# sqlglot.generator API documentation

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# sqlglot.generator

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       1from __future__ import annotations
       2
       3import logging
       4import re
       5import typing as t
       6from collections import defaultdict
       7from functools import reduce, wraps
       8
       9from sqlglot import exp
      10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
      11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
      12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
      13from sqlglot.time import format_time
      14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
      15
      16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
      17    from sqlglot._typing import E
      18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
      19
      20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
      21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
      22
      23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
      24
      25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
      26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
      27
      28
      29def unsupported_args(
      30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
      31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
      32    """
      33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
      34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
      35    """
      36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
      37    for arg in args:
      38        if isinstance(arg, str):
      39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
      40        else:
      41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
      42
      43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
      44        @wraps(func)
      45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
      46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
      47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
      48
      49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
      50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
      51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
      52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
      53                    )
      54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
      55
      56            return func(generator, expression)
      57
      58        return _func
      59
      60    return decorator
      61
      62
      63class _Generator(type):
      64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
      65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
      66
      67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
      68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
      69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
      70
      71        return klass
      72
      73
      74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
      75    """
      76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
      77
      78    Args:
      79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
      80            Default: False.
      81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
      82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
      83            True or 'always': Always quote.
      84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
      85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
      86            Default: False.
      87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
      88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
      89            Default: 2.
      90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
      91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
      92            Default: 2.
      93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
      94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
      95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
      96            False: Disables function name normalization.
      97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
      98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
      99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
     100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
     101            Default: 3
     102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
     103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
     104            Default: False
     105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
     106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
     107            line length.
     108            Default: 80
     109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
     110            Default: True
     111    """
     112
     113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
     114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
     115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
     116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
     117        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
     118        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
     119        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     120        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     121        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
     122        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
     123        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     124        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
     125        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     126        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     127        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     128        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     129        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     130        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     131        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
     132        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     133        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     134        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
     135        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
     136        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     137        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     138        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
     139        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
     140        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     141        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     142        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
     143        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
     144        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
     145        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
     146        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     147        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     148        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     149        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     150        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
     151        exp.Int64: lambda self, e: self.sql(exp.cast(e.this, exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT)),
     152        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     153        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     154        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
     155        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
     156        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     157        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     158        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
     159        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
     160        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
     161        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
     162        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     163        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     164        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
     165        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     166        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     167        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     168        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     169        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     170        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
     171        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     172        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
     173            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
     174        ),
     175        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     176        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
     177        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     178        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
     179        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
     180        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
     181        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     182        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     183        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
     184        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
     185        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     186        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     187        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
     188        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
     189        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     190        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
     191        exp.Tags: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     192        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     193        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     194        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
     195        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
     196        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
     197        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     198        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
     199        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
     200        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
     201        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
     202        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     203        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
     204        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     205        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
     206        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     207        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
     208    }
     209
     210    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
     211    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
     212    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
     213    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
     214
     215    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
     216    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
     217    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
     218
     219    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
     220    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
     221
     222    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
     223    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
     224
     225    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
     226    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
     227
     228    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
     229    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
     230
     231    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
     232    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
     233
     234    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
     235    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
     236
     237    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
     238    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
     239
     240    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
     241    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
     242
     243    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
     244    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
     245
     246    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
     247    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
     248
     249    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
     250    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
     251
     252    # The string used for creating an index on a table
     253    INDEX_ON = "ON"
     254
     255    # Whether join hints should be generated
     256    JOIN_HINTS = True
     257
     258    # Whether table hints should be generated
     259    TABLE_HINTS = True
     260
     261    # Whether query hints should be generated
     262    QUERY_HINTS = True
     263
     264    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
     265    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
     266
     267    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
     268    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
     269
     270    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
     271    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
     272
     273    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
     274    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
     275
     276    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
     277    RETURNING_END = True
     278
     279    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
     280    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
     281
     282    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
     283    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
     284
     285    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
     286    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
     287
     288    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
     289    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
     290
     291    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
     292    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
     293    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
     294    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
     295
     296    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
     297    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
     298
     299    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
     300    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
     301
     302    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
     303    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
     304
     305    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
     306    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
     307
     308    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
     309    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
     310
     311    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
     312    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
     313
     314    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
     315    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
     316
     317    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
     318    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
     319
     320    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
     321    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
     322
     323    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
     324    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
     325
     326    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
     327    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
     328
     329    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
     330    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
     331
     332    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
     333    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
     334
     335    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
     336    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
     337
     338    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
     339    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
     340
     341    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
     342    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
     343
     344    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
     345    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
     346
     347    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
     348    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
     349
     350    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
     351    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
     352
     353    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
     354    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
     355
     356    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
     357    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
     358
     359    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
     360    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
     361
     362    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
     363    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
     364
     365    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
     366    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
     367
     368    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
     369    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
     370
     371    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
     372    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
     373    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
     374
     375    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
     376    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
     377
     378    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
     379    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
     380
     381    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
     382    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
     383
     384    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
     385    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
     386
     387    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
     388    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
     389
     390    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
     391    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
     392
     393    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
     394    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
     395    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
     396    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
     397
     398    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
     399    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
     400
     401    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
     402    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
     403
     404    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
     405    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
     406
     407    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
     408    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
     409
     410    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
     411    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
     412
     413    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
     414    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
     415
     416    # The HEX function name
     417    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
     418
     419    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
     420    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
     421
     422    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
     423    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
     424
     425    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
     426    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
     427
     428    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
     429    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
     430
     431    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
     432    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
     433
     434    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
     435    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
     436
     437    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
     438    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
     439
     440    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
     441    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
     442
     443    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
     444    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
     445
     446    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
     447    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
     448
     449    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
     450    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
     451    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
     452    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
     453    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
     454
     455    TYPE_MAPPING = {
     456        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
     457        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
     458        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
     459        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
     460        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
     461        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
     462        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
     463        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
     464        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
     465        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
     466    }
     467
     468    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
     469        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
     470        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
     471        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
     472        "HOURS": "HOUR",
     473        "DAYS": "DAY",
     474        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
     475        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
     476        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
     477        "YEARS": "YEAR",
     478    }
     479
     480    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
     481        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
     482        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
     483        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
     484        "windows": lambda self, e: (
     485            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
     486            if e.args.get("windows")
     487            else ""
     488        ),
     489        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
     490    }
     491
     492    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
     493
     494    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
     495
     496    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
     497    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
     498
     499    EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: t.Set[str] = set()
     500
     501    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
     502        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     503        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     504        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     505        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     506        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     507        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     508        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     509        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     510        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     511        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     512        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     513        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     514        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     515        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     516        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     517        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     518        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     519        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     520        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     521        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     522        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     523        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     524        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     525        exp.EncodeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     526        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     527        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     528        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     529        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     530        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     531        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     532        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     533        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     534        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     535        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     536        exp.IncludeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     537        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     538        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     539        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     540        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     541        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     542        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     543        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     544        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
     545        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     546        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     547        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     548        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     549        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     550        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     551        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     552        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     553        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     554        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     555        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     556        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     557        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     558        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     559        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     560        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     561        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     562        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     563        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     564        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     565        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     566        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     567        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     568        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     569        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     570        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     571        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     572        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     573        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     574        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     575        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     576        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     577        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     578        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     579        exp.Tags: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     580        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     581        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     582        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     583        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     584        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     585        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     586        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     587        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     588        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     589        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     590        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     591        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     592        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     593    }
     594
     595    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
     596    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
     597
     598    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
     599    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     600        exp.Command,
     601        exp.Create,
     602        exp.Describe,
     603        exp.Delete,
     604        exp.Drop,
     605        exp.From,
     606        exp.Insert,
     607        exp.Join,
     608        exp.MultitableInserts,
     609        exp.Select,
     610        exp.SetOperation,
     611        exp.Update,
     612        exp.Where,
     613        exp.With,
     614    )
     615
     616    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
     617    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     618        exp.Binary,
     619        exp.SetOperation,
     620    )
     621
     622    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
     623    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     624        exp.Column,
     625        exp.Literal,
     626        exp.Neg,
     627        exp.Paren,
     628    )
     629
     630    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
     631        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
     632        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
     633        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
     634        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
     635    }
     636
     637    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
     638    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
     639
     640    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
     641
     642    __slots__ = (
     643        "pretty",
     644        "identify",
     645        "normalize",
     646        "pad",
     647        "_indent",
     648        "normalize_functions",
     649        "unsupported_level",
     650        "max_unsupported",
     651        "leading_comma",
     652        "max_text_width",
     653        "comments",
     654        "dialect",
     655        "unsupported_messages",
     656        "_escaped_quote_end",
     657        "_escaped_identifier_end",
     658        "_next_name",
     659        "_identifier_start",
     660        "_identifier_end",
     661        "_quote_json_path_key_using_brackets",
     662    )
     663
     664    def __init__(
     665        self,
     666        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
     667        identify: str | bool = False,
     668        normalize: bool = False,
     669        pad: int = 2,
     670        indent: int = 2,
     671        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
     672        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
     673        max_unsupported: int = 3,
     674        leading_comma: bool = False,
     675        max_text_width: int = 80,
     676        comments: bool = True,
     677        dialect: DialectType = None,
     678    ):
     679        import sqlglot
     680        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
     681
     682        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
     683        self.identify = identify
     684        self.normalize = normalize
     685        self.pad = pad
     686        self._indent = indent
     687        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
     688        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
     689        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
     690        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
     691        self.comments = comments
     692        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
     693
     694        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
     695        self.normalize_functions = (
     696            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
     697        )
     698
     699        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
     700        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
     701            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
     702        )
     703        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
     704
     705        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
     706
     707        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
     708        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
     709
     710        self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets = True
     711
     712    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
     713        """
     714        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
     715
     716        Args:
     717            expression: The syntax tree.
     718            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
     719                it is safer to copy.
     720
     721        Returns:
     722            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
     723        """
     724        if copy:
     725            expression = expression.copy()
     726
     727        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
     728
     729        self.unsupported_messages = []
     730        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
     731
     732        if self.pretty:
     733            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
     734
     735        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
     736            return sql
     737
     738        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
     739            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
     740                logger.warning(msg)
     741        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
     742            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
     743
     744        return sql
     745
     746    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
     747        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
     748        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     749
     750        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
     751            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
     752
     753            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
     754
     755        return expression
     756
     757    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
     758        if (
     759            not expression.parent
     760            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
     761            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
     762        ):
     763            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
     764
     765            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     766        return expression
     767
     768    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
     769        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
     770            raise UnsupportedError(message)
     771        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
     772
     773    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     774        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
     775
     776    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     777        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
     778
     779    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
     780        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
     781        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
     782        return comment
     783
     784    def maybe_comment(
     785        self,
     786        sql: str,
     787        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
     788        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
     789        separated: bool = False,
     790    ) -> str:
     791        comments = (
     792            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
     793            if self.comments
     794            else None
     795        )
     796
     797        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
     798            return sql
     799
     800        comments_sql = " ".join(
     801            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
     802        )
     803
     804        if not comments_sql:
     805            return sql
     806
     807        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
     808
     809        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
     810            return (
     811                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
     812                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
     813                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
     814            )
     815
     816        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
     817
     818    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
     819        this_sql = (
     820            self.sql(expression)
     821            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
     822            else self.sql(expression, "this")
     823        )
     824        if not this_sql:
     825            return "()"
     826
     827        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
     828        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
     829
     830    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
     831        original = self.identify
     832        self.identify = False
     833        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
     834        self.identify = original
     835        return result
     836
     837    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
     838        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
     839            return name.upper()
     840        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
     841            return name.lower()
     842        return name
     843
     844    def indent(
     845        self,
     846        sql: str,
     847        level: int = 0,
     848        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
     849        skip_first: bool = False,
     850        skip_last: bool = False,
     851    ) -> str:
     852        if not self.pretty or not sql:
     853            return sql
     854
     855        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
     856        lines = sql.split("\n")
     857
     858        return "\n".join(
     859            (
     860                line
     861                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
     862                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
     863            )
     864            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
     865        )
     866
     867    def sql(
     868        self,
     869        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
     870        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
     871        comment: bool = True,
     872    ) -> str:
     873        if not expression:
     874            return ""
     875
     876        if isinstance(expression, str):
     877            return expression
     878
     879        if key:
     880            value = expression.args.get(key)
     881            if value:
     882                return self.sql(value)
     883            return ""
     884
     885        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
     886
     887        if callable(transform):
     888            sql = transform(self, expression)
     889        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
     890            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
     891
     892            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
     893                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
     894            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
     895                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
     896            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
     897                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
     898            else:
     899                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
     900        else:
     901            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
     902
     903        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
     904
     905    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
     906        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     907        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     908        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
     909
     910    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
     911        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
     912        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     913        options = expression.args.get("options")
     914        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
     915        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     916        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
     917        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
     918        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
     919
     920    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
     921        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
     922            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     923        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
     924        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     925
     926    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     927        return ".".join(
     928            self.sql(part)
     929            for part in (
     930                expression.args.get("catalog"),
     931                expression.args.get("db"),
     932                expression.args.get("table"),
     933                expression.args.get("this"),
     934            )
     935            if part
     936        )
     937
     938    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     939        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
     940
     941        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
     942            join_mark = ""
     943            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
     944
     945        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
     946
     947    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
     948        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     949        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     950        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     951        return f"{position}{this}"
     952
     953    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     954        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
     955        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     956        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
     957        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     958        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
     959        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
     960        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     961        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
     962
     963        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
     964            kind = ""
     965
     966        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
     967
     968    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
     969        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     970        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
     971        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
     972
     973    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
     974        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     975        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
     976            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
     977        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
     978            persisted = " PERSISTED"
     979        else:
     980            persisted = ""
     981        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
     982
     983    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
     984        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
     985
     986    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
     987        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
     988            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
     989        else:
     990            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     991
     992        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
     993
     994    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
     995        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
     996    ) -> str:
     997        this = ""
     998        if expression.this is not None:
     999            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
    1000            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
    1001
    1002        start = expression.args.get("start")
    1003        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1004        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
    1005        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1006        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
    1007        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1008        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
    1009        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1010        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
    1011        cycle_sql = ""
    1012
    1013        if cycle is not None:
    1014            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
    1015            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
    1016
    1017        sequence_opts = ""
    1018        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
    1019            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
    1020            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
    1021
    1022        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1023        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
    1024
    1025        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
    1026
    1027    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
    1028        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
    1029    ) -> str:
    1030        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
    1031        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
    1032        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
    1033
    1034    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
    1035        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
    1036    ) -> str:
    1037        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    1038
    1039    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1040        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
    1041
    1042    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1043        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1044
    1045    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1046        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    1047        if desc is not None:
    1048            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
    1049        return "PRIMARY KEY"
    1050
    1051    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1052        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1053        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1054        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
    1055        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    1056        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
    1057        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1058        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
    1059        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
    1060
    1061    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
    1062        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1063
    1064    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
    1065        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1066        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1067        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
    1068        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
    1069
    1070        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
    1071
    1072        properties_sql = ""
    1073        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
    1074            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
    1075        ):
    1076            properties_sql = self.sql(
    1077                exp.Properties(
    1078                    expressions=[
    1079                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
    1080                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
    1081                    ]
    1082                )
    1083            )
    1084
    1085            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
    1086                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
    1087            elif not self.pretty:
    1088                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
    1089                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
    1090
    1091        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
    1092        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
    1093
    1094        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1095        if expression_sql:
    1096            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
    1097
    1098            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
    1099                postalias_props_sql = ""
    1100                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
    1101                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
    1102                        exp.Properties(
    1103                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
    1104                        ),
    1105                        wrapped=False,
    1106                    )
    1107                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
    1108                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
    1109
    1110        postindex_props_sql = ""
    1111        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
    1112            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
    1113                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
    1114                wrapped=False,
    1115                prefix=" ",
    1116            )
    1117
    1118        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
    1119        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
    1120        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
    1121
    1122        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
    1123        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
    1124        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1125
    1126        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
    1127        if clustered is None:
    1128            clustered_sql = ""
    1129        elif clustered:
    1130            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1131        else:
    1132            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1133
    1134        postcreate_props_sql = ""
    1135        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
    1136            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
    1137                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
    1138                sep=" ",
    1139                prefix=" ",
    1140                wrapped=False,
    1141            )
    1142
    1143        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
    1144
    1145        postexpression_props_sql = ""
    1146        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
    1147            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
    1148                exp.Properties(
    1149                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
    1150                ),
    1151                sep=" ",
    1152                prefix=" ",
    1153                wrapped=False,
    1154            )
    1155
    1156        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1157        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1158        no_schema_binding = (
    1159            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
    1160        )
    1161
    1162        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
    1163        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
    1164
    1165        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
    1166            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
    1167        else:
    1168            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"
    1169
    1170        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
    1171        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
    1172
    1173    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
    1174        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1175        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1176        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
    1177        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1178        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
    1179        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1180        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
    1181        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1182        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
    1183        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
    1184
    1185        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
    1186        if cache is None:
    1187            cache_str = ""
    1188        elif cache is True:
    1189            cache_str = " CACHE"
    1190        else:
    1191            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
    1192
    1193        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1194        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1195
    1196        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
    1197
    1198    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
    1199        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1200        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
    1201        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
    1202        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
    1203
    1204    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
    1205        style = expression.args.get("style")
    1206        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
    1207        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1208        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1209        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1210        format = f" {format}" if format else ""
    1211
    1212        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
    1213
    1214    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
    1215        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
    1216        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
    1217
    1218    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
    1219        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
    1220        if with_:
    1221            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    1222        return sql
    1223
    1224    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
    1225        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1226        recursive = (
    1227            "RECURSIVE "
    1228            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
    1229            else ""
    1230        )
    1231
    1232        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
    1233
    1234    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
    1235        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    1236        if alias:
    1237            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
    1238
    1239        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1240
    1241        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
    1242        if materialized is False:
    1243            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
    1244        elif materialized:
    1245            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
    1246
    1247        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
    1248
    1249    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
    1250        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1251        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1252        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1253
    1254        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
    1255            columns = ""
    1256            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
    1257
    1258        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    1259            alias = self._next_name()
    1260
    1261        return f"{alias}{columns}"
    1262
    1263    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
    1264        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1265        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
    1266            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1267        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
    1268
    1269    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
    1270        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1271        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
    1272            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
    1273        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
    1274
    1275    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1277        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1278            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1279        return this
    1280
    1281    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1282        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1283        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1284
    1285        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1286            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
    1287            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
    1288        else:
    1289            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
    1290            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
    1291
    1292        if escape:
    1293            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1294            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
    1295        else:
    1296            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1297            escape_sql = ""
    1298
    1299        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
    1300            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
    1301
    1302        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
    1303
    1304    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1305        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
    1306        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1307
    1308    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1309        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1310        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1311        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1312        return f"{this}{specifier}"
    1313
    1314    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1315        nested = ""
    1316        values = ""
    1317        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1318
    1319        type_value = expression.this
    1320        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1321            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1322        else:
    1323            type_sql = (
    1324                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1325                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1326                else type_value
    1327            )
    1328
    1329        if interior:
    1330            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1331                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1332                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1333                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1334                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1335                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1336            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1337                nested = f" {interior}"
    1338            else:
    1339                nested = f"({interior})"
    1340
    1341        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1342        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1343            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1344            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1345        ):
    1346            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1347
    1348        return type_sql
    1349
    1350    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1351        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1352        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1353        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1354        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
    1355
    1356    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1357        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1358        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1359        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1360        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1361        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1362        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
    1363        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1364        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1365        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1366        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1367        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1368        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1369            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1370        else:
    1371            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
    1372        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
    1373
    1374    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1375        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1376        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1377        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    1378        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1379        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1380        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1381        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1382        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1383        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    1384        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1385        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1386        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1387        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1388        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1389        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
    1390
    1391    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1392        op_type = type(expression)
    1393        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
    1394
    1395        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
    1396        if (
    1397            distinct is False
    1398            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
    1399            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
    1400        ):
    1401            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
    1402
    1403        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
    1404
    1405        if distinct is None:
    1406            distinct = default_distinct
    1407            if distinct is None:
    1408                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
    1409
    1410        if distinct is default_distinct:
    1411            kind = ""
    1412        else:
    1413            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
    1414
    1415        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1416        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
    1417
    1418    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1419        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
    1420            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    1421            order = expression.args.get("order")
    1422
    1423            if limit or order:
    1424                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
    1425                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
    1426                )
    1427
    1428                if limit:
    1429                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
    1430                if order:
    1431                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
    1432                return self.sql(select)
    1433
    1434        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    1435        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    1436
    1437        while stack:
    1438            node = stack.pop()
    1439
    1440            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
    1441                stack.append(node.expression)
    1442                stack.append(
    1443                    self.maybe_comment(
    1444                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
    1445                    )
    1446                )
    1447                stack.append(node.this)
    1448            else:
    1449                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    1450
    1451        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
    1452        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
    1453        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
    1454
    1455    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1456        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1457        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1458        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
    1459        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1460        if expression.args.get("percent"):
    1461            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
    1462        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
    1463        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
    1464
    1465    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1466        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1467            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1468            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1469            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1470
    1471        agg = expression.this
    1472        agg_arg = agg.this
    1473        cond = expression.expression.this
    1474        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1475        return self.sql(agg)
    1476
    1477    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1478        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1479            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1480            return ""
    1481
    1482        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
    1483
    1484    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
    1485        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1486        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1487        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1488        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1489        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1490        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1491        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1492        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1493        if include:
    1494            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1495        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
    1496        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
    1497        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
    1498        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
    1499        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1500        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    1501
    1502        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
    1503
    1504    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1505        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1506        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1507        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1508        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1509        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1510        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1511        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1512
    1513        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1514
    1515        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
