 128    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 129    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 130
 131    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 132    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 133
 134    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 135    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 136
 137    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 138    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 139
 140    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 141    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 142
 143    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 144    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 145
 146    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 147    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 148
 149    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 150    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 151
 152    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 153    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 154
 155    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 156    JOIN_HINTS = True
 157
 158    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 159    TABLE_HINTS = True
 160
 161    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 162    QUERY_HINTS = True
 163
 164    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 165    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 166
 167    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 168    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 169
 170    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 171    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 172
 173    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 174    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 175
 176    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 177    RETURNING_END = True
 178
 179    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 180    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 181
 182    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 183    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 184
 185    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 186    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 187
 188    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 189    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 190
 191    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 192    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 193
 194    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 195    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 196    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 197    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 198
 199    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 200    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 201
 202    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 203    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 204
 205    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 206    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 207
 208    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 209    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 210
 211    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 212    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 213
 214    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 215    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 216
 217    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 218    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 219
 220    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 221    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 222
 223    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 224    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 225
 226    # Whether or not conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 227    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 228
 229    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 230    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 231
 232    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 233        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 234        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 235        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 236        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 237        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 238        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 239        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 240        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 241        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 242    }
 243
 244    STAR_MAPPING = {
 245        "except": "EXCEPT",
 246        "replace": "REPLACE",
 247    }
 248
 249    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 250        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 251        "seconds": "second",
 252        "minutes": "minute",
 253        "hours": "hour",
 254        "days": "day",
 255        "weeks": "week",
 256        "months": "month",
 257        "quarters": "quarter",
 258        "years": "year",
 259    }
 260
 261    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 262
 263    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 264
 265    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 266
 267    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 268        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 269        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 270        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 271        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 272        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 273        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 274        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 275        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 276        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 277        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 278        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 279        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 280        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 281        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 282        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 283        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 284        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 285        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 286        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 287        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 288        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 289        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 290        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 291        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 292        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 293        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 294        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 295        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 296        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 297        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 298        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 299        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 300        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 301        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 302        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 303        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 304        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 305        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 306        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 307        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 308        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 309        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 310        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 311        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 312        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 313        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 314        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 315        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 316        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 317        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 318        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 319        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 320        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 321        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 322        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 323        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 324        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 325        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 326        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 327        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 328        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 329        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 330        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 331        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 332    }
 333
 334    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 335    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 336
 337    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 338    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 339        exp.Create,
 340        exp.Delete,
 341        exp.Drop,
 342        exp.From,
 343        exp.Insert,
 344        exp.Join,
 345        exp.Select,
 346        exp.Update,
 347        exp.Where,
 348        exp.With,
 349    )
 350
 351    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 352    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 353        exp.Binary,
 354        exp.Union,
 355    )
 356
 357    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 358    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 359        exp.Column,
 360        exp.Literal,
 361        exp.Neg,
 362        exp.Paren,
 363    )
 364
 365    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 366    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 367
 368    KEY_VALUE_DEFINITONS = (exp.Bracket, exp.EQ, exp.PropertyEQ, exp.Slice)
 369
 370    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 371
 372    __slots__ = (
 373        "pretty",
 374        "identify",
 375        "normalize",
 376        "pad",
 377        "_indent",
 378        "normalize_functions",
 379        "unsupported_level",
 380        "max_unsupported",
 381        "leading_comma",
 382        "max_text_width",
 383        "comments",
 384        "dialect",
 385        "unsupported_messages",
 386        "_escaped_quote_end",
 387        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 388    )
 389
 390    def __init__(
 391        self,
 392        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 393        identify: str | bool = False,
 394        normalize: bool = False,
 395        pad: int = 2,
 396        indent: int = 2,
 397        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 398        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 399        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 400        leading_comma: bool = False,
 401        max_text_width: int = 80,
 402        comments: bool = True,
 403        dialect: DialectType = None,
 404    ):
 405        import sqlglot
 406        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 407
 408        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 409        self.identify = identify
 410        self.normalize = normalize
 411        self.pad = pad
 412        self._indent = indent
 413        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 414        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 415        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 416        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 417        self.comments = comments
 418        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 419
 420        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 421        self.normalize_functions = (
 422            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 423        )
 424
 425        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 426        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 427            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 428        )
 429        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 430            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 431        )
 432
 433    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 434        """
 435        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 436
 437        Args:
 438            expression: The syntax tree.
 439            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 440                it is safer to copy.
 441
 442        Returns:
 443            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 444        """
 445        if copy:
 446            expression = expression.copy()
 447
 448        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 449
 450        self.unsupported_messages = []
 451        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 452
 453        if self.pretty:
 454            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 455
 456        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 457            return sql
 458
 459        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 460            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 461                logger.warning(msg)
 462        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 463            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 464
 465        return sql
 466
 467    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 468        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 469        if (
 470            not expression.parent
 471            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 472            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 473        ):
 474            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 475
 476            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 477
 478        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 479            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 480
 481            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 482
 483        return expression
 484
 485    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 486        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 487            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 488        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 489
 490    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 491        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 492
 493    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 494        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 495
 496    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 497        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 498        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 499        return comment
 500
 501    def maybe_comment(
 502        self,
 503        sql: str,
 504        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 505        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 506    ) -> str:
 507        comments = (
 508            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 509            if self.comments
 510            else None
 511        )
 512
 513        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 514            return sql
 515
 516        comments_sql = " ".join(
 517            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 518        )
 519
 520        if not comments_sql:
 521            return sql
 522
 523        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 524            return (
 525                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 526                if sql[0].isspace()
 527                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 528            )
 529
 530        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 531
 532    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 533        this_sql = self.indent(
 534            self.sql(expression)
 535            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 536            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 537            level=1,
 538            pad=0,
 539        )
 540        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 541
 542    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 543        original = self.identify
 544        self.identify = False
 545        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 546        self.identify = original
 547        return result
 548
 549    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 550        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 551            return name.upper()
 552        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 553            return name.lower()
 554        return name
 555
 556    def indent(
 557        self,
 558        sql: str,
 559        level: int = 0,
 560        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 561        skip_first: bool = False,
 562        skip_last: bool = False,
 563    ) -> str:
 564        if not self.pretty:
 565            return sql
 566
 567        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 568        lines = sql.split("\n")
 569
 570        return "\n".join(
 571            line
 572            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 573            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 574            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 575        )
 576
 577    def sql(
 578        self,
 579        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 580        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 581        comment: bool = True,
 582    ) -> str:
 583        if not expression:
 584            return ""
 585
 586        if isinstance(expression, str):
 587            return expression
 588
 589        if key:
 590            value = expression.args.get(key)
 591            if value:
 592                return self.sql(value)
 593            return ""
 594
 595        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 596
 597        if callable(transform):
 598            sql = transform(self, expression)
 599        elif transform:
 600            sql = transform
 601        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 602            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 603
 604            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 605                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 606            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 607                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 608            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 609                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 610            else:
 611                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 612        else:
 613            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 614
 615        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 616
 617    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 618        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 619        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 620        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 621
 622    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 623        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 624        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 625        options = expression.args.get("options")
 626        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 627        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 628        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 629        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 630        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 631
 632    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 633        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 634            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 635        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 636        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 637
 638    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 639        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 640
 641        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 642            join_mark = ""
 643            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 644
 645        column = ".".join(
 646            self.sql(part)
 647            for part in (
 648                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 649                expression.args.get("db"),
 650                expression.args.get("table"),
 651                expression.args.get("this"),
 652            )
 653            if part
 654        )
 655
 656        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 657
 658    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 659        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 660        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 661        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 662        return f"{position}{this}"
 663
 664    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 665        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 666        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 667        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 668        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 669        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 670        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 671        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 672        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 673
 674        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 675            kind = ""
 676
 677        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 678
 679    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 680        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 681        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 682        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 683
 684    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 685        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 686        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 687            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 688        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 689            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 690        else:
 691            persisted = ""
 692        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 693
 694    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 695        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 696
 697    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 698        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 699            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 700        else:
 701            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 702
 703        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 704
 705    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 706        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 707    ) -> str:
 708        this = ""
 709        if expression.this is not None:
 710            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 711            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 712
 713        start = expression.args.get("start")
 714        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 715        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 716        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 717        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 718        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 719        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 720        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 721        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 722        cycle_sql = ""
 723
 724        if cycle is not None:
 725            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 726            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 727
 728        sequence_opts = ""
 729        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 730            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 731            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 732
 733        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 734        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 735
 736        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 737
 738    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 739        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 740    ) -> str:
 741        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
 742        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 743        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 744
 745    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 746        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 747    ) -> str:
 748        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 749
 750    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 751        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 752
 753    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 754        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 755
 756    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 757        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 758        if desc is not None:
 759            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 760        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 761
 762    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 763        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 764        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 765        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 766        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 767        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 768
 769    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 770        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 771
 772    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 773        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 774        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 775        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 776
 777        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 778
 779        properties_sql = ""
 780        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 781            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 782        ):
 783            properties_sql = self.sql(
 784                exp.Properties(