    1516        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
    1517
    1518    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1519        text = expression.name
    1520        lower = text.lower()
    1521        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1522        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1523        if (
    1524            expression.quoted
    1525            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1526            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1527            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1528        ):
    1529            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
    1530        return text
    1531
    1532    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
    1533        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1534        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1535            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1536
    1537        return text
    1538
    1539    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
    1540        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1541        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1542            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1543        return text
    1544
    1545    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1546        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1547        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1548        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1549        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1550        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
    1551
    1552    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1553        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1554        return f"{prefix}{string}"
    1555
    1556    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1557        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1558
    1559    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1560        root_properties = []
    1561        with_properties = []
    1562
    1563        for p in expression.expressions:
    1564            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1565            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1566                with_properties.append(p)
    1567            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1568                root_properties.append(p)
    1569
    1570        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
    1571        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
    1572
    1573        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
    1574            with_props = " " + with_props
    1575
    1576        return root_props + with_props
    1577
    1578    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1579        if properties.expressions:
    1580            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1581        return ""
    1582
    1583    def properties(
    1584        self,
    1585        properties: exp.Properties,
    1586        prefix: str = "",
    1587        sep: str = ", ",
    1588        suffix: str = "",
    1589        wrapped: bool = True,
    1590    ) -> str:
    1591        if properties.expressions:
    1592            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1593            if expressions:
    1594                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1595                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1596        return ""
    1597
    1598    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1599        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
    1600
    1601    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1602        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1603        for p in properties.expressions:
    1604            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1605            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1606                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1607            else:
    1608                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1609
    1610        return properties_locs
    1611
    1612    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1613        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1614            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1615        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
    1616
    1617    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1618        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1619        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1620            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1621
    1622        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1623        if not property_name:
    1624            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1625
    1626        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1627
    1628    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1629        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1630            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1631            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1632
    1633            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1634            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1635                like = f"({like})"
    1636
    1637            return like
    1638
    1639        if expression.expressions:
    1640            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1641
    1642        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1643        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
    1644
    1645    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1646        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1647        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1648        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
    1649
    1650    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1651        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1652        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1653        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1654        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1655        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1656        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1657        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
    1658
    1659    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1660        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1661        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1662        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
    1663
    1664    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1665        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1666            property = "DEFAULT"
    1667        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1668            property = "ON"
    1669        else:
    1670            property = "OFF"
    1671        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
    1672
    1673    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1674        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1675            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1676        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1677            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1678
    1679        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1680        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
    1681
    1682    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1683        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1684        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1685        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1686        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1687            if default:
    1688                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1689            elif minimum:
    1690                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1691            else:
    1692                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1693            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1694        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1695        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1696        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
    1697
    1698    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1699        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1700        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1701        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1702        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1703        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1704
    1705        if autotemp is not None:
    1706            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1707        elif always:
    1708            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1709        elif default:
    1710            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1711        elif manual:
    1712            prop = "MANUAL"
    1713        elif never:
    1714            prop = "NEVER"
    1715        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
    1716
    1717    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1718        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1719        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1720        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1721        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1722        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1723        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
    1724        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
    1725
    1726    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1727        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1728            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1729        if expression.this:
    1730            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1731            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1732            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1733
    1734        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1735        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1736        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
    1737
    1738    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1739        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1740
    1741        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1742        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1743            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1744        else:
    1745            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1746
    1747        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
    1748
    1749    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1750        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1751        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1752        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1753        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1754        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1755        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1756        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
    1757
    1758    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1759        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1760        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1761        statistics_sql = ""
    1762        if statistics is not None:
    1763            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1764        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
    1765
    1766    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1767        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1768        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
    1769        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
    1770        data_consistency = (
    1771            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
    1772        )
    1773        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    1774        retention_period = (
    1775            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    1776        )
    1777
    1778        if this:
    1779            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
    1780        else:
    1781            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    1782
    1783        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
    1784
    1785        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
    1786
    1787    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1788        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    1789        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1790
    1791        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1792            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1793        else:
    1794            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1795
    1796        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
    1797        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
    1798        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1799        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1800        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1801        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
    1802        if is_function:
    1803            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
    1804        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1805
    1806        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1807        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1808        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1809        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1810        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1811        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1812        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1813        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1814
    1815        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1816            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
    1817        else:
    1818            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
    1819
    1820        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1821        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1822        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
    1823        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
    1824
    1825        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
    1826        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
    1827
    1828        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
    1829        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1830
    1831    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1832        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1833
    1834    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1835        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1836        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1838        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1839        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
    1840
    1841    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1842        return expression.name
    1843
    1844    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1845        return expression.name
    1846
    1847    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1848        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1849
    1850        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1851        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
    1852
    1853        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
    1854        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
    1855        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    1856
    1857        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1858        if expressions:
    1859            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1860            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1861
    1862        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
    1863
    1864    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1865        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    1866
    1867    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1868        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
    1869        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1870        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
    1871        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1872        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
    1873        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1874        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
    1875        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1876        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
    1877        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1878        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    1879        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1880        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
    1881
    1882    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1883        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1884
    1885    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1886        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1887        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1888        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1889        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1890
    1891    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1892        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1893        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1894        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1895        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
    1896
    1897    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
    1898        return ".".join(
    1899            self.sql(part)
    1900            for part in (
    1901                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1902                expression.args.get("db"),
    1903                expression.args.get("this"),
    1904            )
    1905            if part is not None
    1906        )
    1907
    1908    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1909        table = self.table_parts(expression)
    1910        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    1911        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1912        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1913        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1914        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1915        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1916        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    1917
    1918        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    1919        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
    1920            sample_pre_alias = sample
    1921            sample_post_alias = ""
    1922        else:
    1923            sample_pre_alias = ""
    1924            sample_post_alias = sample
    1925
    1926        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    1927        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    1928        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    1929        joins = self.indent(
    1930            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    1931        )
    1932        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    1933
    1934        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1935        if file_format:
    1936            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    1937            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    1938            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    1939
    1940        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    1941        if ordinality:
    1942            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    1943            alias = ""
    1944
    1945        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    1946        if when:
    1947            table = f"{table} {when}"
    1948
    1949        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
    1950        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
    1951
    1952        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
    1953        if rows_from:
    1954            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
    1955
    1956        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
    1957
    1958    def tablesample_sql(
    1959        self,
    1960        expression: exp.TableSample,
    1961        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    1962    ) -> str:
    1963        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    1964        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    1965        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    1966        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    1967        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    1968        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    1969        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    1970        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    1971        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    1972
    1973        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    1974        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    1975            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    1976
    1977        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    1978        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    1979            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    1980
    1981        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    1982        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    1983            expr = f"({expr})"
    1984
    1985        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
    1986
    1987    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    1988        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1989
    1990        if expression.this:
    1991            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1992            if not expressions:
    1993                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    1994
    1995            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    1996            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    1997            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    1998            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    1999            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
    2000
    2001        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2002        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2003        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
    2004
    2005        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
    2006
    2007        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    2008        if include_nulls is not None:
    2009            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    2010        else:
    2011            nulls = ""
    2012
    2013        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
    2014        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
    2015        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
    2016
    2017    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    2018        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    2019        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2020        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2021        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
    2022
    2023    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    2024        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
    2025
    2026    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    2027        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2028        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2029        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2030        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    2031        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    2032        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2033        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    2034        if self.RETURNING_END:
    2035            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    2036        else:
    2037            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    2038        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    2039        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2040
    2041    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
    2042        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
    2043
    2044        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    2045        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    2046            args = self.expressions(expression)
    2047            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2048            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    2049            values = (
    2050                f"({values})"
    2051                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
    2052                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
    2053                else values
    2054            )
    2055            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    2056
    2057        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    2058        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    2059        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    2060
    2061        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
    2062
    2063        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    2064            row = tup.expressions
    2065
    2066            if i == 0 and column_names:
    2067                row = [
    2068                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    2069                ]
    2070
    2071            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    2072
    2073        if self.pretty:
    2074            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    2075            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    2076            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    2077            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    2078            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
    2079
    2080        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    2081        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    2082        return f"({unions}){alias}"
    2083
    2084    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    2085        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    2086
    2087    @unsupported_args("expressions")
    2088    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    2089        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    2090        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    2091        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2092
    2093    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    2094        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2095
    2096    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
    2097        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2098        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
    2099
    2100    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
    2101        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2102        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
    2103
    2104    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
    2105        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2106        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
    2107
    2108    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    2109        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
    2110        if group_by_all is True:
    2111            modifier = " ALL"
    2112        elif group_by_all is False:
    2113            modifier = " DISTINCT"
    2114        else:
    2115            modifier = ""
    2116
    2117        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
    2118
    2119        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
    2120        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
    2121        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
    2122
    2123        groupings = csv(
    2124            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
    2125            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
    2126            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
    2127            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    2128            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    2129        )
    2130
    2131        if (
    2132            expression.expressions
    2133            and groupings
    2134            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
    2135        ):
    2136            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    2137
    2138        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
    2139
    2140    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    2141        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2142        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2143
    2144    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    2145        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    2146        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    2147        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
    2148        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    2149        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
    2150        return start + connect
    2151
    2152    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    2153        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2154
    2155    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    2156        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    2157            side = None
    2158        else:
    2159            side = expression.side
    2160
    2161        op_sql = " ".join(
    2162            op
    2163            for op in (
    2164                expression.method,
    2165                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    2166                side,
    2167                expression.kind,
    2168                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    2169            )
    2170            if op
    2171        )
    2172        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
    2173        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
    2174        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    2175        using = expression.args.get("using")
    2176
    2177        if not on_sql and using:
    2178            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    2179
    2180        this = expression.this
    2181        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    2182
    2183        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
    2184        if exprs:
    2185            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
    2186
    2187        if on_sql:
    2188            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    2189            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    2190            if using:
    2191                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    2192            else:
    2193                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    2194        elif not op_sql:
    2195            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    2196                return f" {this_sql}"
    2197
    2198            return f", {this_sql}"
    2199
    2200        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
    2201            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    2202
    2203        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
    2204
    2205    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    2206        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2207        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    2208        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2209
    2210    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2211        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    2212
    2213        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    2214        if cross_apply is True:
    2215            op = "INNER JOIN "
    2216        elif cross_apply is False:
    2217            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    2218        else:
    2219            op = ""
    2220
    2221        return f"{op}LATERAL"
    2222
    2223    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2224        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2225
    2226        if expression.args.get("view"):
    2227            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2228            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    2229            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    2230            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    2231            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    2232            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    2233
    2234        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2235        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2236        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
    2237
    2238    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    2239        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2240
    2241        args = [
    2242            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    2243            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    2244            if e
    2245        ]
    2246
    2247        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    2248        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    2249        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2250        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2251
    2252        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
    2253
    2254    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    2255        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2256        value = expression.expression
    2257        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    2258        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2259        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2260        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
    2261
    2262    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    2263        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2264        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    2265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2266        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2267        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2268        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2269        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    2270        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
    2271
    2272    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    2273        expressions = (
    2274            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
    2275        )
    2276        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    2277        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
    2278
    2279    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    2280        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2281
    2282    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    2283        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    2284            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    2285            return ""
    2286
    2287        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    2288        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2289        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2290        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    2291
    2292        if wait is not None:
    2293            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    2294                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    2295            else:
    2296                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    2297
    2298        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
    2299
    2300    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    2301        text = expression.this or ""
    2302        if expression.is_string:
    2303            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2304        return text
    2305
    2306    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
    2307        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
    2308            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
    2309            text = "".join(
    2310                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
    2311            )
    2312
    2313        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
    2314            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
    2315        )
    2316
    2317    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    2318        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    2319        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    2320        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    2321        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2322        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    2323        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    2324        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    2325        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    2326        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    2327        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    2328        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
    2329
    2330    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    2331        return "NULL"
    2332
    2333    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    2334        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
    2335
    2336    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    2337        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2338        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    2339        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    2340        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
    2341
    2342    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    2343        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2344        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    2345        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2346        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2347        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    2348        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    2349        interpolated_values = [
    2350            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
    2351            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2352            else self.sql(e, "this")
    2353            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    2354        ]
    2355        interpolate = (
    2356            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    2357        )
    2358        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
    2359
    2360    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    2361        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
    2362
    2363    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    2364        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
    2365
    2366    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    2367        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
    2368
    2369    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    2370        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    2371        asc = not desc
    2372
    2373        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    2374        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    2375        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    2376        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    2377        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    2378
    2379        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2380
    2381        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    2382        nulls_sort_change = ""
    2383        if nulls_first and (
    2384            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    2385        ):
    2386            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    2387        elif (
    2388            nulls_last
    2389            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    2390            and not nulls_are_last
    2391        ):
    2392            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    2393
    2394        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    2395        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    2396            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2397            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    2398                self.unsupported(
    2399                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    2400                )
    2401                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2402            elif (
    2403                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
    2404                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
    2405                and (
    2406                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
    2407                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
    2408                )
    2409            ):
    2410                self.unsupported(
    2411                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
    2412                )
    2413                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2414            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    2415                if expression.this.is_int:
    2416                    self.unsupported(
    2417                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2418                    )
    2419                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
    2420                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2421                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2422                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2423
    2424        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2425        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2426
    2427        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
    2428
    2429    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
    2430        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
    2431        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
    2432
    2433        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2434
    2435        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
    2436
    2437    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2438        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2439        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2440        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2441        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2442        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2443        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2444        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2445        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2446        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2447        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2448        definition_sqls = [
    2449            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2450            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2451        ]
    2452        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2453        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2454        body = "".join(
    2455            (
    2456                partition,
    2457                order,
    2458                measures,
    2459                rows,
    2460                after,
    2461                pattern,
    2462                define,
    2463            )
    2464        )
    2465        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2466        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2467        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
    2468
    2469    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2470        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2471
    2472        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2473            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2474        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2475            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2476
    2477        return csv(
    2478            *sqls,
    2479            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2480            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2481            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2482            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2483            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
    2484            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2485            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2486            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2487            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
    2488            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2489            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
    2490            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2491            self.options_modifier(expression),
    2492            sep="",
    2493        )
    2494
    2495    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
    2496        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2497        return f" {options}" if options else ""
    2498
    2499    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
    2500        return ""
    2501
    2502    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2503        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2504    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2505        return [
    2506            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2507            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2508        ]
    2509
    2510    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2511        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2512        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2513        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
    2514
    2515    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2516        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2517        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2518            into.pop()
    2519
    2520        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2521        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2522        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2523        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2524
    2525        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2526        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
    2527            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2528            limit.pop()
    2529        else:
    2530            top = ""
    2531
    2532        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2533
    2534        if kind:
    2535            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2536                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2537            else:
    2538                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2539                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2540                        sqls=[
    2541                            self.sql(
    2542                                exp.Struct(
    2543                                    expressions=[
    2544                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
    2545                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2546                                        else e
    2547                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2548                                    ]
    2549                                )
    2550                            )
    2551                        ]
    2552                    )
    2553                kind = ""
    2554
    2555        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
    2556        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
    2557
    2558        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2559        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2560        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2561        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2562        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2563            expression,
    2564            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
    2565            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2566            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2567        )
    2568
    2569        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
    2570        if expression.args.get("with"):
    2571            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
    2572            expression.pop_comments()
    2573
    2574        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2575
    2576        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2577            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2578                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2579            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2580                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2581            else:
    2582                table_kind = ""
    2583            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2584
    2585        return sql
    2586
    2587    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2588        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2589        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2590        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
    2591
    2592    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2593        if expression.expressions:
    2594            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2595        return ""
    2596
    2597    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2598        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2599        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2600        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2601        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2602        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
    2603        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
    2604        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
    2605
    2606    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2607        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2608        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
    2609
    2610    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2611        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2612        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2613        if kind:
    2614            kind = f"{kind}."
    2615        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
    2616
    2617    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2618        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
    2619
    2620    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2621        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2622        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2623        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    2624        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
    2625            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
    2626
    2627            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
    2628            expression.set("sample", None)
    2629
    2630        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    2631        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2632        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2633
    2634    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2635        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2636        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2637
    2638    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2639        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2640
    2641        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2642        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2643
    2644        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2645            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2646                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2647
    2648        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2649            columns = alias.columns
    2650            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2651        else:
    2652            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2653
    2654        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2655        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2656            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2657        else:
    2658            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2659                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2660            elif offset:
    2661                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2662            else:
    2663                suffix = alias
    2664
    2665        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
    2666
    2667    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
    2668        return ""
    2669
    2670    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2671        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2672        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2673
    2674    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2675        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2676        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2677        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2678        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2679        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2680        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2681        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2682
    2683        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2684
    2685        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2686        if first is None:
    2687            first = ""
    2688        else:
    2689            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2690
    2691        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2692            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2693
    2694        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
    2695        return f"{this} ({args})"
    2696
    2697    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2698        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2699        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
    2700
    2701    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2702        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2703        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2704        end = (
    2705            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2706            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2707        )
    2708        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
    2709
    2710    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2711        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2712        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2713        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
    2714
    2715    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2716        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2717        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2718        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2719        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
    2720
    2721    def bracket_offset_expressions(
    2722        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
    2723    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2724        return apply_index_offset(
    2725            expression.this,
    2726            expression.expressions,
    2727            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2728        )
    2729
    2730    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2731        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
    2732        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2733        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
    2734
    2735    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2736        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
    2737
    2738    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2739        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2740        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
    2741            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
    2742                this = self.wrap(this)
    2743            return f"ANY{this}"
    2744        return f"ANY {this}"
    2745
    2746    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2747        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
    2748
    2749    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2750        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2751        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2752
    2753        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2754            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2755            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2756
    2757        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2758
    2759        if default:
    2760            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2761
    2762        statements.append("END")
    2763
    2764        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
    2765            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2766
    2767        return " ".join(statements)
    2768
    2769    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2771        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2772        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
    2773
    2774    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2775        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2776        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2777        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
    2778
    2779    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2780        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2781        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2782        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
    2783
    2784    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2785        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2786
    2787        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2788            func_name = "LTRIM"
    2789        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2790            func_name = "RTRIM"
    2791        else:
    2792            func_name = "TRIM"
    2793
    2794        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
    2795
    2796    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2797        args = expression.expressions
    2798        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2799            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2800
    2801        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2802            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
    2803
    2804        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2805            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2806
    2807        return args
    2808
    2809    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2810        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2811
    2812        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2813        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2814            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2815
    2816        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
    2817
    2818    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2819        return self.func(
    2820            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2821        )
    2822
    2823    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2824        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2825        return f"CHECK ({this})"
    2826
    2827    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2828        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2829        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2830        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2831        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2832        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2833        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2834        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2835        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
    2836
    2837    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2838        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2839        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2840        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2841        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
    2842
    2843    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2844        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
    2845
    2846    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2847        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2848        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2849        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
    2850
    2851    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2852        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    2853
    2854    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2855        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2856
    2857        if expression.args.get("escape"):
    2858            path = self.escape_str(path)
    2859
    2860        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
    2861            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2862
    2863        return path
    2864
    2865    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    2866        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    2867            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    2868            if not callable(transform):
    2869                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    2870                return ""
    2871
    2872            return transform(self, expression)
    2873
    2874        if isinstance(expression, int):
    2875            return str(expression)
    2876
    2877        if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    2878            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    2879            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    2880        else:
    2881            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    2882            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    2883
    2884        return escaped
    2885
    2886    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    2887        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
    2888
    2889    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2890        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2891        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2892
    2893        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    2894        if unique_keys is not None:
    2895            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    2896        else:
    2897            unique_keys = ""
    2898
    2899        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2900        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2901        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    2902        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    2903
    2904        return self.func(
    2905            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    2906            *expression.expressions,
    2907            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    2908        )
    2909
    2910    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2911        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
    2912
    2913    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    2914        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2915        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2916        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2917        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2918        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2919        return self.func(
    2920            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    2921        )
    2922
    2923    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    2924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2925        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2926        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2927        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2928        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2929        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2930        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2931        return self.func(
    2932            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    2933            this,
    2934            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    2935        )
    2936
    2937    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2938        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2939        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    2940        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    2941
    2942        if nested_schema:
    2943            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    2944
    2945        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2946        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2947        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    2948        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
    2949
    2950    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    2951        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
    2952
    2953    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    2954        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2955        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2956        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2957        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    2958        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    2959        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    2960        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    2961        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    2962        return self.func(
    2963            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    2964        )
    2965
    2966    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2967        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2968        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2969        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2970        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    2971        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    2972        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
    2973
    2974    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    2975        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2976        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2977        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2978        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2979        with_ = (
    2980            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2981            if expressions
    2982            else ""
    2983        )
    2984        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
    2985
    2986    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    2987        query = expression.args.get("query")
    2988        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    2989        field = expression.args.get("field")
    2990        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    2991
    2992        if query:
    2993            in_sql = self.sql(query)
    2994        elif unnest:
    2995            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    2996        elif field:
    2997            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    2998        else:
    2999            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    3000
    3001        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
    3002
    3003    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    3004        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
    3005
    3006    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    3007        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    3008        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    3009            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    3010        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    3011
    3012        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    3013            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    3014            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    3015
    3016        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3017        if this:
    3018            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    3019            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    3020
    3021        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
    3022
    3023    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    3024        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3025
    3026    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    3027        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3028        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3029        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3030        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    3031        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3032        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
    3033
    3034    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    3035        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