 785                    expressions=[
 786                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 787                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 788                    ]
 789                )
 790            )
 791
 792        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 793        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 794
 795        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 796        if expression_sql:
 797            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 798
 799            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 800                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 801                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 802                        exp.Properties(
 803                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 804                        ),
 805                        wrapped=False,
 806                    )
 807                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 808                else:
 809                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 810
 811        postindex_props_sql = ""
 812        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 813            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 814                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 815                wrapped=False,
 816                prefix=" ",
 817            )
 818
 819        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 820        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 821        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 822
 823        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 824        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 825
 826        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 827        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 828            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 829                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 830                sep=" ",
 831                prefix=" ",
 832                wrapped=False,
 833            )
 834
 835        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 836
 837        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 838        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 839            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 840                exp.Properties(
 841                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 842                ),
 843                sep=" ",
 844                prefix=" ",
 845                wrapped=False,
 846            )
 847
 848        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 849        no_schema_binding = (
 850            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 851        )
 852
 853        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 854        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 855
 856        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 857        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 858
 859    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 860        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 861        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 862        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 863        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 864        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 865
 866        if when:
 867            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 868            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 869            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 870
 871        return this
 872
 873    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 874        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 875
 876    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 877        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 878        if with_:
 879            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 880        return sql
 881
 882    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 883        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 884        recursive = (
 885            "RECURSIVE "
 886            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 887            else ""
 888        )
 889
 890        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 891
 892    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 893        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 894        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 895
 896    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 897        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 898        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 899        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 900
 901        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 902            alias = "_t"
 903
 904        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 905
 906    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 907        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 908        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
 909            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
 910        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 911
 912    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 913        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 914        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
 915            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
 916        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 917
 918    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 920        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
 921            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
 922        return this
 923
 924    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 925        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 926        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
 927
 928    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 929        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 930        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 931        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 932        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 933
 934    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 935        type_value = expression.this
 936
 937        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 938            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 939        else:
 940            type_sql = (
 941                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 942                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 943                else type_value
 944            )
 945
 946        nested = ""
 947        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 948        values = ""
 949
 950        if interior:
 951            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 952                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 953                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 954                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 955                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 956                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 957            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 958                nested = f" {interior}"
 959            else:
 960                nested = f"({interior})"
 961
 962        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 963        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 964            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 965            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 966        ):
 967            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 968
 969        return type_sql
 970
 971    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 972        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 973        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 974        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 975        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 976
 977    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 978        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 979        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 980        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 981        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 982        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 983        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 984        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 985        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 986        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 987        if self.RETURNING_END:
 988            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 989        else:
 990            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 991        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 992
 993    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 994        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 995        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 996        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 997        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 998        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 999        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1000        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1001        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1002        return (
1003            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1004        )
1005
1006    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1007        return self.prepend_ctes(
1008            expression,
1009            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1010        )
1011
1012    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1013        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1014
1015    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1016        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1017        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
1018        count = expression.args.get("count")
1019        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1020        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1021            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1022        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1023        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1024
1025    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1026        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1027            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1028            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1029            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1030
1031        agg = expression.this
1032        agg_arg = agg.this
1033        cond = expression.expression.this
1034        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1035        return self.sql(agg)
1036
1037    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1038        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1039            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1040            return ""
1041
1042        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1043
1044    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1045        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1046        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1047        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1048        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1049        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1050        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1051        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1052        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1053        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1054        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1055        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1056        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1057        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1058        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1059        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1060        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1061
1062    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1063        text = expression.name
1064        lower = text.lower()
1065        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1066        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1067        if (
1068            expression.quoted
1069            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1070            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1071            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1072        ):
1073            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1074        return text
1075
1076    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1077        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1078        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1079        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1080        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1081        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1082
1083    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1084        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1085        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1086
1087    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1088        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1089
1090    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1091        root_properties = []
1092        with_properties = []
1093
1094        for p in expression.expressions:
1095            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1096            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1097                with_properties.append(p)
1098            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1099                root_properties.append(p)
1100
1101        return self.root_properties(
1102            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1103        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1104
1105    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1106        if properties.expressions:
1107            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1108        return ""
1109
1110    def properties(
1111        self,
1112        properties: exp.Properties,
1113        prefix: str = "",
1114        sep: str = ", ",
1115        suffix: str = "",
1116        wrapped: bool = True,
1117    ) -> str:
1118        if properties.expressions:
1119            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1120            if expressions:
1121                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1122                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1123        return ""
1124
1125    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1126        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1127
1128    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1129        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1130        for p in properties.expressions:
1131            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1132            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1133                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1134            else:
1135                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1136
1137        return properties_locs
1138
1139    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1140        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1141            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1142        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1143
1144    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1145        property_cls = expression.__class__
1146        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1147            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1148
1149        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1150        if not property_name:
1151            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1152
1153        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1154
1155    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1156        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1157        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1158        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1159
1160    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1161        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1162        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1163        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1164
1165    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1166        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1167        local = expression.args.get("local")
1168        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1169        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1170        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1171        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1172        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1173
1174    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1175        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1176        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1177        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1178
1179    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1180        if expression.args.get("default"):
1181            property = "DEFAULT"
1182        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1183            property = "ON"
1184        else:
1185            property = "OFF"
1186        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1187
1188    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1189        if expression.args.get("no"):
1190            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1191        if expression.args.get("default"):
1192            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1193
1194        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1195        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1196
1197    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1198        default = expression.args.get("default")
1199        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1200        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1201        if default or minimum or maximum:
1202            if default:
1203                prop = "DEFAULT"
1204            elif minimum:
1205                prop = "MINIMUM"
1206            else:
1207                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1208            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1209        units = expression.args.get("units")
1210        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1211        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1212
1213    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1214        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1215        always = expression.args.get("always")
1216        default = expression.args.get("default")
1217        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1218        never = expression.args.get("never")
1219
1220        if autotemp is not None:
1221            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1222        elif always:
1223            prop = "ALWAYS"
1224        elif default:
1225            prop = "DEFAULT"
1226        elif manual:
1227            prop = "MANUAL"
1228        elif never:
1229            prop = "NEVER"
1230        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1231
1232    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1233        no = expression.args.get("no")
1234        no = " NO" if no else ""
1235        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1236        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1237
1238        for_ = ""
1239        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1240            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1241        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1242            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1243        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1244            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1245        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1246
1247    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1248        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1249            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1250        if expression.this:
1251            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1252            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1253            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1254
1255        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1256        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1257        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1258
1259    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1260        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1261
1262        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1263        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1264            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1265        else:
1266            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1267
1268        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1269
1270    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1271        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1272        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1273        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1274        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1275        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1276        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1277        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1278
1279    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1280        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1281        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1282        statistics_sql = ""
1283        if statistics is not None:
1284            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1285        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1286
1287    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1288        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1289
1290        if expression.this:
1291            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1292            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1293
1294            if expression.expression:
1295                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1296                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1297
1298            sql = f"{sql})"
1299
1300        return f"{sql})"
1301
1302    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1303        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1304
1305        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1306            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1307        else:
1308            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1309
1310        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1311        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1312        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1313
1314        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1315
1316        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1317        partition_sql = (
1318            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1319        )
1320        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1321        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1322        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1323        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1324        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1325        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1326
1327        if self.RETURNING_END:
1328            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1329        else:
1330            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1331
1332        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1333        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1334
1335    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1336        return self.prepend_ctes(
1337            expression,
1338            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1339        )
1340
1341    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1342        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1343
1344    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1345        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1346
1347    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1348        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1349        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1350        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1351        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1352        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1353
1354    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1355        return expression.name.upper()
1356
1357    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1358        return expression.name.upper()
1359
1360    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1361        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1362        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1363        if constraint:
1364            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1365        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1366        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1367        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1368        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1369        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1370        if expressions:
1371            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1372        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1373
1374    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1375        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1376
1377    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1378        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1379        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1380        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1381        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1382        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1383        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1384        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1385        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1386        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1387        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1388        null = expression.args.get("null")