    3036        parent = expression.parent
    3037        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
    3038        return self.func(
    3039            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
    3040        )
    3041
    3042    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    3043        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    3044        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    3045
    3046    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    3047        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    3048        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3049        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    3050        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
    3051
    3052    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    3053        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3054
    3055    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    3056        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    3057        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    3058        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
    3059
    3060    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    3061        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    3062
    3063        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    3064        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
    3065
    3066        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3067            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    3068        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3069            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    3070
    3071        return self.alias_sql(expression)
    3072
    3073    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    3074        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    3075
    3076    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3077        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3078        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3079        return f"{this} AT {index}"
    3080
    3081    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3083        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3084        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
    3085
    3086    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    3087        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3088        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3089        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
    3090
    3091    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    3092        return self.binary(expression, "+")
    3093
    3094    def and_sql(
    3095        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3096    ) -> str:
    3097        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
    3098
    3099    def or_sql(
    3100        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3101    ) -> str:
    3102        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
    3103
    3104    def xor_sql(
    3105        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3106    ) -> str:
    3107        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
    3108
    3109    def connector_sql(
    3110        self,
    3111        expression: exp.Connector,
    3112        op: str,
    3113        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3114    ) -> str:
    3115        if stack is not None:
    3116            if expression.expressions:
    3117                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
    3118            else:
    3119                stack.append(expression.right)
    3120                if expression.comments and self.comments:
    3121                    for comment in expression.comments:
    3122                        if comment:
    3123                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
    3124                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
    3125            return op
    3126
    3127        stack = [expression]
    3128        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3129        ops = set()
    3130
    3131        while stack:
    3132            node = stack.pop()
    3133            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
    3134                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
    3135            else:
    3136                sql = self.sql(node)
    3137                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
    3138                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
    3139                else:
    3140                    sqls.append(sql)
    3141
    3142        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
    3143        return sep.join(sqls)
    3144
    3145    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    3146        return self.binary(expression, "&")
    3147
    3148    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    3149        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
    3150
    3151    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    3152        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3153
    3154    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    3155        return self.binary(expression, "|")
    3156
    3157    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    3158        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
    3159
    3160    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    3161        return self.binary(expression, "^")
    3162
    3163    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    3164        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    3165        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    3166        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3167        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    3168        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    3169        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
    3170        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
    3171
    3172    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    3173        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3174        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
    3175
    3176    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    3177        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    3178            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3179        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
    3180
    3181    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    3182        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
    3183
    3184    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    3185        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3186        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    3187        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    3188        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3189        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3190        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
    3191
    3192    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    3193        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3194        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    3195        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    3196        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    3197        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    3198        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    3199        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    3200        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    3201        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
    3202
    3203    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    3204        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    3205        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    3206        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    3207        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    3208
    3209        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    3210            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    3211
    3212        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
    3213
    3214    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    3215        return "BEGIN"
    3216
    3217    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    3218        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    3219        if chain is not None:
    3220            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    3221
    3222        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
    3223
    3224    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    3225        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    3226        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    3227        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
    3228
    3229    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    3230        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3231
    3232        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    3233        if dtype:
    3234            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    3235            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    3236            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3237            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    3238            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
    3239
    3240        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    3241        if default:
    3242            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    3243
    3244        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3245        if comment:
    3246            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    3247
    3248        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
    3249        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
    3250
    3251        if not drop and not allow_null:
    3252            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    3253
    3254        if allow_null is not None:
    3255            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
    3256            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
    3257
    3258        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
    3259
    3260    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
    3261        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3262        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
    3263            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
    3264        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
    3265
    3266    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
    3267        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
    3268        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3269        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3270        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3271        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
    3272
    3273    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
    3274        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    3275            # Remove db from tables
    3276            expression = expression.transform(
    3277                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    3278            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
    3279        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3280        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
    3281
    3282    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    3283        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3284        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3285        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3286        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
    3287
    3288    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
    3289        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3290        return f"SET {exprs}"
    3291
    3292    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
    3293        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    3294
    3295        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
    3296            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
    3297        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
    3298            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
    3299        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
    3300            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3301        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
    3302            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
    3303        else:
    3304            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3305
    3306        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3307        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3308        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3309        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    3310        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    3311        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
    3312        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3313        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
    3314
    3315        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
    3316
    3317    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
    3318        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    3319            return self.expressions(
    3320                expression,
    3321                key="actions",
    3322                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
    3323                skip_first=True,
    3324            )
    3325        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
    3326
    3327    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    3328        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3329        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3330        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
    3331
    3332    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    3333        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3334
    3335    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    3336        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3337
    3338        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    3339            case = exp.case()
    3340            for arg in expression.expressions:
    3341                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    3342            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    3343
    3344        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3345
    3346        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    3347        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    3348        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
    3349
    3350    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    3351        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
    3352
    3353    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    3354        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
    3355
    3356    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
    3357        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3358        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3359        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
    3360        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
    3361
    3362    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    3363        return self.sql(
    3364            exp.Cast(
    3365                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    3366                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    3367            )
    3368        )
    3369
    3370    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    3371        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3372            return self.func(
    3373                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
    3374            )
    3375        return self.binary(expression, "||")
    3376
    3377    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    3378        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    3379
    3380        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3381            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    3382
    3383        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    3384            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
    3385                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3386
    3387        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    3388            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    3389                return self.sql(
    3390                    exp.cast(
    3391                        l / r,
    3392                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    3393                    )
    3394                )
    3395
    3396        return self.binary(expression, "/")
    3397
    3398    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    3399        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
    3400
    3401    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    3402        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
    3403
    3404    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    3405        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3406
    3407    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    3408        return self.binary(expression, "=")
    3409
    3410    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    3411        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
    3412
    3413    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    3414        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
    3415
    3416    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    3417        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
    3418
    3419    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    3420        return self.binary(expression, ">")
    3421
    3422    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    3423        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
    3424
    3425    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    3426        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
    3427
    3428    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    3429        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
    3430
    3431    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    3432        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    3433            return self.sql(
    3434                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    3435            )
    3436        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
    3437
    3438    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    3439        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
    3440
    3441    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    3442        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
    3443
    3444    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    3445        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
    3446
    3447    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    3448        return self.binary(expression, "<")
    3449
    3450    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    3451        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
    3452
    3453    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    3454        return self.binary(expression, "%")
    3455
    3456    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    3457        return self.binary(expression, "*")
    3458
    3459    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    3460        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
    3461
    3462    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    3463        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
    3464
    3465    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    3466        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
    3467
    3468    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    3469        return self.binary(expression, ":")
    3470
    3471    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    3472        return self.binary(expression, "-")
    3473
    3474    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    3475        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
    3476
    3477    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
    3478        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
    3479            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
    3480            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    3481
    3482        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
    3483
    3484    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    3485        this = expression.this
    3486        expr = expression.expression
    3487
    3488        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
    3489            this, expr = expr, this
    3490        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
    3491            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
    3492                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
    3493
    3494            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
    3495
    3496        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
    3497
    3498    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3499        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3500        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3502        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3503        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
    3504
    3505    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3506        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3507        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    3508        binary_type = type(expression)
    3509
    3510        while stack:
    3511            node = stack.pop()
    3512
    3513            if type(node) is binary_type:
    3514                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
    3515                if op_func:
    3516                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
    3517
    3518                stack.append(node.right)
    3519                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
    3520                stack.append(node.left)
    3521            else:
    3522                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    3523
    3524        return "".join(sqls)
    3525
    3526    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3527        args = []
    3528
    3529        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3530            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3531
    3532            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3533                for value in arg_value:
    3534                    args.append(value)
    3535            elif arg_value is not None:
    3536                args.append(arg_value)
    3537
    3538        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
    3539            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3540        else:
    3541            name = expression.sql_name()
    3542
    3543        return self.func(name, *args)
    3544
    3545    def func(
    3546        self,
    3547        name: str,
    3548        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3549        prefix: str = "(",
    3550        suffix: str = ")",
    3551        normalize: bool = True,
    3552    ) -> str:
    3553        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
    3554        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
    3555
    3556    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
    3557        arg_sqls = tuple(
    3558            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
    3559        )
    3560        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
    3561            return self.indent(
    3562                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
    3563            )
    3564        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
    3565
    3566    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
    3567        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
    3568
    3569    def format_time(
    3570        self,
    3571        expression: exp.Expression,
    3572        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
    3573        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
    3574    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3575        return format_time(
    3576            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3577            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3578            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3579        )
    3580
    3581    def expressions(
    3582        self,
    3583        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3584        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3585        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3586        flat: bool = False,
    3587        indent: bool = True,
    3588        skip_first: bool = False,
    3589        skip_last: bool = False,
    3590        sep: str = ", ",
    3591        prefix: str = "",
    3592        dynamic: bool = False,
    3593        new_line: bool = False,
    3594    ) -> str:
    3595        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3596
    3597        if not expressions:
    3598            return ""
    3599
    3600        if flat:
    3601            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3602
    3603        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3604        result_sqls = []
    3605
    3606        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3607            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3608            if not sql:
    3609                continue
    3610
    3611            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3612
    3613            if self.pretty:
    3614                if self.leading_comma:
    3615                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3616                else:
    3617                    result_sqls.append(
    3618                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3619                    )
    3620            else:
    3621                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3622
    3623        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
    3624            if new_line:
    3625                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
    3626                result_sqls.append("")
    3627            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
    3628        else:
    3629            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
    3630
    3631        return (
    3632            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
    3633            if indent
    3634            else result_sql
    3635        )
    3636
    3637    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3638        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3639        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3640        if flat:
    3641            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3642        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
    3643
    3644    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3645        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3646        if not property_name:
    3647            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3648        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3649
    3650    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3651        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
    3652
    3653    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3654        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
    3655
    3656    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3657        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3658        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3659        expressions = (
    3660            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3661        )
    3662        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
    3663
    3664    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3665        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3666        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3667        return f"{this}({expressions})"
    3668
    3669    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3670        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
    3671
    3672    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3673        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3674        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3675        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3676        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3677
    3678        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3679        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3680            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
    3681            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
    3682            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
    3683            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
    3684        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3685            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3686                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3687            else:
    3688                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
    3689        else:
    3690            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3691        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
    3692
    3693    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3694        table = expression.this
    3695        table_alias = ""
    3696
    3697        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3698        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3699            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3700            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3701
    3702        this = self.sql(table)
    3703        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3704        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3705        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
    3706        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    3707        if returning:
    3708            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
    3709
    3710        sep = self.sep()
    3711
    3712        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3713            expression,
    3714            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
    3715        )
    3716
    3717    @unsupported_args("format")
    3718    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3719        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
    3720
    3721    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
    3722        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
    3723            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
    3724            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3725
    3726        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
    3727        if not fmt:
    3728            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
    3729            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3730
    3731        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
    3732
    3733    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3734        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3735        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3736        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3737        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3738        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
    3739
    3740    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3741        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3742        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3743        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3744        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
    3745
    3746    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3747        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    3748
    3749    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
    3750        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    3751
    3752    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
    3753    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
    3754        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3755        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
    3756        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3757        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3758        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
    3759        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    3760        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
    3761
    3762    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3763        return ""
    3764
    3765    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3766        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3767        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3768        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3769        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3770        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
    3771
    3772    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3773        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3774        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3775
    3776        if having:
    3777            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3778
    3779        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
    3780
    3781    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3782        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3783        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3784        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3785        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3786        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3787        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3788        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3789        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3790        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3791        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3792        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3793        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3794        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
    3795
    3796    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3797        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3798        if key_block_size:
    3799            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3800
    3801        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3802        if using:
    3803            return f"USING {using}"
    3804
    3805        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    3806        if parser:
    3807            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    3808
    3809        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3810        if comment:
    3811            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    3812
    3813        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3814        if visible is not None:
    3815            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3816
    3817        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    3818        if engine_attr:
    3819            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    3820
    3821        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    3822        if secondary_engine_attr:
    3823            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    3824
    3825        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    3826        return ""
    3827
    3828    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3829        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
    3830        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
    3831
    3832    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3833        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3834        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    3835        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3836        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3837        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    3838        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    3839        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3840        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3841        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    3842        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3843        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
    3844
    3845    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    3846        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    3847            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3848
    3849        case = exp.Case().when(
    3850            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    3851            expression.args["true"],
    3852            copy=False,
    3853        )
    3854        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    3855        if else_cond:
    3856            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    3857
    3858        return self.sql(case)
    3859
    3860    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    3861        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3862        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3863        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    3864        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3865        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    3866        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
    3867
    3868    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    3869        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    3870
    3871    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    3872        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3873
    3874    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    3875        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3876        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    3877        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3878        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    3879        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    3880        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
    3881
    3882    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    3883        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3884        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3885        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
    3886
    3887    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    3888        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3889        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    3890        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
    3891
    3892    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    3893        arg = expression.this
    3894        if not arg.type:
    3895            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    3896
    3897            arg = annotate_types(arg)
    3898
    3899        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    3900            return self.sql(arg)
    3901
    3902        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    3903        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
    3904
    3905    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    3906        this = expression.this
    3907        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    3908            return self.sql(this)
    3909
    3910        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
    3911
    3912    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
    3913        this = expression.this
    3914        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
    3915            return self.sql(this)
    3916
    3917        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
    3918
    3919    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
    3920        this = expression.this
    3921        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
    3922            return self.sql(this)
    3923
    3924        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
    3925
    3926    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    3927        this = expression.this
    3928        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    3929
    3930        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    3931            return self.sql(
    3932                exp.cast(
    3933                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    3934                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
    3935                )
    3936            )
    3937
    3938        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    3939            return self.sql(this)
    3940
    3941        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
    3942
    3943    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    3944        return self.sql(
    3945            exp.func(
    3946                "DATEDIFF",
    3947                expression.this,
    3948                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
    3949                "day",
    3950            )
    3951        )
    3952
    3953    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    3954        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    3955            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3956
    3957        unit = expression.text("unit")
    3958        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    3959            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    3960
    3961        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
    3962
    3963    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
    3964        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
    3965
    3966        return self.func(
    3967            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
    3968        )
    3969
    3970    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
    3971        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
    3972            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
    3973            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
    3974            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
    3975            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
    3976
    3977        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    3978
    3979        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
    3980        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
    3981            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
    3982
    3983        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3984
    3985    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
    3986        expression.set(
    3987            "expressions",
    3988            [
    3989                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
    3990                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
    3991                else e
    3992                for e in expression.expressions
    3993            ],
    3994        )
    3995
    3996        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3997
    3998    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
    3999        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4000        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4001
    4002        return f"{low} TO {high}"
    4003
    4004    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
    4005        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
    4006        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
    4007
    4008        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    4009
    4010        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    4011        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    4012
    4013        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
    4014        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
    4015
    4016        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    4017        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    4018
    4019        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    4020        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    4021
    4022        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
    4023
    4024    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
    4025    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
    4026    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
    4027        to = expression.this
    4028        value = expression.expression
    4029        style = expression.args.get("style")
    4030        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
    4031        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
    4032
    4033        if not to or not value:
    4034            return ""
    4035
    4036        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
    4037        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    4038            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
    4039
    4040        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
    4041        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
    4042
    4043        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
    4044        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
    4045            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
    4046
    4047            style_value = style.name
    4048            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
    4049            if not converted_style:
    4050                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
    4051
    4052            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
    4053
    4054            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
    4055                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
    4056            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
    4057                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
    4058            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    4059                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
    4060            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
    4061                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
    4062
    4063        if not transformed:
    4064            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
    4065
    4066        return self.sql(transformed)
    4067
    4068    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
    4069        this = expression.this
    4070        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
    4071            this = self.json_path_part(this)
    4072            return f".{this}" if this else ""
    4073
    4074        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
    4075            return f".{this}"
    4076
    4077        this = self.json_path_part(this)
    4078        return (
    4079            f"[{this}]"
    4080            if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED
    4081            else f".{this}"
    4082        )
    4083
    4084    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
    4085        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
    4086        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
    4087
    4088    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
    4089        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
    4090            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
    4091
    4092            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
    4093
    4094        return expression
    4095
    4096    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
    4097        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
    4098            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
    4099            mods = sorted(
    4100                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
    4101                key=lambda x: 0
    4102                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
    4103                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
    4104            )
    4105
    4106            if mods:
    4107                mod = mods[0]
    4108                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
    4109                this.meta["inline"] = True
    4110                mod.this.replace(this)
    4111                return self.sql(expression.this)
    4112
    4113            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
    4114
    4115            if agg_func:
    4116                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
    4117
    4118        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
    4119
    4120    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
    4121        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
    4122        if self.pretty:
    4123            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
    4124        return string
    4125
    4126    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
    4127        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4128
    4129        if expression.expressions:
    4130            upper = option.upper()
    4131
    4132            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
    4133            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
    4134
    4135            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
    4136            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
    4137            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
    4138            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
    4139
    4140        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4141
    4142        if not value:
    4143            return option
    4144
    4145        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
    4146
    4147        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
    4148
    4149    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
    4150        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
    4151        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
    4152            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
    4153            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4154            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
    4155        else:
    4156            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
    4157            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4158            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
    4159
    4160        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
    4161        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
    4162
    4163        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4164        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
    4165
    4166        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
    4167        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
    4168
    4169        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
    4170        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
    4171
    4172        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
    4173
    4174    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
    4175        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4176        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
    4177
    4178        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4179        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
    4180        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
    4181        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
    4182
    4183        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
    4184        params = self.expressions(
    4185            expression,
    4186            key="params",
    4187            sep=sep,
    4188            new_line=True,
    4189            skip_last=True,
    4190            skip_first=True,
    4191            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
    4192        )
    4193
    4194        if params:
    4195            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
    4196                params = f" WITH ({params})"
    4197            elif not self.pretty:
    4198                params = f" {params}"
    4199
    4200        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
    4201
    4202    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
    4203        return ""
    4204
    4205    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
    4206        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    4207        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
    4208        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
    4209        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    4210        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    4211
    4212        if filter_col or retention_period:
    4213            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
    4214
    4215        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
    4216
    4217    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
    4218        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
    4219    ) -> str:
    4220        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4221        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4222        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    4223        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
    4224
    4225    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
    4226        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4227        this = f"TABLE {this}"
    4228        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
    4229
    4230    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
    4231        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
    4232
    4233    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
    4234        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4235        expr = expression.expression
    4236
    4237        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
    4238            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
    4239            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
    4240        else:
    4241            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4242
    4243        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
    4244
    4245    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
    4246        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
    4247            return self.sql(expression.this)
    4248
    4249        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
    4250
    4251    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
    4252        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
    4253        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
    4254
    4255        if lower and upper:
    4256            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
    4257        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
    4258
    4259    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
    4260        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
    4261        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
    4262        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
    4263        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
    4264        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
    4265        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
    4266
    4267        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
    4268
    4269    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
    4270        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
    4271
    4272        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
    4273        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
    4274            fill_pattern = "' '"
    4275
    4276        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
    4277
    4278    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
    4279        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
    4280        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
    4281
    4282    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
    4283        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
    4284
    4285        parent = expression.parent
    4286        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
    4287            parent = parent.parent
    4288
    4289        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
    4290            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
    4291
    4292        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
    4293            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
    4294
    4295        return self.sql(generate_series)
    4296
    4297    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
    4298        exprs = expression.expressions
    4299        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
    4300            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
    4301        else:
    4302            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
    4303
    4304        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
    4305
    4306    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
    4307        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
    4308            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4309
    4310        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
    4311        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
    4312        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
    4313
    4314        if source_tz and timestamp:
    4315            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
    4316                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
    4317            )
    4318
    4319        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
    4320
    4321        return self.sql(expr)
    4322
    4323    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
    4324        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4325        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4326
    4327        _with = expression.args.get("with")
    4328
    4329        if _with is None:
    4330            with_sql = ""
    4331        elif not _with:
    4332            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
    4333        else:
    4334            with_sql = " WITH"
    4335
    4336        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    4337
    4338        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
    4339
    4340    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
    4341        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
    4342            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
    4343
    4344        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4345        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    4346        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
    4347
    4348        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4349        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4350
    4351        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
    4352
    4353    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
    4354        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
    4355        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4356        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
    4357        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
    4358        return f"{condition}{insert}"
    4359
    4360    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
    4361        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4362        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
    4363        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
    4364        return res
    4365
    4366    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
    4367        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
    4368        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
    4369        empty = (
    4370            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
    4371            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
    4372            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
    4373        )
    4374
    4375        error = expression.args.get("error")
    4376        error = (
    4377            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
    4378            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
    4379            else self.sql(expression, "error")
    4380        )
    4381
    4382        if error and empty:
    4383            error = (
    4384                f"{empty} {error}"
    4385                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
    4386                else f"{error} {empty}"
    4387            )
    4388            empty = ""
    4389
    4390        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    4391
    4392        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
    4393
    4394    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
    4395        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4396        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4397
    4398        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
    4399        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
    4400
    4401        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4402        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4403
    4404        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
    4405
    4406        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
    4407
    4408    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
    4409        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4410
    4411        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
    4412        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
    4413        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
    4414            parent = expression.parent
    4415            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
    4416                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
    4417                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
    4418            else:
    4419                this = expression.this
    4420                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
    4421                if this.find(exp.Column):
    4422                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
    4423                    this_sql = (
    4424                        self.expressions(this)
    4425                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
    4426                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
    4427                    )
    4428
    4429                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
    4430
    4431        return array_agg
    4432
    4433    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
    4434        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4435        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4436
    4437        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
    4438
    4439    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
    4440        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
    4441
    4442        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4443        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    4444
    4445        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
    4446        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
    4447
    4448        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
    4449
    4450        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
    4451
    4452        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
    4453
    4454    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
    4455        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4456        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4457        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    4458
    4459        return f"{this}{columns}"
    4460
    4461    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
    4462        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4463
    4464        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4465        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    4466
    4467        return f"{kind}{this}"
    4468
    4469    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
    4470        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4471        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
    4472            func = f"*{func}"
    4473
    4474        return func
    4475
    4476    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
    4477        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4478        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4479        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    4480        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
    4481        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
    4482
    4483        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
    4484
    4485    @unsupported_args("format")
    4486    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
    4487        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    4488
    4489    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
    4490        this = expression.this
    4491        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
    4492
    4493        if zone:
    4494            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
    4495            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
    4496            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
    4497            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
    4498                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
    4499            )
    4500
    4501        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
    4502
    4503    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
    4504        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
    4505            return self.sql(
    4506                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
    4507            )
    4508
    4509        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4510
    4511    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
    4512        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4513        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
    4514        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
    4515        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
    4516
    4517    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
    4518        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
    4519            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4520
    4521        start_ts = exp.cast(
    4522            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
    4523        )
    4524
    4525        return self.sql(
    4526            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
    4527        )
    4528
    4529    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
    4530        dim = expression.expression
    4531
    4532        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
    4533        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
    4534            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
    4535                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
    4536            dim = None
    4537
    4538        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
    4539        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
    4540            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
    4541
    4542        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)
    4543
    4544    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
    4545        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4546        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    4547        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    4548        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    4549
    4550        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"
    4551
    4552    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
    4553        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4554        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    4555
    4556        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"
    4557
    4558    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
    4559        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4560        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4561        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
    4562        return f"{this}{value}"
    4563
    4564    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
    4565        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4566        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
    4567            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"
    4568
    4569        return self.func(
    4570            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
    4571            this_sql,
    4572            expression.args.get("time"),
    4573            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
    4574            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
    4575        )
    4576
    4577    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
    4578        return (
    4579            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    4580        )
    4581
    4582    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
    4583        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
    4584        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    4585
    4586        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
    4587        if properties:
    4588            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"
    4589
    4590        return encode
    4591
    4592    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
    4593        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4594        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"
    4595
    4596        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
    4597        if column_def:
    4598            include = f"{include} {column_def}"
    4599
    4600        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    4601        if alias:
    4602            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"
    4603
    4604        return include

logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
def unsupported_args( *args: Union[str, Tuple[str, str]]) -> Callable[[Callable[[~G, ~E], str]], Callable[[~G, ~E], str]]: View Source

    30def unsupported_args(
    31    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
    32) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
    33    """
    34    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
    35    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
    36    """
    37    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
    38    for arg in args:
    39        if isinstance(arg, str):
    40            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
    41        else:
    42            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
    43
    44    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
    45        @wraps(func)
    46        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
    47            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
    48            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
    49
    50            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
    51                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
    52                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
    53                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
    54                    )
    55                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
    56
    57            return func(generator, expression)
    58
    59        return _func
    60
    61    return decorator

Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported. It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).

class Generator: View Source

      75class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
      76    """
      77    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
      78
      79    Args:
      80        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
      81            Default: False.
      82        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
      83            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
      84            True or 'always': Always quote.
      85            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
      86        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
      87            Default: False.
      88        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
      89            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
      90            Default: 2.
      91        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
      92            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
      93            Default: 2.
      94        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
      95            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
      96            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
      97            False: Disables function name normalization.
      98        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
      99            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
     100        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
     101            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
     102            Default: 3
     103        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
     104            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
     105            Default: False
     106        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
     107            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
     108            line length.
     109            Default: 80
     110        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
     111            Default: True
     112    """
     113
     114    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
     115        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
     116        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
     117        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
     118        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
     119        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
     120        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     121        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     122        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
     123        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
     124        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     125        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
     126        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     127        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     128        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     129        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     130        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     131        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     132        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
     133        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     134        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     135        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
     136        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
     137        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     138        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     139        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
     140        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
     141        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     142        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     143        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
     144        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
     145        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
     146        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
     147        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     148        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     149        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     150        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     151        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
     152        exp.Int64: lambda self, e: self.sql(exp.cast(e.this, exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT)),
     153        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     154        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     155        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
     156        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
     157        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     158        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     159        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
     160        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
     161        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
     162        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
     163        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     164        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     165        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
     166        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     167        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     168        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     169        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     170        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     171        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
     172        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     173        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
     174            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
     175        ),
     176        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     177        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
     178        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     179        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
     180        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
     181        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
     182        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     183        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     184        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
     185        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
     186        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     187        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     188        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
     189        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
     190        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     191        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
     192        exp.Tags: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     193        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     194        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     195        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
     196        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
     197        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
     198        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     199        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
     200        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
     201        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
     202        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
     203        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     204        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
     205        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     206        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
     207        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     208        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
     209    }
     210
     211    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
     212    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
     213    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
     214    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
     215
     216    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
     217    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
     218    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
     219
     220    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
     221    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
     222
     223    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
     224    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
     225
     226    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
     227    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
     228
     229    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
     230    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
     231
     232    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
     233    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
     234
     235    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
     236    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
     237
     238    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
     239    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
     240
     241    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
     242    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
     243
     244    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
     245    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
     246
     247    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
     248    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
     249
     250    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
     251    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
     252
     253    # The string used for creating an index on a table
     254    INDEX_ON = "ON"
     255
     256    # Whether join hints should be generated
     257    JOIN_HINTS = True
     258
     259    # Whether table hints should be generated
     260    TABLE_HINTS = True
     261
     262    # Whether query hints should be generated
     263    QUERY_HINTS = True
     264
     265    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
     266    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
     267
     268    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
     269    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
     270
     271    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
     272    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
     273
     274    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
     275    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
     276
     277    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
     278    RETURNING_END = True
     279
     280    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
     281    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
     282
     283    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
     284    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
     285
     286    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
     287    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
     288
     289    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
     290    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
     291
     292    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
     293    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
     294    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
     295    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
     296
     297    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
     298    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
     299
     300    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
     301    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
     302
     303    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
     304    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
     305
     306    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
     307    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
     308
     309    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
     310    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
     311
     312    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
     313    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
     314
     315    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
     316    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
     317
     318    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
     319    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
     320
     321    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
     322    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
     323
     324    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
     325    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
     326
     327    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
     328    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
     329
     330    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
     331    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
     332
     333    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
     334    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
     335
     336    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
     337    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
     338
     339    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
     340    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
     341
     342    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
     343    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
     344
     345    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
     346    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
     347
     348    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
     349    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
     350
     351    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
     352    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
     353
     354    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
     355    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
     356
     357    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
     358    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
     359
     360    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
     361    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
     362
     363    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
     364    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
     365
     366    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
     367    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
     368
     369    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
     370    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
     371
     372    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
     373    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
     374    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
     375
     376    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
     377    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
     378
     379    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
     380    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
     381
     382    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
     383    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
     384
     385    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
     386    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
     387
     388    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
     389    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
     390
     391    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
     392    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
     393
     394    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
     395    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
     396    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
     397    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
     398
     399    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
     400    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
     401
     402    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
     403    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
     404
     405    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
     406    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
     407
     408    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
     409    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
     410
     411    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
     412    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
     413
     414    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
     415    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
     416
     417    # The HEX function name
     418    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
     419
     420    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
     421    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
     422
     423    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
     424    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
     425
     426    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
     427    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
     428
     429    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
     430    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
     431
     432    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
     433    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
     434
     435    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
     436    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
     437
     438    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
     439    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
     440
     441    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
     442    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
     443
     444    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
     445    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
     446
     447    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
     448    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
     449
     450    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
     451    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
     452    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
     453    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
     454    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
     455
     456    TYPE_MAPPING = {
     457        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
     458        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
     459        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
     460        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
     461        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
     462        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
     463        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
     464        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
     465        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
     466        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
     467    }
     468
     469    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
     470        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
     471        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
     472        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
     473        "HOURS": "HOUR",
     474        "DAYS": "DAY",
     475        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
     476        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
     477        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
     478        "YEARS": "YEAR",
     479    }
     480
     481    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
     482        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
     483        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
     484        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
     485        "windows": lambda self, e: (
     486            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
     487            if e.args.get("windows")
     488            else ""
     489        ),
     490        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
     491    }
     492
     493    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
     494
     495    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
     496
     497    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
     498    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
     499
     500    EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: t.Set[str] = set()
     501
     502    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
     503        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     504        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     505        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     506        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     507        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     508        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     509        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     510        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     511        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     512        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     513        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     514        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     515        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     516        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     517        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     518        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     519        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     520        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     521        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     522        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     523        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     524        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     525        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     526        exp.EncodeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     527        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     528        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     529        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     530        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     531        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     532        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     533        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     534        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     535        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     536        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     537        exp.IncludeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     538        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     539        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     540        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     541        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     542        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     543        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     544        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     545        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
     546        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     547        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     548        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     549        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     550        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     551        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     552        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     553        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     554        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     555        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     556        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     557        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     558        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     559        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     560        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     561        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     562        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     563        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     564        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     565        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     566        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     567        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     568        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     569        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     570        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     571        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     572        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     573        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     574        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     575        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     576        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     577        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     578        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     579        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     580        exp.Tags: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     581        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     582        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     583        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     584        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     585        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     586        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     587        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     588        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     589        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     590        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     591        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     592        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     593        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     594    }
     595
     596    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
     597    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
     598
     599    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
     600    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     601        exp.Command,
     602        exp.Create,
     603        exp.Describe,
     604        exp.Delete,
     605        exp.Drop,
     606        exp.From,
     607        exp.Insert,
     608        exp.Join,
     609        exp.MultitableInserts,
     610        exp.Select,
     611        exp.SetOperation,
     612        exp.Update,
     613        exp.Where,
     614        exp.With,
     615    )
     616
     617    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
     618    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     619        exp.Binary,
     620        exp.SetOperation,
     621    )
     622
     623    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
     624    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     625        exp.Column,
     626        exp.Literal,
     627        exp.Neg,
     628        exp.Paren,
     629    )
     630
     631    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
     632        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
     633        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
     634        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
     635        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
     636    }
     637
     638    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
     639    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
     640
     641    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
     642
     643    __slots__ = (
     644        "pretty",
     645        "identify",
     646        "normalize",
     647        "pad",
     648        "_indent",
     649        "normalize_functions",
     650        "unsupported_level",
     651        "max_unsupported",
     652        "leading_comma",
     653        "max_text_width",
     654        "comments",
     655        "dialect",
     656        "unsupported_messages",
     657        "_escaped_quote_end",
     658        "_escaped_identifier_end",
     659        "_next_name",
     660        "_identifier_start",
     661        "_identifier_end",
     662        "_quote_json_path_key_using_brackets",
     663    )
     664
     665    def __init__(
     666        self,
     667        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
     668        identify: str | bool = False,
     669        normalize: bool = False,
     670        pad: int = 2,
     671        indent: int = 2,
     672        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
     673        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
     674        max_unsupported: int = 3,
     675        leading_comma: bool = False,
     676        max_text_width: int = 80,
     677        comments: bool = True,
     678        dialect: DialectType = None,
     679    ):
     680        import sqlglot
     681        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
     682
     683        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
     684        self.identify = identify
     685        self.normalize = normalize
     686        self.pad = pad
     687        self._indent = indent
     688        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
     689        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
     690        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
     691        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
     692        self.comments = comments
     693        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
     694
     695        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
     696        self.normalize_functions = (
     697            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
     698        )
     699
     700        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
     701        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
     702            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
     703        )
     704        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
     705
     706        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
     707
     708        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
     709        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
     710
     711        self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets = True
     712
     713    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
     714        """
     715        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
     716
     717        Args:
     718            expression: The syntax tree.
     719            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
     720                it is safer to copy.
     721
     722        Returns:
     723            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
     724        """
     725        if copy:
     726            expression = expression.copy()
     727
     728        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
     729
     730        self.unsupported_messages = []
     731        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
     732
     733        if self.pretty:
     734            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
     735
     736        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
     737            return sql
     738
     739        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
     740            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
     741                logger.warning(msg)
     742        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
     743            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
     744
     745        return sql
     746
     747    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
     748        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
     749        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     750
     751        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
     752            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
     753
     754            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
     755
     756        return expression
     757
     758    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
     759        if (
     760            not expression.parent
     761            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
     762            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
     763        ):
     764            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
     765
     766            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     767        return expression
     768
     769    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
     770        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
     771            raise UnsupportedError(message)
     772        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
     773
     774    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     775        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
     776
     777    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     778        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
     779
     780    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
     781        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
     782        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
     783        return comment
     784
     785    def maybe_comment(
     786        self,
     787        sql: str,
     788        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
     789        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
     790        separated: bool = False,
     791    ) -> str:
     792        comments = (
     793            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
     794            if self.comments
     795            else None
     796        )
     797
     798        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
     799            return sql
     800
     801        comments_sql = " ".join(
     802            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
     803        )
     804
     805        if not comments_sql:
     806            return sql
     807
     808        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
     809
     810        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
     811            return (
     812                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
     813                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
     814                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
     815            )
     816
     817        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
     818
     819    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
     820        this_sql = (
     821            self.sql(expression)
     822            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
     823            else self.sql(expression, "this")
     824        )
     825        if not this_sql:
     826            return "()"
     827
     828        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
     829        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
     830
     831    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
     832        original = self.identify
     833        self.identify = False
     834        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
     835        self.identify = original
     836        return result
     837
     838    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
     839        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
     840            return name.upper()
     841        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
     842            return name.lower()
     843        return name
     844
     845    def indent(
     846        self,
     847        sql: str,
     848        level: int = 0,
     849        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
     850        skip_first: bool = False,
     851        skip_last: bool = False,
     852    ) -> str:
     853        if not self.pretty or not sql:
     854            return sql
     855
     856        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
     857        lines = sql.split("\n")
     858
     859        return "\n".join(
     860            (
     861                line
     862                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
     863                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
     864            )
     865            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
     866        )
     867
     868    def sql(
     869        self,
     870        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
     871        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
     872        comment: bool = True,
     873    ) -> str:
     874        if not expression:
     875            return ""
     876
     877        if isinstance(expression, str):
     878            return expression
     879
     880        if key:
     881            value = expression.args.get(key)
     882            if value:
     883                return self.sql(value)
     884            return ""
     885
     886        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
     887
     888        if callable(transform):
     889            sql = transform(self, expression)
     890        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
     891            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
     892
     893            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
     894                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
     895            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
     896                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
     897            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
     898                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
     899            else:
     900                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
     901        else:
     902            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
     903
     904        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
     905
     906    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
     907        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     908        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     909        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
     910
     911    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
     912        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
     913        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     914        options = expression.args.get("options")
     915        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
     916        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     917        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
     918        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
     919        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
     920
     921    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
     922        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
     923            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     924        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
     925        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     926
     927    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     928        return ".".join(
     929            self.sql(part)
     930            for part in (
     931                expression.args.get("catalog"),
     932                expression.args.get("db"),
     933                expression.args.get("table"),
     934                expression.args.get("this"),
     935            )
     936            if part
     937        )
     938
     939    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     940        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
     941
     942        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
     943            join_mark = ""
     944            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
     945
     946        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
     947
     948    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
     949        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     950        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     951        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     952        return f"{position}{this}"
     953
     954    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     955        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
     956        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     957        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
     958        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     959        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
     960        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
     961        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     962        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
     963
     964        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
     965            kind = ""
     966
     967        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
     968
     969    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
     970        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     971        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
     972        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
     973
     974    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
     975        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     976        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
     977            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
     978        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
     979            persisted = " PERSISTED"
     980        else:
     981            persisted = ""
     982        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
     983
     984    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
     985        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
     986
     987    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
     988        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
     989            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
     990        else:
     991            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     992
     993        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
     994
     995    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
     996        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
     997    ) -> str:
     998        this = ""
     999        if expression.this is not None:
    1000            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
    1001            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
    1002
    1003        start = expression.args.get("start")
    1004        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1005        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
    1006        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1007        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
    1008        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1009        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
    1010        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1011        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
    1012        cycle_sql = ""
    1013
    1014        if cycle is not None:
    1015            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
    1016            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
    1017
    1018        sequence_opts = ""
    1019        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
    1020            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
    1021            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
    1022
    1023        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1024        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
    1025
    1026        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
    1027
    1028    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
    1029        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
    1030    ) -> str:
    1031        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
    1032        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
    1033        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
    1034
    1035    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
    1036        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
    1037    ) -> str:
    1038        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    1039
    1040    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1041        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
    1042
    1043    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1044        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1045
    1046    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1047        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    1048        if desc is not None:
    1049            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
    1050        return "PRIMARY KEY"
    1051
    1052    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1053        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1054        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1055        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
    1056        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    1057        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
    1058        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1059        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
    1060        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
    1061
    1062    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
    1063        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1064
    1065    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
    1066        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1067        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1068        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
    1069        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
    1070
    1071        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
    1072
    1073        properties_sql = ""
    1074        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
    1075            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
    1076        ):
    1077            properties_sql = self.sql(
    1078                exp.Properties(
    1079                    expressions=[
    1080                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
    1081                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
    1082                    ]
    1083                )
    1084            )
    1085
    1086            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
    1087                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
    1088            elif not self.pretty:
    1089                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
    1090                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
    1091
    1092        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
    1093        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
    1094
    1095        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1096        if expression_sql:
    1097            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
    1098
    1099            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
    1100                postalias_props_sql = ""
    1101                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
    1102                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
    1103                        exp.Properties(
    1104                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
    1105                        ),
    1106                        wrapped=False,
    1107                    )
    1108                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
    1109                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
    1110
    1111        postindex_props_sql = ""
    1112        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
    1113            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
    1114                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
    1115                wrapped=False,
    1116                prefix=" ",
    1117            )
    1118
    1119        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
    1120        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
    1121        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
    1122
    1123        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
    1124        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
    1125        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1126
    1127        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
    1128        if clustered is None:
    1129            clustered_sql = ""
    1130        elif clustered:
    1131            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1132        else:
    1133            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1134
    1135        postcreate_props_sql = ""
    1136        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
    1137            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
    1138                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
    1139                sep=" ",
    1140                prefix=" ",
    1141                wrapped=False,
    1142            )
    1143
    1144        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
    1145
    1146        postexpression_props_sql = ""
    1147        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
    1148            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
    1149                exp.Properties(
    1150                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
    1151                ),
    1152                sep=" ",
    1153                prefix=" ",
    1154                wrapped=False,
    1155            )
    1156
    1157        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1158        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1159        no_schema_binding = (
    1160            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
    1161        )
    1162
    1163        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
    1164        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
    1165
    1166        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
    1167            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
    1168        else:
    1169            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"
    1170
    1171        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
    1172        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
    1173
    1174    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
    1175        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1176        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1177        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
    1178        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1179        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
    1180        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1181        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
    1182        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1183        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
    1184        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
    1185
    1186        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
    1187        if cache is None:
    1188            cache_str = ""
    1189        elif cache is True:
    1190            cache_str = " CACHE"
    1191        else:
    1192            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
    1193
    1194        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1195        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1196
    1197        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
    1198
    1199    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
    1200        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1201        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
    1202        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
    1203        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
    1204
    1205    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
    1206        style = expression.args.get("style")
    1207        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
    1208        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1209        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1210        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1211        format = f" {format}" if format else ""
    1212
    1213        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
    1214
    1215    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
    1216        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
    1217        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
    1218
    1219    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
    1220        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
    1221        if with_:
    1222            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    1223        return sql
    1224
    1225    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
    1226        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1227        recursive = (
    1228            "RECURSIVE "
    1229            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
    1230            else ""
    1231        )
    1232
    1233        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
    1234
    1235    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
    1236        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    1237        if alias:
    1238            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
    1239
    1240        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1241
    1242        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
    1243        if materialized is False:
    1244            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
    1245        elif materialized:
    1246            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
    1247
    1248        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
    1249
    1250    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
    1251        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1252        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1253        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1254
    1255        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
    1256            columns = ""
    1257            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
    1258
    1259        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    1260            alias = self._next_name()
    1261
    1262        return f"{alias}{columns}"
    1263
    1264    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
    1265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1266        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
    1267            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1268        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
    1269
    1270    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
    1271        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1272        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
    1273            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
    1274        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
    1275
    1276    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1277        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1278        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1279            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1280        return this
    1281
    1282    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1283        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1284        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1285
    1286        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1287            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
    1288            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
    1289        else:
    1290            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
    1291            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
    1292
    1293        if escape:
    1294            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1295            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
    1296        else:
    1297            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1298            escape_sql = ""
    1299
    1300        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
    1301            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
    1302
    1303        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
    1304
    1305    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1306        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
    1307        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1308
    1309    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1310        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1311        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1312        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1313        return f"{this}{specifier}"
    1314
    1315    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1316        nested = ""
    1317        values = ""
    1318        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1319
    1320        type_value = expression.this
    1321        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1322            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1323        else:
    1324            type_sql = (
    1325                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1326                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1327                else type_value
    1328            )
    1329
    1330        if interior:
    1331            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1332                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1333                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1334                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1335                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1336                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1337            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1338                nested = f" {interior}"
    1339            else:
    1340                nested = f"({interior})"
    1341
    1342        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1343        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1344            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1345            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1346        ):
    1347            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1348
    1349        return type_sql
    1350
    1351    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1352        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1353        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1354        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1355        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
    1356
    1357    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1358        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1359        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1360        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1361        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1362        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1363        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
    1364        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1365        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1366        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1367        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1368        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1369        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1370            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1371        else:
    1372            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
    1373        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
    1374
    1375    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1376        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1377        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1378        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    1379        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1380        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1381        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1382        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1383        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1384        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    1385        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1386        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1387        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1388        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1389        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1390        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
    1391
    1392    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1393        op_type = type(expression)
    1394        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
    1395
    1396        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
    1397        if (
    1398            distinct is False
    1399            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
    1400            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
    1401        ):
    1402            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
    1403
    1404        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
    1405
    1406        if distinct is None:
    1407            distinct = default_distinct
    1408            if distinct is None:
    1409                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
    1410
    1411        if distinct is default_distinct:
    1412            kind = ""
    1413        else:
    1414            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
    1415
    1416        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1417        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
    1418
    1419    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1420        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
    1421            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    1422            order = expression.args.get("order")
    1423
    1424            if limit or order:
    1425                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
    1426                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
    1427                )
    1428
    1429                if limit:
    1430                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
    1431                if order:
    1432                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
    1433                return self.sql(select)
    1434
    1435        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    1436        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    1437
    1438        while stack:
    1439            node = stack.pop()
    1440
    1441            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
    1442                stack.append(node.expression)
    1443                stack.append(
    1444                    self.maybe_comment(
    1445                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
    1446                    )
    1447                )
    1448                stack.append(node.this)
    1449            else:
    1450                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    1451
    1452        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
    1453        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
    1454        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
    1455
    1456    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1457        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1458        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1459        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
    1460        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1461        if expression.args.get("percent"):
    1462            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
    1463        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
    1464        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
    1465
    1466    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1467        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1468            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1469            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1470            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1471
    1472        agg = expression.this
    1473        agg_arg = agg.this
    1474        cond = expression.expression.this
    1475        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1476        return self.sql(agg)
    1477
    1478    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1479        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1480            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1481            return ""
    1482
    1483        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
    1484
    1485    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
    1486        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1487        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1488        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1489        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1490        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1491        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1492        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1493        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1494        if include:
    1495            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1496        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
    1497        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
    1498        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
    1499        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
    1500        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1501        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    1502
    1503        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
    1504
    1505    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1506        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1507        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1508        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1509        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1510        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1511        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1512        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1513
    1514        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1515
    1516        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
    1517        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
    1518
    1519    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1520        text = expression.name
    1521        lower = text.lower()
    1522        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1523        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1524        if (
    1525            expression.quoted
    1526            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1527            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1528            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1529        ):