1389        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1390        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1391
1392    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1393        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1394
1395    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1396        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1397        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1398        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1399        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1400
1401    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1402        table = ".".join(
1403            self.sql(part)
1404            for part in (
1405                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1406                expression.args.get("db"),
1407                expression.args.get("this"),
1408            )
1409            if part is not None
1410        )
1411
1412        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1413        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1414        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1415        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1416        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1417        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1418        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1419        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1420        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1421        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1422
1423        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1424        if file_format:
1425            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1426            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1427            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1428
1429        index = self.sql(expression, "index")
1430        index = f" AT {index}" if index else ""
1431
1432        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1433        if ordinality:
1434            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1435            alias = ""
1436
1437        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{index}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1438
1439    def tablesample_sql(
1440        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1441    ) -> str:
1442        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1443            table = expression.this.copy()
1444            table.set("alias", None)
1445            this = self.sql(table)
1446            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1447        else:
1448            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1449            alias = ""
1450
1451        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1452        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1453        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1454        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1455        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1456        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1457        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1458        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1459        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1460        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1461        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1462
1463        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1464        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1465            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1466
1467        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1468        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1469        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1470
1471        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1472        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1473            expr = f"({expr})"
1474
1475        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1476
1477    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1478        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1479
1480        if expression.this:
1481            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1482            if not expressions:
1483                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1484
1485            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1486            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1487            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1488            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1489            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1490
1491        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1492        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1493        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1494        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1495        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1496        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1497        if include_nulls is not None:
1498            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1499        else:
1500            nulls = ""
1501        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1502
1503    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1504        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1505        kind = expression.text("kind")
1506        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1507        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1508
1509    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1510        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1511
1512    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1513        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1514        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1515        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1516        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1517        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1518        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1519        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1520        if self.RETURNING_END:
1521            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1522        else:
1523            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1524        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1525        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1526
1527    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1528        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1529        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1530            args = self.expressions(expression)
1531            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1532            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1533            values = (
1534                f"({values})"
1535                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1536                else values
1537            )
1538            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1539
1540        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1541        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1542        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1543
1544        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1545
1546        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1547            row = tup.expressions
1548
1549            if i == 0 and column_names:
1550                row = [
1551                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1552                ]
1553
1554            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1555
1556        if self.pretty:
1557            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1558            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1559            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1560            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1561            return self.subquery_sql(
1562                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1563            )
1564
1565        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1566        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1567        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1568
1569    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1570        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1571
1572    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1573        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1574        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1575        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1576
1577    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1578        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1579
1580    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1581        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1582
1583        if expression.args.get("all"):
1584            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1585
1586        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1587        grouping_sets = (
1588            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1589        )
1590
1591        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1592        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1593            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1594        else:
1595            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1596            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1597
1598        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1599        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1600            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1601        else:
1602            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1603            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1604
1605        groupings = csv(
1606            grouping_sets,
1607            cube_sql,
1608            rollup_sql,
1609            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1610            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1611        )
1612
1613        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1614            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1615
1616        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1617
1618    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1619        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1620        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1621
1622    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1623        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1624        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1625        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1626        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1627        return start + connect
1628
1629    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1630        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1631
1632    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1633        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1634            side = None
1635        else:
1636            side = expression.side
1637
1638        op_sql = " ".join(
1639            op
1640            for op in (
1641                expression.method,
1642                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1643                side,
1644                expression.kind,
1645                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1646            )
1647            if op
1648        )
1649        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1650        using = expression.args.get("using")
1651
1652        if not on_sql and using:
1653            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1654
1655        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1656
1657        if on_sql:
1658            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1659            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1660            if using:
1661                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1662            else:
1663                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1664        elif not op_sql:
1665            return f", {this_sql}"
1666
1667        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1668        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1669
1670    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1671        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1672        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1673        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1674
1675    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1676        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1677
1678        if expression.args.get("view"):
1679            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1680            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1681            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1682            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1683            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1684            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1685
1686        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1687        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1688        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1689
1690    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1691        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1692
1693        args = [
1694            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1695            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1696            if e
1697        ]
1698
1699        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1700        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1701        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}"
1702
1703    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1704        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1705        expression = expression.expression
1706        expression = (
1707            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1708        )
1709        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1710
1711    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1712        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1713        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1714        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1715        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1716        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1717        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1718        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1719        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1720
1721    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1722        expressions = (
1723            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1724        )
1725        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1726        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1727
1728    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1729        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1730
1731    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1732        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1733            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1734            return ""
1735
1736        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1737        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1738        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1739        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1740
1741        if wait is not None:
1742            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1743                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1744            else:
1745                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1746
1747        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1748
1749    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1750        text = expression.this or ""
1751        if expression.is_string:
1752            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1753        return text
1754
1755    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1756        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1757        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1758            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1759        elif self.pretty:
1760            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1761        return text
1762
1763    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1764        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1765        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1766        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1767        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1768        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1769        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1770        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1771        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1772        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1773        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1774        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1775
1776    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1777        return "NULL"
1778
1779    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1780        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1781
1782    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1783        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1784        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1785        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1786
1787    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1788        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1789
1790    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1791        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1792
1793    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1794        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1795
1796    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1797        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1798        asc = not desc
1799
1800        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1801        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1802        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1803        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1804        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1805
1806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1807
1808        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1809        nulls_sort_change = ""
1810        if nulls_first and (
1811            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1812        ):
1813            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1814        elif (
1815            nulls_last
1816            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1817            and not nulls_are_last
1818        ):
1819            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1820
1821        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1822        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1823            null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
1824            this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
1825            nulls_sort_change = ""
1826
1827        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1828
1829    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1830        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1831        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1832        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1833        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1834        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1835        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1836        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1837        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1838        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1839        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1840        definition_sqls = [
1841            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1842            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1843        ]
1844        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1845        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1846        body = "".join(
1847            (
1848                partition,
1849                order,
1850                measures,
1851                rows,
1852                after,
1853                pattern,
1854                define,
1855            )
1856        )
1857        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1858        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1859        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1860
1861    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1862        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1863
1864        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1865        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1866
1867        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1868            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1869        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1870            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1871
1872        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1873
1874        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1875            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1876            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1877            else []
1878        )
1879
1880        return csv(
1881            *sqls,
1882            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1883            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1884            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1885            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1886            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1887            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1888            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1889            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1890            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1891            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1892            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1893            sep="",
1894        )
1895
1896    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1897        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1898    ) -> t.List[str]:
1899        return [
1900            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1901            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1902        ]
1903
1904    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1905        return [
1906            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1907            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1908            if expression.args.get("windows")
1909            else "",
1910            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1911            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1912            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1913        ]
1914
1915    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1916        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1917        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1918        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1919
1920    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1921        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1922        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1923        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1924        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1925        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1926        top = (
1927            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1928            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1929            else ""
1930        )
1931
1932        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1933
1934        if kind:
1935            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1936                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1937            else:
1938                if kind == "STRUCT":
1939                    expressions = self.expressions(
1940                        sqls=[
1941                            self.sql(
1942                                exp.Struct(
1943                                    expressions=[
1944                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1945                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1946                                        )
1947                                        for e in expression.expressions
1948                                    ]
1949                                )
1950                            )
1951                        ]
1952                    )
1953                kind = ""
1954
1955        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
1956        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
1957        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
1958        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1959        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1960            expression,
1961            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1962            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1963            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1964        )
1965        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1966
1967    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1969        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1970        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
1971
1972    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1973        if expression.expressions:
1974            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1975        return ""
1976
1977    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1978        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1979        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1980        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1981        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1982        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1983
1984    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1985        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1986        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1987
1988    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1989        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1990        kind = expression.text("kind")
1991        if kind:
1992            kind = f"{kind}."