    1530            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
    1531        return text
    1532
    1533    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
    1534        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1535        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1536            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1537
    1538        return text
    1539
    1540    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
    1541        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1542        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1543            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1544        return text
    1545
    1546    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1547        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1548        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1549        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1550        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1551        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
    1552
    1553    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1554        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1555        return f"{prefix}{string}"
    1556
    1557    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1558        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1559
    1560    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1561        root_properties = []
    1562        with_properties = []
    1563
    1564        for p in expression.expressions:
    1565            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1566            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1567                with_properties.append(p)
    1568            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1569                root_properties.append(p)
    1570
    1571        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
    1572        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
    1573
    1574        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
    1575            with_props = " " + with_props
    1576
    1577        return root_props + with_props
    1578
    1579    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1580        if properties.expressions:
    1581            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1582        return ""
    1583
    1584    def properties(
    1585        self,
    1586        properties: exp.Properties,
    1587        prefix: str = "",
    1588        sep: str = ", ",
    1589        suffix: str = "",
    1590        wrapped: bool = True,
    1591    ) -> str:
    1592        if properties.expressions:
    1593            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1594            if expressions:
    1595                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1596                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1597        return ""
    1598
    1599    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1600        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
    1601
    1602    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1603        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1604        for p in properties.expressions:
    1605            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1606            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1607                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1608            else:
    1609                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1610
    1611        return properties_locs
    1612
    1613    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1614        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1615            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1616        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
    1617
    1618    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1619        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1620        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1621            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1622
    1623        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1624        if not property_name:
    1625            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1626
    1627        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1628
    1629    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1630        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1631            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1632            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1633
    1634            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1635            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1636                like = f"({like})"
    1637
    1638            return like
    1639
    1640        if expression.expressions:
    1641            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1642
    1643        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1644        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
    1645
    1646    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1647        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1648        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1649        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
    1650
    1651    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1652        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1653        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1654        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1655        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1656        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1657        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1658        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
    1659
    1660    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1661        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1662        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1663        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
    1664
    1665    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1666        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1667            property = "DEFAULT"
    1668        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1669            property = "ON"
    1670        else:
    1671            property = "OFF"
    1672        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
    1673
    1674    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1675        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1676            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1677        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1678            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1679
    1680        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1681        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
    1682
    1683    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1684        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1685        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1686        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1687        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1688            if default:
    1689                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1690            elif minimum:
    1691                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1692            else:
    1693                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1694            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1695        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1696        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1697        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
    1698
    1699    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1700        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1701        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1702        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1703        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1704        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1705
    1706        if autotemp is not None:
    1707            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1708        elif always:
    1709            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1710        elif default:
    1711            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1712        elif manual:
    1713            prop = "MANUAL"
    1714        elif never:
    1715            prop = "NEVER"
    1716        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
    1717
    1718    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1719        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1720        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1721        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1722        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1723        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1724        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
    1725        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
    1726
    1727    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1728        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1729            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1730        if expression.this:
    1731            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1732            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1733            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1734
    1735        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1736        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1737        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
    1738
    1739    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1740        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1741
    1742        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1743        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1744            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1745        else:
    1746            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1747
    1748        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
    1749
    1750    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1751        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1752        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1753        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1754        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1755        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1756        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1757        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
    1758
    1759    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1760        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1761        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1762        statistics_sql = ""
    1763        if statistics is not None:
    1764            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1765        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
    1766
    1767    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1769        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
    1770        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
    1771        data_consistency = (
    1772            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
    1773        )
    1774        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    1775        retention_period = (
    1776            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    1777        )
    1778
    1779        if this:
    1780            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
    1781        else:
    1782            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    1783
    1784        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
    1785
    1786        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
    1787
    1788    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1789        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    1790        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1791
    1792        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1793            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1794        else:
    1795            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1796
    1797        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
    1798        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
    1799        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1800        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1801        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1802        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
    1803        if is_function:
    1804            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
    1805        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1806
    1807        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1808        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1809        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1810        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1811        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1812        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1813        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1814        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1815
    1816        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1817            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
    1818        else:
    1819            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
    1820
    1821        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1822        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1823        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
    1824        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
    1825
    1826        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
    1827        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
    1828
    1829        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
    1830        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1831
    1832    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1833        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1834
    1835    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1836        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1837        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1839        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1840        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
    1841
    1842    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1843        return expression.name
    1844
    1845    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1846        return expression.name
    1847
    1848    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1849        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1850
    1851        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1852        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
    1853
    1854        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
    1855        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
    1856        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    1857
    1858        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1859        if expressions:
    1860            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1861            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1862
    1863        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
    1864
    1865    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1866        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    1867
    1868    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1869        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
    1870        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1871        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
    1872        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1873        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
    1874        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1875        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
    1876        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1877        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
    1878        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1879        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    1880        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1881        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
    1882
    1883    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1884        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1885
    1886    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1887        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1888        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1889        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1890        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1891
    1892    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1893        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1894        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1895        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1896        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
    1897
    1898    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
    1899        return ".".join(
    1900            self.sql(part)
    1901            for part in (
    1902                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1903                expression.args.get("db"),
    1904                expression.args.get("this"),
    1905            )
    1906            if part is not None
    1907        )
    1908
    1909    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1910        table = self.table_parts(expression)
    1911        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    1912        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1913        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1914        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1915        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1916        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1917        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    1918
    1919        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    1920        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
    1921            sample_pre_alias = sample
    1922            sample_post_alias = ""
    1923        else:
    1924            sample_pre_alias = ""
    1925            sample_post_alias = sample
    1926
    1927        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    1928        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    1929        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    1930        joins = self.indent(
    1931            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    1932        )
    1933        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    1934
    1935        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1936        if file_format:
    1937            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    1938            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    1939            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    1940
    1941        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    1942        if ordinality:
    1943            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    1944            alias = ""
    1945
    1946        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    1947        if when:
    1948            table = f"{table} {when}"
    1949
    1950        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
    1951        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
    1952
    1953        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
    1954        if rows_from:
    1955            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
    1956
    1957        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
    1958
    1959    def tablesample_sql(
    1960        self,
    1961        expression: exp.TableSample,
    1962        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    1963    ) -> str:
    1964        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    1965        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    1966        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    1967        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    1968        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    1969        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    1970        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    1971        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    1972        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    1973
    1974        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    1975        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    1976            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    1977
    1978        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    1979        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    1980            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    1981
    1982        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    1983        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    1984            expr = f"({expr})"
    1985
    1986        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
    1987
    1988    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    1989        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1990
    1991        if expression.this:
    1992            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1993            if not expressions:
    1994                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    1995
    1996            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    1997            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    1998            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    1999            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    2000            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
    2001
    2002        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2003        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2004        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
    2005
    2006        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
    2007
    2008        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    2009        if include_nulls is not None:
    2010            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    2011        else:
    2012            nulls = ""
    2013
    2014        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
    2015        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
    2016        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
    2017
    2018    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    2019        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    2020        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2021        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2022        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
    2023
    2024    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    2025        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
    2026
    2027    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    2028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2029        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2030        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2031        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    2032        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    2033        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2034        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    2035        if self.RETURNING_END:
    2036            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    2037        else:
    2038            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    2039        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    2040        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2041
    2042    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
    2043        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
    2044
    2045        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    2046        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    2047            args = self.expressions(expression)
    2048            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2049            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    2050            values = (
    2051                f"({values})"
    2052                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
    2053                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
    2054                else values
    2055            )
    2056            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    2057
    2058        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    2059        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    2060        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    2061
    2062        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
    2063
    2064        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    2065            row = tup.expressions
    2066
    2067            if i == 0 and column_names:
    2068                row = [
    2069                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    2070                ]
    2071
    2072            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    2073
    2074        if self.pretty:
    2075            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    2076            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    2077            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    2078            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    2079            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
    2080
    2081        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    2082        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    2083        return f"({unions}){alias}"
    2084
    2085    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    2086        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    2087
    2088    @unsupported_args("expressions")
    2089    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    2090        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    2091        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    2092        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2093
    2094    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    2095        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2096
    2097    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
    2098        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2099        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
    2100
    2101    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
    2102        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2103        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
    2104
    2105    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
    2106        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2107        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
    2108
    2109    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    2110        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
    2111        if group_by_all is True:
    2112            modifier = " ALL"
    2113        elif group_by_all is False:
    2114            modifier = " DISTINCT"
    2115        else:
    2116            modifier = ""
    2117
    2118        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
    2119
    2120        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
    2121        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
    2122        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
    2123
    2124        groupings = csv(
    2125            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
    2126            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
    2127            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
    2128            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    2129            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    2130        )
    2131
    2132        if (
    2133            expression.expressions
    2134            and groupings
    2135            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
    2136        ):
    2137            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    2138
    2139        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
    2140
    2141    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    2142        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2143        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2144
    2145    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    2146        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    2147        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    2148        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
    2149        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    2150        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
    2151        return start + connect
    2152
    2153    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    2154        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2155
    2156    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    2157        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    2158            side = None
    2159        else:
    2160            side = expression.side
    2161
    2162        op_sql = " ".join(
    2163            op
    2164            for op in (
    2165                expression.method,
    2166                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    2167                side,
    2168                expression.kind,
    2169                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    2170            )
    2171            if op
    2172        )
    2173        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
    2174        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
    2175        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    2176        using = expression.args.get("using")
    2177
    2178        if not on_sql and using:
    2179            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    2180
    2181        this = expression.this
    2182        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    2183
    2184        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
    2185        if exprs:
    2186            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
    2187
    2188        if on_sql:
    2189            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    2190            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    2191            if using:
    2192                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    2193            else:
    2194                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    2195        elif not op_sql:
    2196            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    2197                return f" {this_sql}"
    2198
    2199            return f", {this_sql}"
    2200
    2201        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
    2202            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    2203
    2204        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
    2205
    2206    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    2207        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2208        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    2209        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2210
    2211    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2212        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    2213
    2214        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    2215        if cross_apply is True:
    2216            op = "INNER JOIN "
    2217        elif cross_apply is False:
    2218            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    2219        else:
    2220            op = ""
    2221
    2222        return f"{op}LATERAL"
    2223
    2224    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2225        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2226
    2227        if expression.args.get("view"):
    2228            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2229            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    2230            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    2231            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    2232            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    2233            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    2234
    2235        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2236        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2237        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
    2238
    2239    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    2240        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2241
    2242        args = [
    2243            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    2244            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    2245            if e
    2246        ]
    2247
    2248        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    2249        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    2250        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2251        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2252
    2253        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
    2254
    2255    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    2256        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2257        value = expression.expression
    2258        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    2259        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2260        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2261        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
    2262
    2263    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    2264        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2265        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    2266        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2267        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2268        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2269        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2270        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    2271        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
    2272
    2273    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    2274        expressions = (
    2275            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
    2276        )
    2277        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    2278        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
    2279
    2280    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    2281        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2282
    2283    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    2284        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    2285            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    2286            return ""
    2287
    2288        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    2289        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2290        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2291        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    2292
    2293        if wait is not None:
    2294            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    2295                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    2296            else:
    2297                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    2298
    2299        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
    2300
    2301    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    2302        text = expression.this or ""
    2303        if expression.is_string:
    2304            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2305        return text
    2306
    2307    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
    2308        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
    2309            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
    2310            text = "".join(
    2311                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
    2312            )
    2313
    2314        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
    2315            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
    2316        )
    2317
    2318    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    2319        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    2320        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    2321        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    2322        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2323        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    2324        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    2325        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    2326        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    2327        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    2328        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    2329        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
    2330
    2331    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    2332        return "NULL"
    2333
    2334    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    2335        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
    2336
    2337    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    2338        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2339        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    2340        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    2341        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
    2342
    2343    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    2344        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2345        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    2346        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2347        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2348        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    2349        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    2350        interpolated_values = [
    2351            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
    2352            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2353            else self.sql(e, "this")
    2354            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    2355        ]
    2356        interpolate = (
    2357            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    2358        )
    2359        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
    2360
    2361    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    2362        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
    2363
    2364    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    2365        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
    2366
    2367    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    2368        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
    2369
    2370    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    2371        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    2372        asc = not desc
    2373
    2374        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    2375        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    2376        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    2377        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    2378        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    2379
    2380        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2381
    2382        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    2383        nulls_sort_change = ""
    2384        if nulls_first and (
    2385            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    2386        ):
    2387            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    2388        elif (
    2389            nulls_last
    2390            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    2391            and not nulls_are_last
    2392        ):
    2393            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    2394
    2395        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    2396        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    2397            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2398            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    2399                self.unsupported(
    2400                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    2401                )
    2402                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2403            elif (
    2404                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
    2405                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
    2406                and (
    2407                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
    2408                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
    2409                )
    2410            ):
    2411                self.unsupported(
    2412                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
    2413                )
    2414                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2415            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    2416                if expression.this.is_int:
    2417                    self.unsupported(
    2418                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2419                    )
    2420                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
    2421                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2422                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2423                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2424
    2425        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2426        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2427
    2428        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
    2429
    2430    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
    2431        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
    2432        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
    2433
    2434        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2435
    2436        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
    2437
    2438    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2439        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2440        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2441        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2442        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2443        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2444        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2445        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2446        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2447        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2448        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2449        definition_sqls = [
    2450            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2451            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2452        ]
    2453        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2454        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2455        body = "".join(
    2456            (
    2457                partition,
    2458                order,
    2459                measures,
    2460                rows,
    2461                after,
    2462                pattern,
    2463                define,
    2464            )
    2465        )
    2466        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2467        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2468        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
    2469
    2470    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2471        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2472
    2473        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2474            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2475        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2476            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2477
    2478        return csv(
    2479            *sqls,
    2480            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2481            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2482            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2483            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2484            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
    2485            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2486            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2487            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2488            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
    2489            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2490            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
    2491            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2492            self.options_modifier(expression),
    2493            sep="",
    2494        )
    2495
    2496    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
    2497        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2498        return f" {options}" if options else ""
    2499
    2500    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
    2501        return ""
    2502
    2503    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2504        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2505    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2506        return [
    2507            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2508            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2509        ]
    2510
    2511    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2512        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2513        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2514        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
    2515
    2516    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2517        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2518        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2519            into.pop()
    2520
    2521        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2522        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2523        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2524        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2525
    2526        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2527        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
    2528            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2529            limit.pop()
    2530        else:
    2531            top = ""
    2532
    2533        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2534
    2535        if kind:
    2536            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2537                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2538            else:
    2539                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2540                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2541                        sqls=[
    2542                            self.sql(
    2543                                exp.Struct(
    2544                                    expressions=[
    2545                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
    2546                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2547                                        else e
    2548                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2549                                    ]
    2550                                )
    2551                            )
    2552                        ]
    2553                    )
    2554                kind = ""
    2555
    2556        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
    2557        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
    2558
    2559        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2560        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2561        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2562        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2563        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2564            expression,
    2565            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
    2566            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2567            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2568        )
    2569
    2570        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
    2571        if expression.args.get("with"):
    2572            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
    2573            expression.pop_comments()
    2574
    2575        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2576
    2577        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2578            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2579                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2580            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2581                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2582            else:
    2583                table_kind = ""
    2584            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2585
    2586        return sql
    2587
    2588    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2589        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2590        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2591        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
    2592
    2593    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2594        if expression.expressions:
    2595            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2596        return ""
    2597
    2598    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2599        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2600        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2601        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2602        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2603        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
    2604        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
    2605        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
    2606
    2607    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2608        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2609        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
    2610
    2611    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2612        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2613        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2614        if kind:
    2615            kind = f"{kind}."
    2616        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
    2617
    2618    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2619        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
    2620
    2621    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2622        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2623        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2624        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    2625        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
    2626            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
    2627
    2628            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
    2629            expression.set("sample", None)
    2630
    2631        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    2632        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2633        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2634
    2635    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2636        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2637        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2638
    2639    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2640        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2641
    2642        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2643        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2644
    2645        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2646            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2647                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2648
    2649        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2650            columns = alias.columns
    2651            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2652        else:
    2653            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2654
    2655        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2656        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2657            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2658        else:
    2659            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2660                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2661            elif offset:
    2662                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2663            else:
    2664                suffix = alias
    2665
    2666        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
    2667
    2668    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
    2669        return ""
    2670
    2671    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2672        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2673        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2674
    2675    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2676        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2677        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2678        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2679        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2680        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2681        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2682        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2683
    2684        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2685
    2686        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2687        if first is None:
    2688            first = ""
    2689        else:
    2690            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2691
    2692        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2693            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2694
    2695        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
    2696        return f"{this} ({args})"
    2697
    2698    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2699        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2700        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
    2701
    2702    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2703        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2704        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2705        end = (
    2706            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2707            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2708        )
    2709        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
    2710
    2711    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2712        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2713        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2714        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
    2715
    2716    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2718        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2719        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2720        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
    2721
    2722    def bracket_offset_expressions(
    2723        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
    2724    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2725        return apply_index_offset(
    2726            expression.this,
    2727            expression.expressions,
    2728            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2729        )
    2730
    2731    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2732        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
    2733        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2734        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
    2735
    2736    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2737        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
    2738
    2739    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2740        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2741        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
    2742            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
    2743                this = self.wrap(this)
    2744            return f"ANY{this}"
    2745        return f"ANY {this}"
    2746
    2747    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2748        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
    2749
    2750    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2751        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2752        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2753
    2754        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2755            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2756            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2757
    2758        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2759
    2760        if default:
    2761            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2762
    2763        statements.append("END")
    2764
    2765        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
    2766            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2767
    2768        return " ".join(statements)
    2769
    2770    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2771        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2772        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2773        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
    2774
    2775    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2776        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2777        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2778        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
    2779
    2780    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2781        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2782        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2783        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
    2784
    2785    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2786        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2787
    2788        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2789            func_name = "LTRIM"
    2790        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2791            func_name = "RTRIM"
    2792        else:
    2793            func_name = "TRIM"
    2794
    2795        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
    2796
    2797    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2798        args = expression.expressions
    2799        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2800            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2801
    2802        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2803            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
    2804
    2805        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2806            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2807
    2808        return args
    2809
    2810    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2811        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2812
    2813        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2814        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2815            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2816
    2817        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
    2818
    2819    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2820        return self.func(
    2821            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2822        )
    2823
    2824    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2825        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2826        return f"CHECK ({this})"
    2827
    2828    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2829        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2830        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2831        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2832        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2833        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2834        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2835        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2836        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
    2837
    2838    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2839        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2840        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2841        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2842        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
    2843
    2844    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2845        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
    2846
    2847    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2848        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2849        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2850        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
    2851
    2852    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2853        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    2854
    2855    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2856        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2857
    2858        if expression.args.get("escape"):
    2859            path = self.escape_str(path)
    2860
    2861        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
    2862            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2863
    2864        return path
    2865
    2866    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    2867        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    2868            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    2869            if not callable(transform):
    2870                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    2871                return ""
    2872
    2873            return transform(self, expression)
    2874
    2875        if isinstance(expression, int):
    2876            return str(expression)
    2877
    2878        if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    2879            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    2880            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    2881        else:
    2882            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    2883            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    2884
    2885        return escaped
    2886
    2887    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    2888        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
    2889
    2890    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2891        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2892        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2893
    2894        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    2895        if unique_keys is not None:
    2896            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    2897        else:
    2898            unique_keys = ""
    2899
    2900        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2901        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2902        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    2903        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    2904
    2905        return self.func(
    2906            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    2907            *expression.expressions,
    2908            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    2909        )
    2910
    2911    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2912        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
    2913
    2914    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    2915        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2916        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2917        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2918        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2919        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2920        return self.func(
    2921            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    2922        )
    2923
    2924    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    2925        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2926        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2927        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2928        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2929        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2930        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2931        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2932        return self.func(
    2933            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    2934            this,
    2935            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    2936        )
    2937
    2938    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2939        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2940        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    2941        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    2942
    2943        if nested_schema:
    2944            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    2945
    2946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2947        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2948        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    2949        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
    2950
    2951    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    2952        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
    2953
    2954    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    2955        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2956        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2957        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2958        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    2959        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    2960        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    2961        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    2962        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    2963        return self.func(
    2964            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    2965        )
    2966
    2967    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2969        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2970        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2971        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    2972        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    2973        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
    2974
    2975    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    2976        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2977        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2978        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2979        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2980        with_ = (
    2981            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2982            if expressions
    2983            else ""
    2984        )
    2985        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
    2986
    2987    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    2988        query = expression.args.get("query")
    2989        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    2990        field = expression.args.get("field")
    2991        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    2992
    2993        if query:
    2994            in_sql = self.sql(query)
    2995        elif unnest:
    2996            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    2997        elif field:
    2998            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    2999        else:
    3000            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    3001
    3002        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
    3003
    3004    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    3005        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
    3006
    3007    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    3008        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    3009        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    3010            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    3011        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    3012
    3013        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    3014            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    3015            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    3016
    3017        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3018        if this:
    3019            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    3020            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    3021
    3022        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
    3023
    3024    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    3025        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3026
    3027    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    3028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3029        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3030        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3031        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    3032        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3033        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
    3034
    3035    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    3036        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
    3037        parent = expression.parent
    3038        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
    3039        return self.func(
    3040            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
    3041        )
    3042
    3043    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    3044        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    3045        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    3046