1993        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1994
1995    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1996        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1997
1998    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1999        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2000        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2001
2002        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2003        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2004
2005        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2006        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2007
2008    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2009        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2010        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2011
2012    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2013        return self.prepend_ctes(
2014            expression,
2015            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2016        )
2017
2018    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2019        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2020        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2021        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2022        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2023
2024    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2025        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2026
2027        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2028        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2029
2030        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2031            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2032                alias.append("columns", offset)
2033
2034        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2035            columns = alias.columns
2036            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2037        else:
2038            alias = self.sql(alias)
2039
2040        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2041        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2042            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2043        else:
2044            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2045                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2046            elif offset:
2047                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2048            else:
2049                suffix = alias
2050
2051        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2052
2053    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2054        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2055        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2056
2057    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2058        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2059        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2060        order = expression.args.get("order")
2061        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2062        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2063        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2064        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2065
2066        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2067
2068        first = expression.args.get("first")
2069        if first is None:
2070            first = ""
2071        else:
2072            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2073
2074        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2075            return f"{this} {alias}"
2076
2077        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2078        return f"{this} ({args})"
2079
2080    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2081        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2082        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2083
2084    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2085        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2086        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2087        end = (
2088            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2089            or "CURRENT ROW"
2090        )
2091        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2092
2093    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2094        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2095        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2096        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2097
2098    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2099        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2100        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2101        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2102        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2103
2104    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2105        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2106            expression.this,
2107            expression.expressions,
2108            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2109        )
2110        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2111        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2112
2113    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2114        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2115
2116    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2117        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2118        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2119            this = self.wrap(this)
2120        return f"ANY {this}"
2121
2122    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2123        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2124
2125    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2126        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2127        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2128
2129        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2130            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2131            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2132
2133        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2134
2135        if default:
2136            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2137
2138        statements.append("END")
2139
2140        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2141            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2142
2143        return " ".join(statements)
2144
2145    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2146        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2147        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2148        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2149
2150    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2151        order = expression.args.get("order")
2152        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2153        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2154
2155    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2156        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2157        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2158        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2159
2160    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2161        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2162
2163        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2164            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2165        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2166            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2167        else:
2168            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2169
2170    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2171        expressions = expression.expressions
2172        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2173            expressions = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions]
2174        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2175
2176    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2177        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2178        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2179
2180    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2181        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2182        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2183        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2184        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2185        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2186        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2187        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2188        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2189
2190    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2191        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2192        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2193        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2194        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2195
2196    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2197        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2198
2199    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2200        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2201        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2202        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2203
2204    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2205        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2206
2207    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2208        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2209
2210    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2211        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2212        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2213        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2214        if unique_keys is not None:
2215            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2216        else:
2217            unique_keys = ""
2218        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2219        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2220        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2221        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2222        return self.func(
2223            "JSON_OBJECT",
2224            *expression.expressions,
2225            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2226        )
2227
2228    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2229        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2230        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2231        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2232        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2233        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2234        return self.func(
2235            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2236        )
2237
2238    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2239        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2240        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2241        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2242        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2243        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2244        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2245        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2246        return self.func(
2247            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2248            this,
2249            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2250        )
2251
2252    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2253        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2254        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2255        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2256
2257        if nested_schema:
2258            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2259
2260        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2261        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2262        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2263        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2264
2265    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2266        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2267
2268    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2269        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2270        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2271        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2272        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2273        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2274        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2275        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2276        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2277        return self.func(
2278            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2279        )
2280
2281    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2282        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2283        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2284        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2285        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2286        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2287        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2288
2289    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2290        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2291        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2292        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2293        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2294        with_ = (
2295            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2296            if expressions
2297            else ""
2298        )
2299        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2300
2301    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2302        query = expression.args.get("query")
2303        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2304        field = expression.args.get("field")
2305        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2306
2307        if query:
2308            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2309        elif unnest:
2310            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2311        elif field:
2312            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2313        else:
2314            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2315
2316        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2317
2318    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2319        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2320
2321    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2322        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2323        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2324            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2325        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2326
2327        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2328            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2329            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2330
2331        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2332        if this:
2333            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2334            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2335
2336        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2337
2338    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2339        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2340
2341    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2342        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2343        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2344        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2345        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2346        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2347        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2348
2349    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2350        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2351
2352    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2353        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2354            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2355        else:
2356            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2357            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2358
2359        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2360
2361    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2362        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2363        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2364        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2365        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2366
2367    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2368        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2369
2370    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2371        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2372        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2373        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2374
2375    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2376        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2377
2378    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2379        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2380        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2381        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2382
2383    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2384        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2385
2386    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2387        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2388
2389    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2390        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2391
2392    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2393        if not self.pretty:
2394            return self.binary(expression, op)
2395
2396        sqls = tuple(
2397            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2398            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2399        )
2400
2401        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2402        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2403
2404    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2405        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2406
2407    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2408        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2409
2410    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2411        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2412
2413    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2414        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2415
2416    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2417        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2418
2419    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2420        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2421
2422    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2423        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2424        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2425        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2426        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2427        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
2428
2429    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2430        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2431        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2432
2433    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2434        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2435            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2436        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2437
2438    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2439        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2440
2441    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2442        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2443        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2444        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2445        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2446        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2447
2448    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2449        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2450        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2451        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2452        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2453        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2454        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2455        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2456        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2457        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2458
2459    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2460        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2461        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2462        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2463        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2464
2465        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2466            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2467
2468        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2469
2470    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2471        return "BEGIN"
2472
2473    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2474        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2475        if chain is not None:
2476            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2477
2478        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2479
2480    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2481        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2482        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2483        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2484
2485    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2486        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2487
2488        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2489        if dtype:
2490            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2491            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2492            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2493            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2494            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2495
2496        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2497        if default:
2498            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2499
2500        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2501            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2502
2503        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2504
2505    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2506        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2507            # Remove db from tables
2508            expression = expression.transform(
2509                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2510            )
2511        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2512        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2513
2514    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2515        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2516
2517        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2518            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2519        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2520            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2521        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2522            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2523        else:
2524            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2525
2526        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2527        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2528        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2529
2530    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2531        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2532            return self.expressions(
2533                expression,
2534                key="actions",
2535                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2536            )
2537        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2538
2539    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2540        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2541        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2542        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2543
2544    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2545        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2546        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2547        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2548
2549        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2550        if enforced is not None:
2551            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2552
2553        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2554
2555    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2556        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2557        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2558
2559        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2560        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2561        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2562
2563    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2564        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2565
2566    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2567        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2568
2569    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2570        return self.sql(
2571            exp.Cast(
2572                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2573                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2574            )
2575        )
2576
2577    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2578        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2579            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2580        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2581
2582    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2583        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2584
2585        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2586            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2587
2588        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2589            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2590                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2591            ):
2592                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2593
2594        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2595            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2596                return self.sql(
2597                    exp.cast(
2598                        l / r,
2599                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2600                    )
2601                )
2602
2603        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2604
2605    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2606        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2607
2608    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2609        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2610
2611    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2612        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2613
2614    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2615        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2616
2617    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2618        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
2619
2620    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2621        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2622
2623    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2624        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2625
2626    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2627        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2628
2629    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2630        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2631
2632    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2633        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2634
2635    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2636        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2637
2638    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2639        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2640            return self.sql(
2641                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2642            )
2643        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2644
2645    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2646        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2647
2648    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2649        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2650
2651    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2652        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2653
2654    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2655        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2656
2657    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2658        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2659
2660    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2661        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2662
2663    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2664        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2665
2666    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2667        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2668
2669    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2670        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2671
2672    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2673        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2674
2675    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2676        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2677
2678    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2679        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2680
2681    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2682        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2683
2684    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2685        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2686
2687    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2688        this = expression.this
2689        expr = expression.expression
2690
2691        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2692            this, expr = expr, this
2693
2694        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
2695
2696    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2697        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2698        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2699        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2700        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2701        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2702
2703    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2704        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2705        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2706
2707    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2708        args = []
2709
2710        for key in expression.arg_types:
2711            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2712
2713            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2714                for value in arg_value:
2715                    args.append(value)
2716            elif arg_value is not None:
2717                args.append(arg_value)
2718
2719        if self.normalize_functions:
2720            name = expression.sql_name()
2721        else:
2722            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2723
2724        return self.func(name, *args)
2725
2726    def func(
2727        self,
2728        name: str,
2729        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2730        prefix: str = "(",
2731        suffix: str = ")",
2732    ) -> str:
2733        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2734
2735    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2736        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2737        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2738            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2739        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2740
2741    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2742        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2743
2744    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2745        return format_time(
2746            self.sql(expression, "format"),
2747            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
2748            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
2749        )
2750
2751    def expressions(
2752        self,
2753        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2754        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2755        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2756        flat: bool = False,
2757        indent: bool = True,
2758        skip_first: bool = False,
2759        sep: str = ", ",
2760        prefix: str = "",
2761    ) -> str:
2762        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2763
2764        if not expressions:
2765            return ""
2766
2767        if flat:
2768            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2769
2770        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2771
2772        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2773        pad = " " * self.pad
2774        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2775
2776        result_sqls = []
2777        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2778            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2779            if not sql:
2780                continue
2781
2782            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2783
2784            if self.pretty:
2785                if self.leading_comma:
2786                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2787                else:
2788                    result_sqls.append(
2789                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2790                    )
2791            else:
2792                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2793
2794        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2795        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2796
2797    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2798        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2799        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2800        if flat:
2801            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2802        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2803
2804    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2805        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2806        if not property_name:
2807            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2808        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2809
2810    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2811        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2812        op = self.seg(op)
2813        return self.query_modifiers(
2814            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2815        )
2816
2817    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2818        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2819
2820    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2821        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2822
2823    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2825        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2826        expressions = (
2827            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2828        )
2829        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2830
2831    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2832        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2833        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2834        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2835
2836    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2837        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2838
2839    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2840        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2841        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2842        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2843        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2844
2845        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2846        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2847            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2848            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2849                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2850        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2851            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2852                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2853            else:
2854                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2855        else:
2856            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2857        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2858
2859    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2860        table = expression.this
2861        table_alias = ""
2862
2863        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2864        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2865            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2866            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2867
2868        this = self.sql(table)
2869        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2870        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2871        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2872
2873        return self.prepend_ctes(
2874            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2875        )
2876
2877    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2878        if expression.args.get("format"):
2879            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2880
2881        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2882
2883    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2885        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2886        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2887        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2888        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2889
2890    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2891        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2892        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2893        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2894        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2895
2896    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2897        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2898
2899    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2900        return ""
2901
2902    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2903        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2904        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2905        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2906        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2907        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2908
2909    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2910        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2911        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2912
2913        if having:
2914            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2915
2916        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2917
2918    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2919        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2920        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2921        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2922        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2923        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2924        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2925        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2926        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2927        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2928        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2929        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2930        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2931        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2932
2933    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2934        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2935        if key_block_size:
2936            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2937
2938        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2939        if using:
2940            return f"USING {using}"
2941
2942        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2943        if parser:
2944            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2945
2946        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2947        if comment:
2948            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2949
2950        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2951        if visible is not None:
2952            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2953
2954        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2955        if engine_attr:
2956            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2957
2958        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2959        if secondary_engine_attr:
2960            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2961
2962        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2963        return ""
2964
2965    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2966        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2967        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2969        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2970        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2971        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2972        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2973        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2974        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2975        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2976        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
2977
2978    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2979        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2980            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2981
2982        case = exp.Case().when(
2983            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2984            expression.args["true"],
2985            copy=False,
2986        )
2987        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2988        if else_cond:
2989            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
2990
2991        return self.sql(case)
2992
2993    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2994        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2995        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2996        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2997        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2998        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2999        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3000
3001    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3002        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3003
3004    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3005        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3006
3007    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3008        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3009        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3010        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3011        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3012        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3013        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3014
3015    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3016        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3017        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3018        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3019
3020    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3022        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3023        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3024
3025    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3026        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3027
3028    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3029        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3030            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3031
3032            expression = simplify(expression)
3033
3034        return expression

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
390    def __init__(
391        self,
392        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
393        identify: str | bool = False,
394        normalize: bool = False,
395        pad: int = 2,
396        indent: int = 2,
397        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
398        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
399        max_unsupported: int = 3,
400        leading_comma: bool = False,
401        max_text_width: int = 80,
402        comments: bool = True,
403        dialect: DialectType = None,
404    ):
405        import sqlglot
406        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
407
408        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
409        self.identify = identify
410        self.normalize = normalize
411        self.pad = pad
412        self._indent = indent
413        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
414        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
415        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
416        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
417        self.comments = comments
418        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
419
420        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
421        self.normalize_functions = (
422            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
423        )
424
425        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
426        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
427            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
428        )
429        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
430            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
431        )
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
KEY_VALUE_DEFINITONS = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Bracket'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EQ'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Slice'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
433    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
434        """
435        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
436
437        Args:
438            expression: The syntax tree.
439            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
440                it is safer to copy.
441
442        Returns:
443            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
444        """
445        if copy:
446            expression = expression.copy()
447
448        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
449
450        self.unsupported_messages = []
451        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
452
453        if self.pretty:
454            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
455
456        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
457            return sql
458
459        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
460            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
461                logger.warning(msg)
462        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
463            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
464
465        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
467    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
468        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
469        if (
470            not expression.parent
471            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
472            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
473        ):
474            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
475
476            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
477
478        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
479            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
480
481            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
482
483        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
485    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
486        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
487            raise UnsupportedError(message)
488        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
490    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
491        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
493    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
494        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
496    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
497        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
498        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
499        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
501    def maybe_comment(
502        self,
503        sql: str,
504        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
505        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
506    ) -> str:
507        comments = (
508            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
509            if self.comments
510            else None
511        )
512
513        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
514            return sql
515
516        comments_sql = " ".join(
517            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
518        )
519
520        if not comments_sql:
521            return sql
522
523        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
524            return (
525                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
526                if sql[0].isspace()
527                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
528            )
529
530        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
532    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
533        this_sql = self.indent(
534            self.sql(expression)
535            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
536            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
537            level=1,
538            pad=0,
539        )
540        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
542    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
543        original = self.identify
544        self.identify = False
545        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
546        self.identify = original
547        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
549    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
550        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
551            return name.upper()
552        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
553            return name.lower()
554        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
556    def indent(
557        self,
558        sql: str,
559        level: int = 0,
560        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
561        skip_first: bool = False,
562        skip_last: bool = False,
563    ) -> str:
564        if not self.pretty:
565            return sql
566
567        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
568        lines = sql.split("\n")
569
570        return "\n".join(
571            line
572            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
573            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
574            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
575        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
577    def sql(
578        self,
579        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
580        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
581        comment: bool = True,
582    ) -> str:
583        if not expression:
584            return ""
585
586        if isinstance(expression, str):
587            return expression
588
589        if key:
590            value = expression.args.get(key)
591            if value:
592                return self.sql(value)
593            return ""
594
595        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
596
597        if callable(transform):
598            sql = transform(self, expression)
599        elif transform:
600            sql = transform
601        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
602            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
603
604            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
605                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
606            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
607                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
608            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
609                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
610            else:
611                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
612        else:
613            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
614
615        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
617    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
618        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
619        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
620        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
622    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
623        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
624        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
625        options = expression.args.get("options")
626        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
627        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
628        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
629        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
630        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
632    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
633        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
634            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
635        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
636        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
638    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
639        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
640
641        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
642            join_mark = ""
643            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
644
645        column = ".".join(
646            self.sql(part)
647            for part in (
648                expression.args.get("catalog"),
649                expression.args.get("db"),
650                expression.args.get("table"),
651                expression.args.get("this"),
652            )
653            if part
654        )
655
656        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
658    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
659        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
660        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
661        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
662        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
664    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
665        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
666        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
667        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
668        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
669        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
670        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
671        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
672        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
673
674        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
675            kind = ""
676
677        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
679    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
680        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
681        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
682        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
684    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
685        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
686        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
687            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
688        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
689            persisted = " PERSISTED"
690        else:
691            persisted = ""
692        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
694    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
695        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