    3047    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    3048        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    3049        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3050        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    3051        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
    3052
    3053    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    3054        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3055
    3056    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    3057        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    3058        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    3059        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
    3060
    3061    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    3062        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    3063
    3064        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    3065        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
    3066
    3067        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3068            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    3069        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3070            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    3071
    3072        return self.alias_sql(expression)
    3073
    3074    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    3075        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    3076
    3077    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3078        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3079        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3080        return f"{this} AT {index}"
    3081
    3082    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3083        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3084        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3085        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
    3086
    3087    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    3088        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3089        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3090        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
    3091
    3092    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    3093        return self.binary(expression, "+")
    3094
    3095    def and_sql(
    3096        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3097    ) -> str:
    3098        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
    3099
    3100    def or_sql(
    3101        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3102    ) -> str:
    3103        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
    3104
    3105    def xor_sql(
    3106        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3107    ) -> str:
    3108        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
    3109
    3110    def connector_sql(
    3111        self,
    3112        expression: exp.Connector,
    3113        op: str,
    3114        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3115    ) -> str:
    3116        if stack is not None:
    3117            if expression.expressions:
    3118                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
    3119            else:
    3120                stack.append(expression.right)
    3121                if expression.comments and self.comments:
    3122                    for comment in expression.comments:
    3123                        if comment:
    3124                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
    3125                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
    3126            return op
    3127
    3128        stack = [expression]
    3129        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3130        ops = set()
    3131
    3132        while stack:
    3133            node = stack.pop()
    3134            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
    3135                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
    3136            else:
    3137                sql = self.sql(node)
    3138                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
    3139                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
    3140                else:
    3141                    sqls.append(sql)
    3142
    3143        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
    3144        return sep.join(sqls)
    3145
    3146    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    3147        return self.binary(expression, "&")
    3148
    3149    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    3150        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
    3151
    3152    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    3153        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3154
    3155    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    3156        return self.binary(expression, "|")
    3157
    3158    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    3159        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
    3160
    3161    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    3162        return self.binary(expression, "^")
    3163
    3164    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    3165        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    3166        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    3167        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3168        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    3169        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    3170        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
    3171        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
    3172
    3173    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    3174        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3175        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
    3176
    3177    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    3178        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    3179            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3180        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
    3181
    3182    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    3183        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
    3184
    3185    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    3186        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3187        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    3188        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    3189        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3190        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3191        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
    3192
    3193    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    3194        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3195        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    3196        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    3197        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    3198        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    3199        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    3200        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    3201        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    3202        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
    3203
    3204    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    3205        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    3206        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    3207        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    3208        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    3209
    3210        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    3211            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    3212
    3213        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
    3214
    3215    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    3216        return "BEGIN"
    3217
    3218    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    3219        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    3220        if chain is not None:
    3221            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    3222
    3223        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
    3224
    3225    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    3226        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    3227        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    3228        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
    3229
    3230    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    3231        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3232
    3233        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    3234        if dtype:
    3235            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    3236            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    3237            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3238            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    3239            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
    3240
    3241        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    3242        if default:
    3243            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    3244
    3245        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3246        if comment:
    3247            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    3248
    3249        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
    3250        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
    3251
    3252        if not drop and not allow_null:
    3253            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    3254
    3255        if allow_null is not None:
    3256            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
    3257            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
    3258
    3259        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
    3260
    3261    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
    3262        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3263        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
    3264            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
    3265        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
    3266
    3267    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
    3268        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
    3269        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3270        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3271        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3272        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
    3273
    3274    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
    3275        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    3276            # Remove db from tables
    3277            expression = expression.transform(
    3278                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    3279            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
    3280        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3281        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
    3282
    3283    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    3284        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3285        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3286        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3287        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
    3288
    3289    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
    3290        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3291        return f"SET {exprs}"
    3292
    3293    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
    3294        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    3295
    3296        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
    3297            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
    3298        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
    3299            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
    3300        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
    3301            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3302        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
    3303            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
    3304        else:
    3305            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3306
    3307        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3308        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3309        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3310        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    3311        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    3312        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
    3313        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3314        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
    3315
    3316        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
    3317
    3318    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
    3319        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    3320            return self.expressions(
    3321                expression,
    3322                key="actions",
    3323                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
    3324                skip_first=True,
    3325            )
    3326        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
    3327
    3328    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    3329        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3330        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3331        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
    3332
    3333    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    3334        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3335
    3336    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    3337        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3338
    3339        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    3340            case = exp.case()
    3341            for arg in expression.expressions:
    3342                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    3343            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    3344
    3345        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3346
    3347        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    3348        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    3349        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
    3350
    3351    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    3352        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
    3353
    3354    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    3355        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
    3356
    3357    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
    3358        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3359        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3360        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
    3361        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
    3362
    3363    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    3364        return self.sql(
    3365            exp.Cast(
    3366                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    3367                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    3368            )
    3369        )
    3370
    3371    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    3372        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3373            return self.func(
    3374                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
    3375            )
    3376        return self.binary(expression, "||")
    3377
    3378    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    3379        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    3380
    3381        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3382            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    3383
    3384        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    3385            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
    3386                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3387
    3388        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    3389            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    3390                return self.sql(
    3391                    exp.cast(
    3392                        l / r,
    3393                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    3394                    )
    3395                )
    3396
    3397        return self.binary(expression, "/")
    3398
    3399    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    3400        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
    3401
    3402    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    3403        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
    3404
    3405    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    3406        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3407
    3408    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    3409        return self.binary(expression, "=")
    3410
    3411    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    3412        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
    3413
    3414    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    3415        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
    3416
    3417    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    3418        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
    3419
    3420    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    3421        return self.binary(expression, ">")
    3422
    3423    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    3424        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
    3425
    3426    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    3427        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
    3428
    3429    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    3430        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
    3431
    3432    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    3433        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    3434            return self.sql(
    3435                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    3436            )
    3437        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
    3438
    3439    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    3440        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
    3441
    3442    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    3443        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
    3444
    3445    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    3446        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
    3447
    3448    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    3449        return self.binary(expression, "<")
    3450
    3451    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    3452        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
    3453
    3454    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    3455        return self.binary(expression, "%")
    3456
    3457    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    3458        return self.binary(expression, "*")
    3459
    3460    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    3461        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
    3462
    3463    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    3464        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
    3465
    3466    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    3467        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
    3468
    3469    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    3470        return self.binary(expression, ":")
    3471
    3472    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    3473        return self.binary(expression, "-")
    3474
    3475    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    3476        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
    3477
    3478    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
    3479        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
    3480            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
    3481            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    3482
    3483        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
    3484
    3485    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    3486        this = expression.this
    3487        expr = expression.expression
    3488
    3489        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
    3490            this, expr = expr, this
    3491        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
    3492            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
    3493                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
    3494
    3495            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
    3496
    3497        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
    3498
    3499    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3500        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3501        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3502        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3503        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3504        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
    3505
    3506    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3507        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3508        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    3509        binary_type = type(expression)
    3510
    3511        while stack:
    3512            node = stack.pop()
    3513
    3514            if type(node) is binary_type:
    3515                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
    3516                if op_func:
    3517                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
    3518
    3519                stack.append(node.right)
    3520                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
    3521                stack.append(node.left)
    3522            else:
    3523                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    3524
    3525        return "".join(sqls)
    3526
    3527    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3528        args = []
    3529
    3530        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3531            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3532
    3533            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3534                for value in arg_value:
    3535                    args.append(value)
    3536            elif arg_value is not None:
    3537                args.append(arg_value)
    3538
    3539        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
    3540            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3541        else:
    3542            name = expression.sql_name()
    3543
    3544        return self.func(name, *args)
    3545
    3546    def func(
    3547        self,
    3548        name: str,
    3549        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3550        prefix: str = "(",
    3551        suffix: str = ")",
    3552        normalize: bool = True,
    3553    ) -> str:
    3554        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
    3555        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
    3556
    3557    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
    3558        arg_sqls = tuple(
    3559            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
    3560        )
    3561        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
    3562            return self.indent(
    3563                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
    3564            )
    3565        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
    3566
    3567    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
    3568        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
    3569
    3570    def format_time(
    3571        self,
    3572        expression: exp.Expression,
    3573        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
    3574        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
    3575    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3576        return format_time(
    3577            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3578            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3579            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3580        )
    3581
    3582    def expressions(
    3583        self,
    3584        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3585        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3586        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3587        flat: bool = False,
    3588        indent: bool = True,
    3589        skip_first: bool = False,
    3590        skip_last: bool = False,
    3591        sep: str = ", ",
    3592        prefix: str = "",
    3593        dynamic: bool = False,
    3594        new_line: bool = False,
    3595    ) -> str:
    3596        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3597
    3598        if not expressions:
    3599            return ""
    3600
    3601        if flat:
    3602            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3603
    3604        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3605        result_sqls = []
    3606
    3607        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3608            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3609            if not sql:
    3610                continue
    3611
    3612            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3613
    3614            if self.pretty:
    3615                if self.leading_comma:
    3616                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3617                else:
    3618                    result_sqls.append(
    3619                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3620                    )
    3621            else:
    3622                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3623
    3624        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
    3625            if new_line:
    3626                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
    3627                result_sqls.append("")
    3628            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
    3629        else:
    3630            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
    3631
    3632        return (
    3633            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
    3634            if indent
    3635            else result_sql
    3636        )
    3637
    3638    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3639        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3640        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3641        if flat:
    3642            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3643        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
    3644
    3645    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3646        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3647        if not property_name:
    3648            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3649        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3650
    3651    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3652        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
    3653
    3654    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3655        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
    3656
    3657    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3658        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3659        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3660        expressions = (
    3661            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3662        )
    3663        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
    3664
    3665    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3666        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3667        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3668        return f"{this}({expressions})"
    3669
    3670    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3671        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
    3672
    3673    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3674        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3675        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3676        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3677        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3678
    3679        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3680        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3681            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
    3682            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
    3683            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
    3684            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
    3685        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3686            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3687                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3688            else:
    3689                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
    3690        else:
    3691            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3692        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
    3693
    3694    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3695        table = expression.this
    3696        table_alias = ""
    3697
    3698        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3699        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3700            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3701            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3702
    3703        this = self.sql(table)
    3704        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3705        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3706        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
    3707        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    3708        if returning:
    3709            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
    3710
    3711        sep = self.sep()
    3712
    3713        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3714            expression,
    3715            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
    3716        )
    3717
    3718    @unsupported_args("format")
    3719    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3720        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
    3721
    3722    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
    3723        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
    3724            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
    3725            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3726
    3727        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
    3728        if not fmt:
    3729            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
    3730            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3731
    3732        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
    3733
    3734    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3735        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3736        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3737        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3738        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3739        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
    3740
    3741    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3742        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3743        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3744        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3745        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
    3746
    3747    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3748        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    3749
    3750    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
    3751        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    3752
    3753    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
    3754    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
    3755        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3756        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
    3757        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3758        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3759        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
    3760        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    3761        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
    3762
    3763    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3764        return ""
    3765
    3766    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3767        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3768        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3769        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3770        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3771        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
    3772
    3773    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3774        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3775        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3776
    3777        if having:
    3778            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3779
    3780        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
    3781
    3782    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3783        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3784        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3785        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3786        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3787        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3788        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3789        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3790        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3791        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3792        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3793        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3794        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3795        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
    3796
    3797    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3798        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3799        if key_block_size:
    3800            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3801
    3802        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3803        if using:
    3804            return f"USING {using}"
    3805
    3806        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    3807        if parser:
    3808            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    3809
    3810        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3811        if comment:
    3812            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    3813
    3814        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3815        if visible is not None:
    3816            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3817
    3818        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    3819        if engine_attr:
    3820            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    3821
    3822        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    3823        if secondary_engine_attr:
    3824            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    3825
    3826        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    3827        return ""
    3828
    3829    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3830        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
    3831        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
    3832
    3833    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3834        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3835        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    3836        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3837        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3838        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    3839        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    3840        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3841        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3842        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    3843        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3844        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
    3845
    3846    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    3847        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    3848            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3849
    3850        case = exp.Case().when(
    3851            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    3852            expression.args["true"],
    3853            copy=False,
    3854        )
    3855        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    3856        if else_cond:
    3857            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    3858
    3859        return self.sql(case)
    3860
    3861    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    3862        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3863        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3864        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    3865        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3866        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    3867        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
    3868
    3869    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    3870        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    3871
    3872    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    3873        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3874
    3875    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    3876        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3877        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    3878        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3879        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    3880        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    3881        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
    3882
    3883    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    3884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3885        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3886        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
    3887
    3888    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    3889        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3890        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    3891        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
    3892
    3893    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    3894        arg = expression.this
    3895        if not arg.type:
    3896            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    3897
    3898            arg = annotate_types(arg)
    3899
    3900        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    3901            return self.sql(arg)
    3902
    3903        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    3904        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
    3905
    3906    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    3907        this = expression.this
    3908        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    3909            return self.sql(this)
    3910
    3911        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
    3912
    3913    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
    3914        this = expression.this
    3915        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
    3916            return self.sql(this)
    3917
    3918        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
    3919
    3920    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
    3921        this = expression.this
    3922        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
    3923            return self.sql(this)
    3924
    3925        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
    3926
    3927    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    3928        this = expression.this
    3929        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    3930
    3931        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    3932            return self.sql(
    3933                exp.cast(
    3934                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    3935                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
    3936                )
    3937            )
    3938
    3939        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    3940            return self.sql(this)
    3941
    3942        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
    3943
    3944    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    3945        return self.sql(
    3946            exp.func(
    3947                "DATEDIFF",
    3948                expression.this,
    3949                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
    3950                "day",
    3951            )
    3952        )
    3953
    3954    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    3955        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    3956            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3957
    3958        unit = expression.text("unit")
    3959        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    3960            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    3961
    3962        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
    3963
    3964    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
    3965        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
    3966
    3967        return self.func(
    3968            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
    3969        )
    3970
    3971    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
    3972        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
    3973            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
    3974            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
    3975            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
    3976            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
    3977
    3978        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    3979
    3980        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
    3981        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
    3982            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
    3983
    3984        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3985
    3986    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
    3987        expression.set(
    3988            "expressions",
    3989            [
    3990                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
    3991                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
    3992                else e
    3993                for e in expression.expressions
    3994            ],
    3995        )
    3996
    3997        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3998
    3999    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
    4000        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4001        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4002
    4003        return f"{low} TO {high}"
    4004
    4005    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
    4006        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
    4007        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
    4008
    4009        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    4010
    4011        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    4012        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    4013
    4014        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
    4015        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
    4016
    4017        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    4018        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    4019
    4020        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    4021        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    4022
    4023        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
    4024
    4025    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
    4026    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
    4027    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
    4028        to = expression.this
    4029        value = expression.expression
    4030        style = expression.args.get("style")
    4031        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
    4032        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
    4033
    4034        if not to or not value:
    4035            return ""
    4036
    4037        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
    4038        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    4039            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
    4040
    4041        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
    4042        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
    4043
    4044        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
    4045        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
    4046            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
    4047
    4048            style_value = style.name
    4049            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
    4050            if not converted_style:
    4051                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
    4052
    4053            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
    4054
    4055            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
    4056                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
    4057            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
    4058                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
    4059            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    4060                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
    4061            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
    4062                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
    4063
    4064        if not transformed:
    4065            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
    4066
    4067        return self.sql(transformed)
    4068
    4069    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
    4070        this = expression.this
    4071        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
    4072            this = self.json_path_part(this)
    4073            return f".{this}" if this else ""
    4074
    4075        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
    4076            return f".{this}"
    4077
    4078        this = self.json_path_part(this)
    4079        return (
    4080            f"[{this}]"
    4081            if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED
    4082            else f".{this}"
    4083        )
    4084
    4085    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
    4086        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
    4087        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
    4088
    4089    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
    4090        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
    4091            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
    4092
    4093            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
    4094
    4095        return expression
    4096
    4097    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
    4098        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
    4099            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
    4100            mods = sorted(
    4101                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
    4102                key=lambda x: 0
    4103                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
    4104                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
    4105            )
    4106
    4107            if mods:
    4108                mod = mods[0]
    4109                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
    4110                this.meta["inline"] = True
    4111                mod.this.replace(this)
    4112                return self.sql(expression.this)
    4113
    4114            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
    4115
    4116            if agg_func:
    4117                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
    4118
    4119        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
    4120
    4121    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
    4122        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
    4123        if self.pretty:
    4124            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
    4125        return string
    4126
    4127    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
    4128        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4129
    4130        if expression.expressions:
    4131            upper = option.upper()
    4132
    4133            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
    4134            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
    4135
    4136            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
    4137            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
    4138            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
    4139            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
    4140
    4141        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4142
    4143        if not value:
    4144            return option
    4145
    4146        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
    4147
    4148        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
    4149
    4150    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
    4151        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
    4152        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
    4153            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
    4154            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4155            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
    4156        else:
    4157            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
    4158            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4159            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
    4160
    4161        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
    4162        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
    4163
    4164        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4165        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
    4166
    4167        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
    4168        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
    4169
    4170        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
    4171        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
    4172
    4173        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
    4174
    4175    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
    4176        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4177        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
    4178
    4179        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4180        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
    4181        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
    4182        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
    4183
    4184        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
    4185        params = self.expressions(
    4186            expression,
    4187            key="params",
    4188            sep=sep,
    4189            new_line=True,
    4190            skip_last=True,
    4191            skip_first=True,
    4192            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
    4193        )
    4194
    4195        if params:
    4196            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
    4197                params = f" WITH ({params})"
    4198            elif not self.pretty:
    4199                params = f" {params}"
    4200
    4201        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
    4202
    4203    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
    4204        return ""
    4205
    4206    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
    4207        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    4208        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
    4209        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
    4210        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    4211        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    4212
    4213        if filter_col or retention_period:
    4214            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
    4215
    4216        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
    4217
    4218    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
    4219        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
    4220    ) -> str:
    4221        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4222        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4223        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    4224        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
    4225
    4226    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
    4227        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4228        this = f"TABLE {this}"
    4229        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
    4230
    4231    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
    4232        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
    4233
    4234    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
    4235        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4236        expr = expression.expression
    4237
    4238        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
    4239            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
    4240            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
    4241        else:
    4242            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4243
    4244        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
    4245
    4246    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
    4247        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
    4248            return self.sql(expression.this)
    4249
    4250        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
    4251
    4252    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
    4253        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
    4254        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
    4255
    4256        if lower and upper:
    4257            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
    4258        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
    4259
    4260    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
    4261        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
    4262        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
    4263        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
    4264        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
    4265        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
    4266        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
    4267
    4268        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
    4269
    4270    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
    4271        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
    4272
    4273        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
    4274        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
    4275            fill_pattern = "' '"
    4276
    4277        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
    4278
    4279    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
    4280        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
    4281        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
    4282
    4283    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
    4284        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
    4285
    4286        parent = expression.parent
    4287        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
    4288            parent = parent.parent
    4289
    4290        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
    4291            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
    4292
    4293        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
    4294            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
    4295
    4296        return self.sql(generate_series)
    4297
    4298    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
    4299        exprs = expression.expressions
    4300        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
    4301            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
    4302        else:
    4303            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
    4304
    4305        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
    4306
    4307    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
    4308        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
    4309            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4310
    4311        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
    4312        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
    4313        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
    4314
    4315        if source_tz and timestamp:
    4316            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
    4317                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
    4318            )
    4319
    4320        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
    4321
    4322        return self.sql(expr)
    4323
    4324    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
    4325        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4326        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4327
    4328        _with = expression.args.get("with")
    4329
    4330        if _with is None:
    4331            with_sql = ""
    4332        elif not _with:
    4333            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
    4334        else:
    4335            with_sql = " WITH"
    4336
    4337        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    4338
    4339        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
    4340
    4341    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
    4342        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
    4343            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
    4344
    4345        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4346        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    4347        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
    4348
    4349        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4350        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4351
    4352        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
    4353
    4354    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
    4355        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
    4356        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4357        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
    4358        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
    4359        return f"{condition}{insert}"
    4360
    4361    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
    4362        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4363        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
    4364        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
    4365        return res
    4366
    4367    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
    4368        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
    4369        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
    4370        empty = (
    4371            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
    4372            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
    4373            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
    4374        )
    4375
    4376        error = expression.args.get("error")
    4377        error = (
    4378            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
    4379            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
    4380            else self.sql(expression, "error")
    4381        )
    4382
    4383        if error and empty:
    4384            error = (
    4385                f"{empty} {error}"
    4386                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
    4387                else f"{error} {empty}"
    4388            )
    4389            empty = ""
    4390
    4391        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    4392
    4393        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
    4394
    4395    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
    4396        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4397        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4398
    4399        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
    4400        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
    4401
    4402        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4403        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4404
    4405        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
    4406
    4407        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
    4408
    4409    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
    4410        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4411
    4412        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
    4413        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
    4414        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
    4415            parent = expression.parent
    4416            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
    4417                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
    4418                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
    4419            else:
    4420                this = expression.this
    4421                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
    4422                if this.find(exp.Column):
    4423                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
    4424                    this_sql = (
    4425                        self.expressions(this)
    4426                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
    4427                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
    4428                    )
    4429
    4430                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
    4431
    4432        return array_agg
    4433
    4434    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
    4435        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4436        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4437
    4438        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
    4439
    4440    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
    4441        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
    4442
    4443        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4444        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    4445
    4446        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
    4447        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
    4448
    4449        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
    4450
    4451        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
    4452
    4453        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
    4454
    4455    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
    4456        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4457        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4458        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    4459
    4460        return f"{this}{columns}"
    4461
    4462    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
    4463        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4464
    4465        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4466        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    4467
    4468        return f"{kind}{this}"
    4469
    4470    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
    4471        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4472        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
    4473            func = f"*{func}"
    4474
    4475        return func
    4476
    4477    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
    4478        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4479        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4480        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    4481        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
    4482        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
    4483
    4484        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
    4485
    4486    @unsupported_args("format")
    4487    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
    4488        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    4489
    4490    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
    4491        this = expression.this
    4492        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
    4493
    4494        if zone:
    4495            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
    4496            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
    4497            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
    4498            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
    4499                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
    4500            )
    4501
    4502        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
    4503
    4504    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
    4505        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
    4506            return self.sql(
    4507                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
    4508            )
    4509
    4510        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4511
    4512    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
    4513        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4514        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
    4515        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
    4516        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
    4517
    4518    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
    4519        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
    4520            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4521
    4522        start_ts = exp.cast(
    4523            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
    4524        )
    4525
    4526        return self.sql(
    4527            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
    4528        )
    4529
    4530    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
    4531        dim = expression.expression
    4532
    4533        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
    4534        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
    4535            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
    4536                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
    4537            dim = None
    4538
    4539        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
    4540        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
    4541            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
    4542
    4543        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)
    4544
    4545    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
    4546        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4547        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    4548        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    4549        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    4550
    4551        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"
    4552
    4553    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
    4554        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4555        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    4556
    4557        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"
    4558
    4559    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
    4560        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4561        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4562        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
    4563        return f"{this}{value}"
    4564
    4565    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
    4566        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4567        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
    4568            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"
    4569
    4570        return self.func(
    4571            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
    4572            this_sql,
    4573            expression.args.get("time"),
    4574            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
    4575            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
    4576        )
    4577
    4578    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
    4579        return (
    4580            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    4581        )
    4582
    4583    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
    4584        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
    4585        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    4586
    4587        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
    4588        if properties:
    4589            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"
    4590
    4591        return encode
    4592
    4593    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
    4594        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4595        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"
    4596
    4597        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
    4598        if column_def:
    4599            include = f"{include} {column_def}"
    4600
    4601        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    4602        if alias:
    4603            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"
    4604
    4605        return include

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

###### Arguments:

- pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
- identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
- normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
- pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
- indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause. Default: 2.
- normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
- unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
- max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
- leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
- max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
- comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True

Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect , Type[ sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect ], NoneType] = None) View Source

    665    def __init__(
    666        self,
    667        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
    668        identify: str | bool = False,
    669        normalize: bool = False,
    670        pad: int = 2,
    671        indent: int = 2,
    672        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
    673        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
    674        max_unsupported: int = 3,
    675        leading_comma: bool = False,
    676        max_text_width: int = 80,
    677        comments: bool = True,
    678        dialect: DialectType = None,
    679    ):
    680        import sqlglot
    681        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    682
    683        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
    684        self.identify = identify
    685        self.normalize = normalize
    686        self.pad = pad
    687        self._indent = indent
    688        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
    689        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
    690        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
    691        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
    692        self.comments = comments
    693        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
    694
    695        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
    696        self.normalize_functions = (
    697            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
    698        )
    699
    700        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
    701        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
    702            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
    703        )
    704        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
    705
    706        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
    707
    708        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
    709        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
    710
    711        self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets = True

TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ArrayContainsAll'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ArrayOverlaps'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ConnectByRoot'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Except'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Intersect'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Int64'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Operator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PivotAny'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Stream'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SwapTable'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Tags'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Uuid'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithProcedureOptions'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>}
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
PARSE_JSON_NAME: Optional[str] = 'PARSE_JSON'
ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = 'ARRAY_LENGTH'
ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: Optional[bool] = None
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: Set[str] = set()
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IncludeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Tags'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithProcedureOptions'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Command'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Create'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Describe'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Delete'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Drop'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.From'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Insert'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Join'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MultitableInserts'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Select'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Update'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Where'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.With'>)
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    713    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
    714        """
    715        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
    716
    717        Args:
    718            expression: The syntax tree.
    719            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
    720                it is safer to copy.
    721
    722        Returns:
    723            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
    724        """
    725        if copy:
    726            expression = expression.copy()
    727
    728        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
    729
    730        self.unsupported_messages = []
    731        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
    732
    733        if self.pretty:
    734            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
    735
    736        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
    737            return sql
    738
    739        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
    740            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
    741                logger.warning(msg)
    742        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
    743            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
    744
    745        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

###### Arguments:

- expression: The syntax tree.
- copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.

###### Returns:

> The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression ) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression: View Source

    747    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
    748        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
    749        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
    750
    751        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
    752            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
    753
    754            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
    755
    756        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None: View Source

    769    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
    770        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
    771            raise UnsupportedError(message)
    772        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)

def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

    774    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
    775        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep

def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

    777    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
    778        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"

def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str: View Source

    780    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
    781        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
    782        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
    783        return comment

def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[ sqlglot.expressions.Expression ] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    785    def maybe_comment(
    786        self,
    787        sql: str,
    788        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    789        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
    790        separated: bool = False,
    791    ) -> str:
    792        comments = (
    793            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
    794            if self.comments
    795            else None
    796        )
    797
    798        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
    799            return sql
    800
    801        comments_sql = " ".join(
    802            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
    803        )
    804
    805        if not comments_sql:
    806            return sql
    807
    808        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
    809
    810        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
    811            return (
    812                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
    813                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
    814                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    815            )
    816
    817        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"

def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str: View Source

    819    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
    820        this_sql = (
    821            self.sql(expression)
    822            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
    823            else self.sql(expression, "this")
    824        )
    825        if not this_sql:
    826            return "()"
    827
    828        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
    829        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"

def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str: View Source

    831    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
    832        original = self.identify
    833        self.identify = False
    834        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
    835        self.identify = original
    836        return result

def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str: View Source

    838    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
    839        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
    840            return name.upper()
    841        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
    842            return name.lower()
    843        return name

def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    845    def indent(
    846        self,
    847        sql: str,
    848        level: int = 0,
    849        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
    850        skip_first: bool = False,
    851        skip_last: bool = False,
    852    ) -> str:
    853        if not self.pretty or not sql:
    854            return sql
    855
    856        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
    857        lines = sql.split("\n")
    858
    859        return "\n".join(
    860            (
    861                line
    862                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
    863                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
    864            )
    865            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
    866        )

def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression , NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    868    def sql(
    869        self,
    870        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
    871        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    872        comment: bool = True,
    873    ) -> str:
    874        if not expression:
    875            return ""
    876
    877        if isinstance(expression, str):
    878            return expression
    879
    880        if key:
    881            value = expression.args.get(key)
    882            if value:
    883                return self.sql(value)
    884            return ""
    885
    886        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    887
    888        if callable(transform):
    889            sql = transform(self, expression)
    890        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
    891            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
    892
    893            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
    894                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
    895            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
    896                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    897            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
    898                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
    899            else:
    900                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    901        else:
    902            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
    903
    904        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql

def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache ) -> str: View Source

    906    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
    907        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    908        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    909        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"

def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache ) -> str: View Source

    911    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
    912        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
    913        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    914        options = expression.args.get("options")
    915        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
    916        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    917        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
    918        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
    919        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet ) -> str: View Source

    921    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
    922        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
    923            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    924        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
    925        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column ) -> str: View Source

    927    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
    928        return ".".join(
    929            self.sql(part)
    930            for part in (
    931                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    932                expression.args.get("db"),
    933                expression.args.get("table"),
    934                expression.args.get("this"),
    935            )
    936            if part
    937        )

def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column ) -> str: View Source

    939    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
    940        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
    941
    942        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
    943            join_mark = ""
    944            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
    945
    946        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"

def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition ) -> str: View Source

    948    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
    949        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    950        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    951        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
    952        return f"{position}{this}"

def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

    954    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
    955        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    956        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    957        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
    958        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    959        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
    960        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
    961        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
    962        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
    963
    964        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
    965            kind = ""
    966
    967        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"

def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    969    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
    970        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    971        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
    972        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql

def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    974    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
    975        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    976        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
    977            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
    978        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
    979            persisted = " PERSISTED"
    980        else:
    981            persisted = ""
    982        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"

def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str: View Source

    984    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
    985        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)

def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    987    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
    988        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    989            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
    990        else:
    991            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    992
    993        return f"COMPRESS {this}"

def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

     995    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
     996        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
     997    ) -> str:
     998        this = ""
     999        if expression.this is not None:
    1000            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
    1001            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
    1002
    1003        start = expression.args.get("start")
    1004        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1005        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
    1006        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1007        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
    1008        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1009        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
    1010        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1011        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
    1012        cycle_sql = ""
    1013
    1014        if cycle is not None:
    1015            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
    1016            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
    1017
    1018        sequence_opts = ""
    1019        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
    1020            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
    1021            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
    1022
    1023        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1024        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
    1025
    1026        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"

def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    1028    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
    1029        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
    1030    ) -> str:
    1031        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
    1032        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
    1033        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"

def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    1035    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
    1036        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
    1037    ) -> str:
    1038        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"

def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    1040    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1041        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"

def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    1043    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1044        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    1046    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1047        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    1048        if desc is not None:
    1049            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
    1050        return "PRIMARY KEY"

def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    1052    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1053        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1054        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1055        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
    1056        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    1057        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
    1058        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1059        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
    1060        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"

def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str: View Source

    1062    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
    1063        return self.sql(expression, "this")

def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create ) -> str: View Source

    1065    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
    1066        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1067        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1068        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
    1069        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
    1070
    1071        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
    1072
    1073        properties_sql = ""
    1074        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
    1075            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
    1076        ):
    1077            properties_sql = self.sql(
    1078                exp.Properties(
    1079                    expressions=[
    1080                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
    1081                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
    1082                    ]
    1083                )
    1084            )
    1085
    1086            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
    1087                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
    1088            elif not self.pretty:
    1089                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
    1090                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
    1091
    1092        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
    1093        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
    1094
    1095        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1096        if expression_sql:
    1097            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
    1098
    1099            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
    1100                postalias_props_sql = ""
    1101                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
    1102                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
    1103                        exp.Properties(
    1104                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
    1105                        ),
    1106                        wrapped=False,
    1107                    )
    1108                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
    1109                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
    1110
    1111        postindex_props_sql = ""
    1112        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
    1113            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
    1114                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
    1115                wrapped=False,
    1116                prefix=" ",
    1117            )
    1118
    1119        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
    1120        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
    1121        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
    1122
    1123        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
    1124        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
    1125        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1126
    1127        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
    1128        if clustered is None:
    1129            clustered_sql = ""
    1130        elif clustered:
    1131            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1132        else:
    1133            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1134
    1135        postcreate_props_sql = ""
    1136        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
    1137            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
    1138                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
    1139                sep=" ",
    1140                prefix=" ",
    1141                wrapped=False,
    1142            )
    1143
    1144        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
    1145
    1146        postexpression_props_sql = ""
    1147        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
    1148            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
    1149                exp.Properties(
    1150                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
    1151                ),
    1152                sep=" ",
    1153                prefix=" ",
    1154                wrapped=False,
    1155            )
    1156
    1157        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1158        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1159        no_schema_binding = (
    1160            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
    1161        )
    1162
    1163        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
    1164        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
    1165
    1166        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
    1167            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
    1168        else:
    1169            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"
    1170
    1171        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
    1172        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)

def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties ) -> str: View Source

    1174    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
    1175        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1176        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1177        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
    1178        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1179        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
    1180        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1181        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
    1182        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1183        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
    1184        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
    1185
    1186        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
    1187        if cache is None:
    1188            cache_str = ""
    1189        elif cache is True:
    1190            cache_str = " CACHE"
    1191        else:
    1192            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
    1193
    1194        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1195        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1196
    1197        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()

def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone ) -> str: View Source

    1199    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
    1200        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1201        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
    1202        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
    1203        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"

def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe ) -> str: View Source

    1205    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
    1206        style = expression.args.get("style")
    1207        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
    1208        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1209        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1210        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1211        format = f" {format}" if format else ""
    1212
    1213        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"

def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc ) -> str: View Source

    1215    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
    1216        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
    1217        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"

def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str: View Source

    1219    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
    1220        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
    1221        if with_:
    1222            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    1223        return sql

def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With ) -> str: View Source

    1225    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
    1226        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1227        recursive = (
    1228            "RECURSIVE "
    1229            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
    1230            else ""
    1231        )
    1232
    1233        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"

def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE ) -> str: View Source

    1235    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
    1236        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    1237        if alias:
    1238            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
    1239
    1240        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1241
    1242        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
    1243        if materialized is False:
    1244            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
    1245        elif materialized:
    1246            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
    1247
    1248        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"

def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias ) -> str: View Source

    1250    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
    1251        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1252        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1253        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1254
    1255        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
    1256            columns = ""
    1257            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
    1258
    1259        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    1260            alias = self._next_name()
    1261
    1262        return f"{alias}{columns}"

def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString ) -> str: View Source

    1264    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
    1265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1266        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
    1267            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1268        return f"{int(this, 2)}"

def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString ) -> str: View Source

    1270    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
    1271        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1272        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
    1273            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
    1274        return f"{int(this, 16)}"

def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString ) -> str: View Source

    1276    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1277        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1278        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1279            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1280        return this

def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString ) -> str: View Source

    1282    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1283        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1284        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1285
    1286        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1287            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
    1288            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
    1289        else:
    1290            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
    1291            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
    1292
    1293        if escape:
    1294            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1295            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
    1296        else:
    1297            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1298            escape_sql = ""
    1299
    1300        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
    1301            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
    1302
    1303        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"

def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString ) -> str: View Source

    1305    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1306        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
    1307        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"

def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam ) -> str: View Source

    1309    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1310        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1311        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1312        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1313        return f"{this}{specifier}"

def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType ) -> str: View Source

    1315    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1316        nested = ""
    1317        values = ""
    1318        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1319
    1320        type_value = expression.this
    1321        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1322            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1323        else:
    1324            type_sql = (
    1325                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1326                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1327                else type_value
    1328            )
    1329
    1330        if interior:
    1331            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1332                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1333                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1334                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1335                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1336                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1337            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1338                nested = f" {interior}"
    1339            else:
    1340                nested = f"({interior})"
    1341
    1342        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1343        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1344            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1345            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1346        ):
    1347            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1348
    1349        return type_sql

def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory ) -> str: View Source