697    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
698        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
699            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
700        else:
701            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
702
703        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
705    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
706        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
707    ) -> str:
708        this = ""
709        if expression.this is not None:
710            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
711            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
712
713        start = expression.args.get("start")
714        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
715        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
716        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
717        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
718        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
719        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
720        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
721        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
722        cycle_sql = ""
723
724        if cycle is not None:
725            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
726            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
727
728        sequence_opts = ""
729        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
730            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
731            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
732
733        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
734        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
735
736        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
738    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
739        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
740    ) -> str:
741        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
742        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
743        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
745    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
746        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
747    ) -> str:
748        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
750    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
751        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
753    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
754        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
756    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
757        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
758        if desc is not None:
759            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
760        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
762    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
763        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
764        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
765        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
766        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
767        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
769    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
770        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
772    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
773        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
774        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
775        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
776
777        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
778
779        properties_sql = ""
780        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
781            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
782        ):
783            properties_sql = self.sql(
784                exp.Properties(
785                    expressions=[
786                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
787                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
788                    ]
789                )
790            )
791
792        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
793        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
794
795        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
796        if expression_sql:
797            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
798
799            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
800                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
801                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
802                        exp.Properties(
803                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
804                        ),
805                        wrapped=False,
806                    )
807                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
808                else:
809                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
810
811        postindex_props_sql = ""
812        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
813            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
814                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
815                wrapped=False,
816                prefix=" ",
817            )
818
819        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
820        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
821        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
822
823        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
824        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
825
826        postcreate_props_sql = ""
827        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
828            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
829                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
830                sep=" ",
831                prefix=" ",
832                wrapped=False,
833            )
834
835        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
836
837        postexpression_props_sql = ""
838        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
839            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
840                exp.Properties(
841                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
842                ),
843                sep=" ",
844                prefix=" ",
845                wrapped=False,
846            )
847
848        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
849        no_schema_binding = (
850            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
851        )
852
853        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
854        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
855
856        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
857        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
859    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
860        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
861        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
862        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
863        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
864        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
865
866        if when:
867            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
868            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
869            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
870
871        return this
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
873    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
874        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
876    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
877        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
878        if with_:
879            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
880        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
882    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
883        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
884        recursive = (
885            "RECURSIVE "
886            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
887            else ""
888        )
889
890        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
892    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
893        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
894        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
896    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
897        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
898        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
899        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
900
901        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
902            alias = "_t"
903
904        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
906    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
907        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
908        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
909            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
910        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
912    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
913        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
914        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
915            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
916        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
918    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
920        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
921            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
922        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
924    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
925        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
926        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
928    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
929        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
930        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
931        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
932        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
934    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
935        type_value = expression.this
936
937        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
938            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
939        else:
940            type_sql = (
941                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
942                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
943                else type_value
944            )
945
946        nested = ""
947        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
948        values = ""
949
950        if interior:
951            if expression.args.get("nested"):
952                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
953                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
954                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
955                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
956                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
957            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
958                nested = f" {interior}"
959            else:
960                nested = f"({interior})"
961
962        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
963        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
964            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
965            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
966        ):
967            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
968
969        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
971    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
972        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
973        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
974        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
975        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
977    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
978        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
979        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
980        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
981        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
982        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
983        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
984        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
985        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
986        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
987        if self.RETURNING_END:
988            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
989        else:
990            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
991        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
 993    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 994        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 995        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 996        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 997        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 998        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 999        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1000        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1001        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1002        return (
1003            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1004        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1006    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1007        return self.prepend_ctes(
1008            expression,
1009            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1010        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1012    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1013        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1015    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1016        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1017        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
1018        count = expression.args.get("count")
1019        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1020        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1021            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1022        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1023        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1025    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1026        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1027            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1028            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1029            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1030
1031        agg = expression.this
1032        agg_arg = agg.this
1033        cond = expression.expression.this
1034        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1035        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1037    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1038        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1039            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1040            return ""
1041
1042        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1044    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1045        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1046        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1047        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1048        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1049        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1050        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1051        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1052        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1053        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1054        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1055        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1056        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1057        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1058        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1059        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1060        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1062    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1063        text = expression.name
1064        lower = text.lower()
1065        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1066        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1067        if (
1068            expression.quoted
1069            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1070            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1071            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1072        ):
1073            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1074        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1076    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1077        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1078        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1079        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1080        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1081        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1083    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1084        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1085        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1087    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1088        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1090    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1091        root_properties = []
1092        with_properties = []
1093
1094        for p in expression.expressions:
1095            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1096            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1097                with_properties.append(p)
1098            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1099                root_properties.append(p)
1100
1101        return self.root_properties(
1102            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1103        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1105    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1106        if properties.expressions:
1107            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1108        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1110    def properties(
1111        self,
1112        properties: exp.Properties,
1113        prefix: str = "",
1114        sep: str = ", ",
1115        suffix: str = "",
1116        wrapped: bool = True,
1117    ) -> str:
1118        if properties.expressions:
1119            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1120            if expressions:
1121                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1122                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1123        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1125    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1126        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1128    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1129        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1130        for p in properties.expressions:
1131            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1132            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1133                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1134            else:
1135                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1136
1137        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1139    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1140        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1141            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1142        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1144    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1145        property_cls = expression.__class__
1146        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1147            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1148
1149        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1150        if not property_name:
1151            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1152
1153        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1155    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1156        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1157        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1158        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1160    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1161        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1162        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1163        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1165    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1166        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1167        local = expression.args.get("local")
1168        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1169        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1170        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1171        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1172        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1174    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1175        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1176        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1177        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1179    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1180        if expression.args.get("default"):
1181            property = "DEFAULT"
1182        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1183            property = "ON"
1184        else:
1185            property = "OFF"
1186        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1188    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1189        if expression.args.get("no"):
1190            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1191        if expression.args.get("default"):
1192            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1193
1194        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1195        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1197    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1198        default = expression.args.get("default")
1199        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1200        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1201        if default or minimum or maximum:
1202            if default:
1203                prop = "DEFAULT"
1204            elif minimum:
1205                prop = "MINIMUM"
1206            else:
1207                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1208            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1209        units = expression.args.get("units")
1210        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1211        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1213    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1214        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1215        always = expression.args.get("always")
1216        default = expression.args.get("default")
1217        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1218        never = expression.args.get("never")
1219
1220        if autotemp is not None:
1221            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1222        elif always:
1223            prop = "ALWAYS"
1224        elif default:
1225            prop = "DEFAULT"
1226        elif manual:
1227            prop = "MANUAL"
1228        elif never:
1229            prop = "NEVER"
1230        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1232    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1233        no = expression.args.get("no")
1234        no = " NO" if no else ""
1235        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1236        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1237
1238        for_ = ""
1239        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1240            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1241        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1242            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1243        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1244            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1245        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1247    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1248        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1249            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1250        if expression.this:
1251            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1252            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1253            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1254
1255        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1256        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1257        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1259    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1260        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1261
1262        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1263        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1264            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1265        else:
1266            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1267
1268        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1270    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1271        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1272        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1273        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1274        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1275        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1276        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1277        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1279    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1280        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1281        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1282        statistics_sql = ""
1283        if statistics is not None:
1284            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1285        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1287    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1288        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1289
1290        if expression.this:
1291            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1292            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1293
1294            if expression.expression:
1295                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1296                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1297
1298            sql = f"{sql})"
1299
1300        return f"{sql})"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1302    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1303        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1304
1305        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1306            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1307        else:
1308            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1309
1310        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1311        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1312        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1313
1314        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1315
1316        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1317        partition_sql = (
1318            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1319        )
1320        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1321        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1322        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1323        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1324        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1325        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1326
1327        if self.RETURNING_END:
1328            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1329        else:
1330            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1331
1332        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1333        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1335    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1336        return self.prepend_ctes(
1337            expression,
1338            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1339        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1341    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1342        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1344    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1345        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1347    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1348        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1349        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1350        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1351        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1352        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1354    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1355        return expression.name.upper()
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1357    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1358        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1360    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1361        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1362        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1363        if constraint:
1364            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1365        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1366        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1367        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1368        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1369        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1370        if expressions:
1371            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1372        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1374    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1375        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1377    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1378        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1379        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1380        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1381        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1382        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1383        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1384        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1385        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1386        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1387        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1388        null = expression.args.get("null")
1389        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1390        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1392    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1393        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1395    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1396        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1397        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1398        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1399        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1401    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1402        table = ".".join(
1403            self.sql(part)
1404            for part in (
1405                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1406                expression.args.get("db"),
1407                expression.args.get("this"),
1408            )
1409            if part is not None
1410        )
1411
1412        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1413        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1414        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1415        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1416        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1417        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1418        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1419        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1420        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1421        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1422
1423        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1424        if file_format:
1425            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1426            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1427            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1428
1429        index = self.sql(expression, "index")
1430        index = f" AT {index}" if index else ""
1431
1432        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1433        if ordinality:
1434            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1435            alias = ""
1436
1437        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{index}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1439    def tablesample_sql(
1440        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1441    ) -> str:
1442        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1443            table = expression.this.copy()
1444            table.set("alias", None)
1445            this = self.sql(table)
1446            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1447        else:
1448            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1449            alias = ""
1450
1451        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1452        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1453        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1454        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1455        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1456        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1457        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1458        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1459        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1460        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1461        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1462
1463        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1464        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1465            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1466
1467        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1468        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1469        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1470
1471        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1472        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1473            expr = f"({expr})"
1474
1475        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1477    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1478        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1479
1480        if expression.this:
1481            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1482            if not expressions:
1483                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1484
1485            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1486            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1487            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1488            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1489            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1490
1491        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1492        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1493        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1494        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1495        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1496        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1497        if include_nulls is not None:
1498            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1499        else:
1500            nulls = ""
1501        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1503    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1504        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1505        kind = expression.text("kind")
1506        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1507        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1509    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1510        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1512    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1513        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1514        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1515        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1516        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1517        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1518        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1519        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1520        if self.RETURNING_END:
1521            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1522        else:
1523            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1524        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1525        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1527    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1528        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1529        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1530            args = self.expressions(expression)
1531            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1532            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1533            values = (
1534                f"({values})"
1535                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1536                else values
1537            )
1538            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1539
1540        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1541        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1542        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1543
1544        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1545
1546        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1547            row = tup.expressions
1548
1549            if i == 0 and column_names:
1550                row = [
1551                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1552                ]
1553
1554            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1555
1556        if self.pretty:
1557            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1558            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1559            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1560            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1561            return self.subquery_sql(
1562                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1563            )
1564
1565        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1566        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1567        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1569    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1570        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1572    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1573        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1574        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1575        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1577    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1578        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1580    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1581        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1582
1583        if expression.args.get("all"):
1584            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1585
1586        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1587        grouping_sets = (
1588            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1589        )
1590
1591        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1592        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1593            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1594        else:
1595            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1596            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1597
1598        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1599        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1600            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1601        else:
1602            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1603            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1604
1605        groupings = csv(
1606            grouping_sets,
1607            cube_sql,
1608            rollup_sql,
1609            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1610            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1611        )
1612
1613        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1614            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1615
1616        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1618    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1619        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1620        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1622    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1623        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1624        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1625        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1626        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1627        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1629    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1630        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1632    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1633        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1634            side = None
1635        else:
1636            side = expression.side
1637
1638        op_sql = " ".join(
1639            op
1640            for op in (
1641                expression.method,
1642                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1643                side,
1644                expression.kind,
1645                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1646            )
1647            if op
1648        )
1649        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1650        using = expression.args.get("using")
1651
1652        if not on_sql and using:
1653            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1654
1655        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1656
1657        if on_sql:
1658            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1659            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1660            if using:
1661                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1662            else:
1663                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1664        elif not op_sql:
1665            return f", {this_sql}"
1666
1667        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1668        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1670    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1671        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1672        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1673        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1675    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1676        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1677
1678        if expression.args.get("view"):
1679            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1680            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1681            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1682            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1683            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1684            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1685
1686        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1687        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1688        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1690    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1691        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1692
1693        args = [
1694            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1695            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1696            if e
1697        ]
1698
1699        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1700        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1701        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1703    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1704        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1705        expression = expression.expression
1706        expression = (
1707            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1708        )
1709        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1711    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1712        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1713        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1714        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1715        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1716        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1717        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1718        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1719        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1721    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1722        expressions = (
1723            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1724        )
1725        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1726        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1728    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1729        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1731    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1732        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1733            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1734            return ""
1735
1736        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1737        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1738        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1739        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1740
1741        if wait is not None:
1742            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1743                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1744            else:
1745                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1746
1747        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1749    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1750        text = expression.this or ""
1751        if expression.is_string:
1752            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1753        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1755    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1756        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1757        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1758            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1759        elif self.pretty:
1760            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1761        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1763    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1764        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1765        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1766        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1767        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1768        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1769        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1770        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1771        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1772        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1773        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1774        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1776    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1777        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1779    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1780        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1782    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1783        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1784        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1785        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1787    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1788        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1790    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1791        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1793    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1794        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1796    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1797        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1798        asc = not desc
1799
1800        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1801        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1802        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1803        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1804        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1805
1806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1807
1808        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1809        nulls_sort_change = ""
1810        if nulls_first and (
1811            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1812        ):
1813            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1814        elif (
1815            nulls_last
1816            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1817            and not nulls_are_last
1818        ):
1819            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1820
1821        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1822        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1823            null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
1824            this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
1825            nulls_sort_change = ""
1826
1827        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1829    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1830        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1831        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1832        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1833        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1834        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1835        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1836        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1837        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1838        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1839        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1840        definition_sqls = [
1841            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1842            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1843        ]
1844        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1845        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1846        body = "".join(
1847            (
1848                partition,
1849                order,
1850                measures,
1851                rows,
1852                after,
1853                pattern,
1854                define,
1855            )
1856        )
1857        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1858        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1859        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1861    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1862        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1863
1864        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1865        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1866
1867        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1868            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1869        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1870            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1871
1872        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1873
1874        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1875            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1876            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1877            else []
1878        )
1879
1880        return csv(
1881            *sqls,
1882            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1883            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1884            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1885            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1886            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1887            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1888            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1889            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1890            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1891            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1892            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1893            sep="",
1894        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1896    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1897        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1898    ) -> t.List[str]:
1899        return [
1900            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1901            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1902        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1904    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1905        return [
1906            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1907            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1908            if expression.args.get("windows")
1909            else "",
1910            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1911            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1912            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1913        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1915    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1916        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1917        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1918        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1920    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1921        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1922        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1923        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1924        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1925        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1926        top = (
1927            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1928            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1929            else ""
1930        )
1931
1932        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1933
1934        if kind:
1935            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1936                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1937            else:
1938                if kind == "STRUCT":
1939                    expressions = self.expressions(
1940                        sqls=[
1941                            self.sql(
1942                                exp.Struct(
1943                                    expressions=[
1944                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1945                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1946                                        )
1947                                        for e in expression.expressions
1948                                    ]
1949                                )
1950                            )
1951                        ]
1952                    )
1953                kind = ""
1954
1955        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
1956        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
1957        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
1958        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1959        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1960            expression,
1961            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1962            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1963            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1964        )
1965        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1967    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1969        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1970        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1972    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1973        if expression.expressions:
1974            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1975        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1977    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1978        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1979        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1980        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1981        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1982        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1984    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1985        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1986        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1988    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1989        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1990        kind = expression.text("kind")
1991        if kind:
1992            kind = f"{kind}."
1993        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1995    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1996        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1998    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1999        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2000        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2001
2002        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2003        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2004
2005        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2006        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2008    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2009        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2010        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2012    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2013        return self.prepend_ctes(
2014            expression,
2015            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2016        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2018    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2019        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2020        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2021        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2022        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2024    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2025        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2026
2027        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2028        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2029
2030        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2031            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2032                alias.append("columns", offset)
2033
2034        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2035            columns = alias.columns
2036            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2037        else:
2038            alias = self.sql(alias)
2039
2040        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2041        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2042            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2043        else:
2044            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2045                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2046            elif offset:
2047                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2048            else:
2049                suffix = alias
2050
2051        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2053    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2054        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2055        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2057    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2058        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2059        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2060        order = expression.args.get("order")
2061        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2062        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2063        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2064        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2065
2066        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2067
2068        first = expression.args.get("first")
2069        if first is None:
2070            first = ""
2071        else:
2072            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2073
2074        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2075            return f"{this} {alias}"
2076
2077        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2078        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2080    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2081        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2082        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2084    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2085        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2086        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2087        end = (
2088            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2089            or "CURRENT ROW"
2090        )
2091        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2093    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2094        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2095        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2096        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2098    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2099        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2100        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2101        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2102        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2104    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2105        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2106            expression.this,
2107            expression.expressions,
2108            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2109        )
2110        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2111        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2113    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2114        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2116    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2117        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2118        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2119            this = self.wrap(this)
2120        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2122    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2123        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2125    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2126        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2127        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2128
2129        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2130            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2131            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2132
2133        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2134
2135        if default:
2136            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2137
2138        statements.append("END")
2139
2140        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2141            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2142
2143        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2145    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2146        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2147        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2148        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2150    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2151        order = expression.args.get("order")
2152        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2153        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2155    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2156        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2157        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2158        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2160    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2161        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2162
2163        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2164            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2165        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2166            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2167        else:
2168            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2170    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2171        expressions = expression.expressions
2172        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2173            expressions = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions]
2174        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2176    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2177        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2178        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2180    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2181        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2182        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2183        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2184        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2185        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2186        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2187        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2188        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2190    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2191        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2192        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2193        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2194        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2196    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2197        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2199    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2200        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2201        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2202        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2204    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2205        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2207    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2208        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
2210    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2211        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2212        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2213        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2214        if unique_keys is not None:
2215            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2216        else:
2217            unique_keys = ""
2218        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2219        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2220        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2221        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2222        return self.func(
2223            "JSON_OBJECT",
2224            *expression.expressions,
2225            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2226        )
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2228    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2229        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2230        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2231        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2232        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2233        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2234        return self.func(
2235            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2236        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2238    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2239        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2240        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2241        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2242        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2243        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2244        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2245        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2246        return self.func(
2247            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2248            this,
2249            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2250        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2252    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2253        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2254        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2255        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2256
2257        if nested_schema:
2258            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2259
2260        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2261        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2262        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2263        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2265    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2266        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2268    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2269        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2270        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2271        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2272        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2273        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2274        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2275        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2276        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2277        return self.func(
2278            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2279        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2281    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2282        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2283        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2284        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2285        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2286        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2287        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2289    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2290        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2291        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2292        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2293        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2294        with_ = (
2295            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2296            if expressions
2297            else ""
2298        )
2299        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2301    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2302        query = expression.args.get("query")
2303        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2304        field = expression.args.get("field")
2305        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2306
2307        if query:
2308            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2309        elif unnest:
2310            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2311        elif field:
2312            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2313        else:
2314            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2315
2316        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2318    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2319        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2321    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2322        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2323        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2324            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2325        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2326
2327        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2328            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2329            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2330
2331        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2332        if this:
2333            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2334            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2335
2336        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2338    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2339        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2341    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2342        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2343        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2344        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2345        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2346        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2347        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2349    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2350        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2352    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2353        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2354            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2355        else:
2356            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2357            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2358
2359        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2361    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2362        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2363        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2364        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2365        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2367    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2368        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2370    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2371        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2372        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2373        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2375    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2376        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2378    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2379        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2380        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2381        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2383    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2384        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2386    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2387        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2389    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2390        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2392    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2393        if not self.pretty:
2394            return self.binary(expression, op)
2395
2396        sqls = tuple(
2397            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2398            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2399        )
2400
2401        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2402        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2404    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2405        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2407    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2408        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2410    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2411        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2413    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2414        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2416    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2417        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2419    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2420        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2422    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2423        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2424        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2425        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2426        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2427        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2429    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2430        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2431        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2433    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2434        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2435            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2436        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2438    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2439        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2441    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2442        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2443        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2444        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2445        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2446        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2448    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2449        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2450        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2451        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2452        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2453        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2454        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2455        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2456        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2457        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2459    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2460        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2461        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2462        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2463        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2464
2465        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2466            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2467
2468        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2470    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2471        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2473    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2474        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2475        if chain is not None:
2476            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2477
2478        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2480    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2481        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2482        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2483        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2485    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2486        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2487
2488        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2489        if dtype:
2490            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2491            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2492            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2493            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2494            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2495
2496        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2497        if default:
2498            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2499
2500        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2501            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2502
2503        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2505    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2506        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2507            # Remove db from tables
2508            expression = expression.transform(
2509                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2510            )
2511        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2512        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2514    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2515        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2516
2517        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2518            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2519        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2520            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2521        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2522            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2523        else:
2524            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2525
2526        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2527        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2528        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2530    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2531        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2532            return self.expressions(
2533                expression,
2534                key="actions",
2535                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2536            )
2537        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2539    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2540        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2541        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2542        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2544    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2545        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2546        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2547        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2548
2549        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2550        if enforced is not None:
2551            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2552
2553        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2555    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2556        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2557        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2558
2559        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2560        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2561        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2563    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2564        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2566    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2567        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2569    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2570        return self.sql(
2571            exp.Cast(
2572                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2573                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2574            )
2575        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2577    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2578        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2579            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2580        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2582    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2583        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2584
2585        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2586            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2587
2588        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2589            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2590                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2591            ):
2592                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2593
2594        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2595            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2596                return self.sql(
2597                    exp.cast(
2598                        l / r,
2599                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2600                    )
2601                )
2602
2603        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2605    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2606        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2608    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2609        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2611    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2612        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2614    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2615        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2617    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2618        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2620    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2621        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2623    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2624        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2626    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2627        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2629    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2630        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2632    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2633        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2635    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2636        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2638    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2639        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2640            return self.sql(
2641                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2642            )
2643        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2645    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2646        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2648    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2649        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2651    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2652        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2654    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2655        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2657    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2658        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2660    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2661        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2663    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2664        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2666    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2667        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2669    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2670        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2672    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2673        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2675    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2676        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2678    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2679        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2681    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2682        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2684    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2685        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
2687    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2688        this = expression.this
2689        expr = expression.expression
2690
2691        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2692            this, expr = expr, this
2693
2694        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2696    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2697        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2698        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2699        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2700        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2701        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2703    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2704        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2705        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2707    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2708        args = []
2709
2710        for key in expression.arg_types:
2711            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2712
2713            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2714                for value in arg_value:
2715                    args.append(value)
2716            elif arg_value is not None:
2717                args.append(arg_value)
2718
2719        if self.normalize_functions:
2720            name = expression.sql_name()
2721        else:
2722            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2723
2724        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2726    def func(
2727        self,
2728        name: str,
2729        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2730        prefix: str = "(",
2731        suffix: str = ")",
2732    ) -> str:
2733        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2735    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2736        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2737        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2738            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2739        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2741    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2742        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2744    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2745        return format_time(
2746            self.sql(expression, "format"),
2747            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
2748            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
2749        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2751    def expressions(
2752        self,
2753        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2754        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2755        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2756        flat: bool = False,
2757        indent: bool = True,
2758        skip_first: bool = False,
2759        sep: str = ", ",
2760        prefix: str = "",
2761    ) -> str:
2762        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2763
2764        if not expressions:
2765            return ""
2766
2767        if flat:
2768            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2769
2770        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2771
2772        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2773        pad = " " * self.pad
2774        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2775
2776        result_sqls = []
2777        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2778            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2779            if not sql:
2780                continue
2781
2782            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2783
2784            if self.pretty:
2785                if self.leading_comma:
2786                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2787                else:
2788                    result_sqls.append(
2789                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2790                    )
2791            else:
2792                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2793
2794        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2795        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2797    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2798        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2799        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2800        if flat:
2801            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2802        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2804    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2805        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2806        if not property_name:
2807            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2808        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union, op: str) -> str:
2810    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2811        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2812        op = self.seg(op)
2813        return self.query_modifiers(
2814            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2815        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2817    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2818        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2820    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2821        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2823    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2825        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2826        expressions = (
2827            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2828        )
2829        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2831    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2832        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2833        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2834        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2836    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2837        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2839    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2840        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2841        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2842        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2843        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2844
2845        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2846        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2847            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2848            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2849                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2850        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2851            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2852                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2853            else:
2854                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2855        else:
2856            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2857        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2859    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2860        table = expression.this
2861        table_alias = ""
2862
2863        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2864        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2865            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2866            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2867
2868        this = self.sql(table)
2869        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2870        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2871        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2872
2873        return self.prepend_ctes(
2874            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2875        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2877    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2878        if expression.args.get("format"):
2879            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2880
2881        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2883    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2885        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2886        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2887        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2888        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2890    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2891        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2892        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2893        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2894        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2896    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2897        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2899    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2900        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2902    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2903        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2904        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2905        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2906        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2907        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2909    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2910        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2911        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2912
2913        if having:
2914            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2915
2916        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
2918    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2919        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2920        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2921        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2922        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2923        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2924        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2925        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2926        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2927        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2928        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2929        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2930        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2931        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2933    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2934        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2935        if key_block_size:
2936            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2937
2938        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2939        if using:
2940            return f"USING {using}"
2941
2942        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2943        if parser:
2944            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2945
2946        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2947        if comment:
2948            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2949
2950        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2951        if visible is not None:
2952            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2953
2954        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2955        if engine_attr:
2956            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2957
2958        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2959        if secondary_engine_attr:
2960            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2961
2962        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2963        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2965    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2966        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2967        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2969        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2970        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2971        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2972        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2973        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2974        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2975        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2976        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
2978    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2979        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2980            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2981
2982        case = exp.Case().when(
2983            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2984            expression.args["true"],
2985            copy=False,
2986        )
2987        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2988        if else_cond:
2989            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
2990
2991        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
2993    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2994        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2995        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2996        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2997        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2998        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2999        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3001    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3002        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3004    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3005        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3007    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3008        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3009        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3010        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3011        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3012        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3013        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3015    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3016        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3017        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3018        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3020    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3022        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3023        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3025    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3026        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")