    1351    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1352        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1353        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1354        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1355        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"

def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete ) -> str: View Source

    1357    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1358        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1359        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1360        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1361        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1362        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1363        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
    1364        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1365        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1366        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1367        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1368        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1369        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1370            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1371        else:
    1372            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
    1373        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")

def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop ) -> str: View Source

    1375    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1376        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1377        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1378        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    1379        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1380        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1381        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1382        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1383        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1384        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    1385        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1386        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1387        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1388        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1389        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1390        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"

def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation ) -> str: View Source

    1392    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1393        op_type = type(expression)
    1394        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
    1395
    1396        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
    1397        if (
    1398            distinct is False
    1399            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
    1400            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
    1401        ):
    1402            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
    1403
    1404        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
    1405
    1406        if distinct is None:
    1407            distinct = default_distinct
    1408            if distinct is None:
    1409                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
    1410
    1411        if distinct is default_distinct:
    1412            kind = ""
    1413        else:
    1414            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
    1415
    1416        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1417        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"

def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation ) -> str: View Source

    1419    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1420        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
    1421            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    1422            order = expression.args.get("order")
    1423
    1424            if limit or order:
    1425                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
    1426                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
    1427                )
    1428
    1429                if limit:
    1430                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
    1431                if order:
    1432                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
    1433                return self.sql(select)
    1434
    1435        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    1436        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    1437
    1438        while stack:
    1439            node = stack.pop()
    1440
    1441            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
    1442                stack.append(node.expression)
    1443                stack.append(
    1444                    self.maybe_comment(
    1445                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
    1446                    )
    1447                )
    1448                stack.append(node.this)
    1449            else:
    1450                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    1451
    1452        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
    1453        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
    1454        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)

def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch ) -> str: View Source

    1456    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1457        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1458        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1459        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
    1460        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1461        if expression.args.get("percent"):
    1462            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
    1463        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
    1464        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"

def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter ) -> str: View Source

    1466    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1467        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1468            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1469            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1470            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1471
    1472        agg = expression.this
    1473        agg_arg = agg.this
    1474        cond = expression.expression.this
    1475        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1476        return self.sql(agg)

def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint ) -> str: View Source

    1478    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1479        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1480            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1481            return ""
    1482
    1483        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"

def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters ) -> str: View Source

    1485    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
    1486        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1487        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1488        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1489        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1490        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1491        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1492        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1493        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1494        if include:
    1495            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1496        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
    1497        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
    1498        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
    1499        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
    1500        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1501        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    1502
    1503        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"

def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index ) -> str: View Source

    1505    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1506        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1507        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1508        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1509        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1510        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1511        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1512        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1513
    1514        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1515
    1516        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
    1517        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"

def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier ) -> str: View Source

    1519    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1520        text = expression.name
    1521        lower = text.lower()
    1522        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1523        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1524        if (
    1525            expression.quoted
    1526            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1527            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1528            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1529        ):
    1530            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
    1531        return text

def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex ) -> str: View Source

    1533    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
    1534        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1535        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1536            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1537
    1538        return text

def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex ) -> str: View Source

    1540    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
    1541        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1542        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1543            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1544        return text

def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat ) -> str: View Source

    1546    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1547        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1548        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1549        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1550        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1551        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))

def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str: View Source

    1553    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1554        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1555        return f"{prefix}{string}"

def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition ) -> str: View Source

    1557    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1558        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties ) -> str: View Source

    1560    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1561        root_properties = []
    1562        with_properties = []
    1563
    1564        for p in expression.expressions:
    1565            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1566            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1567                with_properties.append(p)
    1568            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1569                root_properties.append(p)
    1570
    1571        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
    1572        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
    1573
    1574        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
    1575            with_props = " " + with_props
    1576
    1577        return root_props + with_props

def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties ) -> str: View Source

    1579    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1580        if properties.expressions:
    1581            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1582        return ""

def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    1584    def properties(
    1585        self,
    1586        properties: exp.Properties,
    1587        prefix: str = "",
    1588        sep: str = ", ",
    1589        suffix: str = "",
    1590        wrapped: bool = True,
    1591    ) -> str:
    1592        if properties.expressions:
    1593            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1594            if expressions:
    1595                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1596                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1597        return ""

def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties ) -> str: View Source

    1599    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1600        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))

def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties ) -> DefaultDict: View Source

    1602    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1603        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1604        for p in properties.expressions:
    1605            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1606            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1607                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1608            else:
    1609                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1610
    1611        return properties_locs

def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    1613    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1614        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1615            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1616        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name

def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property ) -> str: View Source

    1618    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1619        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1620        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1621            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1622
    1623        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1624        if not property_name:
    1625            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1626
    1627        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1629    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1630        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1631            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1632            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1633
    1634            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1635            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1636                like = f"({like})"
    1637
    1638            return like
    1639
    1640        if expression.expressions:
    1641            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1642
    1643        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1644        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"

def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1646    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1647        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1648        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1649        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"

def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1651    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1652        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1653        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1654        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1655        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1656        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1657        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1658        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"

def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1660    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1661        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1662        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1663        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"

def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1665    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1666        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1667            property = "DEFAULT"
    1668        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1669            property = "ON"
    1670        else:
    1671            property = "OFF"
    1672        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"

def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1674    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1675        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1676            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1677        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1678            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1679
    1680        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1681        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"

def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1683    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1684        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1685        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1686        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1687        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1688            if default:
    1689                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1690            elif minimum:
    1691                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1692            else:
    1693                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1694            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1695        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1696        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1697        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"

def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1699    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1700        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1701        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1702        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1703        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1704        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1705
    1706        if autotemp is not None:
    1707            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1708        elif always:
    1709            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1710        elif default:
    1711            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1712        elif manual:
    1713            prop = "MANUAL"
    1714        elif never:
    1715            prop = "NEVER"
    1716        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"

def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1718    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1719        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1720        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1721        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1722        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1723        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1724        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
    1725        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"

def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec ) -> str: View Source

    1727    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1728        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1729            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1730        if expression.this:
    1731            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1732            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1733            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1734
    1735        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1736        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1737        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"

def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1739    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1740        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1741
    1742        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1743        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1744            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1745        else:
    1746            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1747
    1748        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"

def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1750    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1751        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1752        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1753        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1754        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1755        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1756        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1757        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"

def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1759    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1760        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1761        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1762        statistics_sql = ""
    1763        if statistics is not None:
    1764            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1765        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"

def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1767    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1769        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
    1770        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
    1771        data_consistency = (
    1772            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
    1773        )
    1774        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    1775        retention_period = (
    1776            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    1777        )
    1778
    1779        if this:
    1780            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
    1781        else:
    1782            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    1783
    1784        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
    1785
    1786        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql

def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert ) -> str: View Source

    1788    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1789        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    1790        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1791
    1792        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1793            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1794        else:
    1795            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1796
    1797        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
    1798        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
    1799        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1800        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1801        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1802        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
    1803        if is_function:
    1804            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
    1805        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1806
    1807        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1808        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1809        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1810        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1811        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1812        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1813        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1814        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1815
    1816        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1817            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
    1818        else:
    1819            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
    1820
    1821        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1822        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1823        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
    1824        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
    1825
    1826        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
    1827        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
    1828
    1829        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
    1830        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer ) -> str: View Source

    1832    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1833        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill ) -> str: View Source

    1835    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1836        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1837        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1839        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1840        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"

def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType ) -> str: View Source

    1842    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1843        return expression.name

def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier ) -> str: View Source

    1845    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1846        return expression.name

def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict ) -> str: View Source

    1848    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1849        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1850
    1851        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1852        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
    1853
    1854        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
    1855        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
    1856        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    1857
    1858        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1859        if expressions:
    1860            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1861            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1862
    1863        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"

def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning ) -> str: View Source

    1865    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1866        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"

def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1868    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1869        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
    1870        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1871        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
    1872        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1873        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
    1874        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1875        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
    1876        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1877        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
    1878        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1879        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    1880        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1881        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"

def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint ) -> str: View Source

    1883    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1884        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint ) -> str: View Source

    1886    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1887        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1888        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1889        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1890        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData ) -> str: View Source

    1892    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1893        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1894        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1895        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1896        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"

def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table ) -> str: View Source

    1898    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
    1899        return ".".join(
    1900            self.sql(part)
    1901            for part in (
    1902                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1903                expression.args.get("db"),
    1904                expression.args.get("this"),
    1905            )
    1906            if part is not None
    1907        )

def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str: View Source

    1909    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1910        table = self.table_parts(expression)
    1911        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    1912        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1913        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1914        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1915        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1916        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1917        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    1918
    1919        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    1920        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
    1921            sample_pre_alias = sample
    1922            sample_post_alias = ""
    1923        else:
    1924            sample_pre_alias = ""
    1925            sample_post_alias = sample
    1926
    1927        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    1928        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    1929        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    1930        joins = self.indent(
    1931            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    1932        )
    1933        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    1934
    1935        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1936        if file_format:
    1937            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    1938            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    1939            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    1940
    1941        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    1942        if ordinality:
    1943            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    1944            alias = ""
    1945
    1946        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    1947        if when:
    1948            table = f"{table} {when}"
    1949
    1950        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
    1951        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
    1952
    1953        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
    1954        if rows_from:
    1955            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
    1956
    1957        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"

def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str: View Source

    1959    def tablesample_sql(
    1960        self,
    1961        expression: exp.TableSample,
    1962        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    1963    ) -> str:
    1964        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    1965        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    1966        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    1967        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    1968        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    1969        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    1970        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    1971        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    1972        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    1973
    1974        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    1975        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    1976            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    1977
    1978        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    1979        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    1980            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    1981
    1982        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    1983        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    1984            expr = f"({expr})"
    1985
    1986        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"

def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot ) -> str: View Source

    1988    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    1989        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1990
    1991        if expression.this:
    1992            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1993            if not expressions:
    1994                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    1995
    1996            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    1997            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    1998            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    1999            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    2000            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
    2001
    2002        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2003        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2004        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
    2005
    2006        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
    2007
    2008        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    2009        if include_nulls is not None:
    2010            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    2011        else:
    2012            nulls = ""
    2013
    2014        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
    2015        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
    2016        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"

def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version ) -> str: View Source

    2018    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    2019        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    2020        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2021        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2022        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"

def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple ) -> str: View Source

    2024    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    2025        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"

def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update ) -> str: View Source

    2027    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    2028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2029        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2030        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2031        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    2032        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    2033        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2034        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    2035        if self.RETURNING_END:
    2036            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    2037        else:
    2038            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    2039        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    2040        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    2042    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
    2043        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
    2044
    2045        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    2046        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    2047            args = self.expressions(expression)
    2048            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2049            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    2050            values = (
    2051                f"({values})"
    2052                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
    2053                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
    2054                else values
    2055            )
    2056            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    2057
    2058        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    2059        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    2060        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    2061
    2062        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
    2063
    2064        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    2065            row = tup.expressions
    2066
    2067            if i == 0 and column_names:
    2068                row = [
    2069                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    2070                ]
    2071
    2072            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    2073
    2074        if self.pretty:
    2075            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    2076            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    2077            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    2078            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    2079            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
    2080
    2081        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    2082        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    2083        return f"({unions}){alias}"

def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var ) -> str: View Source

    2085    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    2086        return self.sql(expression, "this")

@unsupported_args('expressions')
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into ) -> str: View Source

    2088    @unsupported_args("expressions")
    2089    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    2090        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    2091        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    2092        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From ) -> str: View Source

    2094    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    2095        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GroupingSets ) -> str: View Source

    2097    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
    2098        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2099        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"

def rollup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollup ) -> str: View Source

    2101    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
    2102        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2103        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"

def cube_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cube ) -> str: View Source

    2105    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
    2106        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2107        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"

def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group ) -> str: View Source

    2109    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    2110        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
    2111        if group_by_all is True:
    2112            modifier = " ALL"
    2113        elif group_by_all is False:
    2114            modifier = " DISTINCT"
    2115        else:
    2116            modifier = ""
    2117
    2118        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
    2119
    2120        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
    2121        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
    2122        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
    2123
    2124        groupings = csv(
    2125            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
    2126            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
    2127            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
    2128            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    2129            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    2130        )
    2131
    2132        if (
    2133            expression.expressions
    2134            and groupings
    2135            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
    2136        ):
    2137            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    2138
    2139        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"

def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having ) -> str: View Source

    2141    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    2142        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2143        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect ) -> str: View Source

    2145    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    2146        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    2147        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    2148        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
    2149        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    2150        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
    2151        return start + connect

def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior ) -> str: View Source

    2153    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    2154        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join ) -> str: View Source

    2156    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    2157        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    2158            side = None
    2159        else:
    2160            side = expression.side
    2161
    2162        op_sql = " ".join(
    2163            op
    2164            for op in (
    2165                expression.method,
    2166                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    2167                side,
    2168                expression.kind,
    2169                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    2170            )
    2171            if op
    2172        )
    2173        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
    2174        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
    2175        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    2176        using = expression.args.get("using")
    2177
    2178        if not on_sql and using:
    2179            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    2180
    2181        this = expression.this
    2182        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    2183
    2184        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
    2185        if exprs:
    2186            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
    2187
    2188        if on_sql:
    2189            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    2190            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    2191            if using:
    2192                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    2193            else:
    2194                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    2195        elif not op_sql:
    2196            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    2197                return f" {this_sql}"
    2198
    2199            return f", {this_sql}"
    2200
    2201        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
    2202            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    2203
    2204        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"

def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str: View Source

    2206    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    2207        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2208        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    2209        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral ) -> str: View Source

    2211    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2212        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    2213
    2214        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    2215        if cross_apply is True:
    2216            op = "INNER JOIN "
    2217        elif cross_apply is False:
    2218            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    2219        else:
    2220            op = ""
    2221
    2222        return f"{op}LATERAL"

def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral ) -> str: View Source

    2224    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2225        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2226
    2227        if expression.args.get("view"):
    2228            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2229            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    2230            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    2231            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    2232            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    2233            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    2234
    2235        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2236        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2237        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"

def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    2239    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    2240        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2241
    2242        args = [
    2243            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    2244            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    2245            if e
    2246        ]
    2247
    2248        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    2249        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    2250        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2251        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2252
    2253        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"

def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset ) -> str: View Source

    2255    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    2256        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2257        value = expression.expression
    2258        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    2259        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2260        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2261        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"

def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem ) -> str: View Source

    2263    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    2264        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2265        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    2266        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2267        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2268        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2269        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2270        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    2271        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"

def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set ) -> str: View Source

    2273    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    2274        expressions = (
    2275            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
    2276        )
    2277        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    2278        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"

def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma ) -> str: View Source

    2280    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    2281        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock ) -> str: View Source

    2283    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    2284        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    2285            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    2286            return ""
    2287
    2288        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    2289        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2290        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2291        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    2292
    2293        if wait is not None:
    2294            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    2295                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    2296            else:
    2297                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    2298
    2299        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"

def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal ) -> str: View Source

    2301    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    2302        text = expression.this or ""
    2303        if expression.is_string:
    2304            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2305        return text

def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    2307    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
    2308        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
    2309            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
    2310            text = "".join(
    2311                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
    2312            )
    2313
    2314        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
    2315            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
    2316        )

def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData ) -> str: View Source

    2318    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    2319        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    2320        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    2321        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    2322        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2323        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    2324        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    2325        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    2326        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    2327        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    2328        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    2329        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"

def null_sql(self, *_) -> str: View Source

    2331    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    2332        return "NULL"

def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean ) -> str: View Source

    2334    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    2335        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"

def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    2337    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    2338        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2339        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    2340        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    2341        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore

def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill ) -> str: View Source

    2343    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    2344        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2345        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    2346        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2347        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2348        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    2349        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    2350        interpolated_values = [
    2351            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
    2352            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2353            else self.sql(e, "this")
    2354            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    2355        ]
    2356        interpolate = (
    2357            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    2358        )
    2359        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"

def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster ) -> str: View Source

    2361    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    2362        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)

def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute ) -> str: View Source

    2364    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    2365        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)

def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort ) -> str: View Source

    2367    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    2368        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)

def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered ) -> str: View Source

    2370    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    2371        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    2372        asc = not desc
    2373
    2374        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    2375        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    2376        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    2377        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    2378        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    2379
    2380        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2381
    2382        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    2383        nulls_sort_change = ""
    2384        if nulls_first and (
    2385            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    2386        ):
    2387            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    2388        elif (
    2389            nulls_last
    2390            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    2391            and not nulls_are_last
    2392        ):
    2393            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    2394
    2395        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    2396        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    2397            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2398            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    2399                self.unsupported(
    2400                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    2401                )
    2402                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2403            elif (
    2404                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
    2405                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
    2406                and (
    2407                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
    2408                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
    2409                )
    2410            ):
    2411                self.unsupported(
    2412                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
    2413                )
    2414                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2415            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    2416                if expression.this.is_int:
    2417                    self.unsupported(
    2418                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2419                    )
    2420                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
    2421                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2422                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2423                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2424
    2425        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2426        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2427
    2428        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"

def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure ) -> str: View Source

    2430    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
    2431        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
    2432        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
    2433
    2434        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2435
    2436        return f"{window_frame}{this}"

def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize ) -> str: View Source

    2438    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2439        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2440        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2441        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2442        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2443        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2444        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2445        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2446        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2447        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2448        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2449        definition_sqls = [
    2450            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2451            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2452        ]
    2453        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2454        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2455        body = "".join(
    2456            (
    2457                partition,
    2458                order,
    2459                measures,
    2460                rows,
    2461                after,
    2462                pattern,
    2463                define,
    2464            )
    2465        )
    2466        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2467        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2468        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"

def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str: View Source

    2470    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2471        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2472
    2473        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2474            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2475        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2476            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2477
    2478        return csv(
    2479            *sqls,
    2480            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2481            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2482            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2483            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2484            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
    2485            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2486            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2487            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2488            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
    2489            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2490            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
    2491            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2492            self.options_modifier(expression),
    2493            sep="",
    2494        )

def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression ) -> str: View Source

    2496    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
    2497        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2498        return f" {options}" if options else ""

def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption ) -> str: View Source

    2500    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
    2501        return ""

def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[ sqlglot.expressions.Fetch , sqlglot.expressions.Limit , NoneType]) -> List[str]: View Source

    2503    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2504        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2505    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2506        return [
    2507            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2508            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2509        ]

def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression ) -> List[str]: View Source

    2511    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2512        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2513        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2514        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]

def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select ) -> str: View Source

    2516    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2517        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2518        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2519            into.pop()
    2520
    2521        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2522        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2523        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2524        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2525
    2526        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2527        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
    2528            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2529            limit.pop()
    2530        else:
    2531            top = ""
    2532
    2533        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2534
    2535        if kind:
    2536            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2537                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2538            else:
    2539                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2540                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2541                        sqls=[
    2542                            self.sql(
    2543                                exp.Struct(
    2544                                    expressions=[
    2545                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
    2546                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2547                                        else e
    2548                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2549                                    ]
    2550                                )
    2551                            )
    2552                        ]
    2553                    )
    2554                kind = ""
    2555
    2556        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
    2557        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
    2558
    2559        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2560        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2561        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2562        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2563        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2564            expression,
    2565            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
    2566            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2567            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2568        )
    2569
    2570        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
    2571        if expression.args.get("with"):
    2572            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
    2573            expression.pop_comments()
    2574
    2575        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2576
    2577        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2578            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2579                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2580            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2581                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2582            else:
    2583                table_kind = ""
    2584            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2585
    2586        return sql

def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema ) -> str: View Source

    2588    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2589        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2590        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2591        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql

def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema ) -> str: View Source

    2593    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2594        if expression.expressions:
    2595            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2596        return ""

def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star ) -> str: View Source

    2598    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2599        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2600        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2601        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2602        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2603        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
    2604        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
    2605        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"

def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter ) -> str: View Source

    2607    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2608        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2609        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"

def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter ) -> str: View Source

    2611    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2612        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2613        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2614        if kind:
    2615            kind = f"{kind}."
    2616        return f"@@{kind}{this}"

def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder ) -> str: View Source

    2618    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2619        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"

def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str: View Source

    2621    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2622        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2623        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2624        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    2625        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
    2626            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
    2627
    2628            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
    2629            expression.set("sample", None)
    2630
    2631        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    2632        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2633        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify ) -> str: View Source

    2635    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2636        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2637        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest ) -> str: View Source

    2639    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2640        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2641
    2642        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2643        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2644
    2645        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2646            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2647                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2648
    2649        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2650            columns = alias.columns
    2651            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2652        else:
    2653            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2654
    2655        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2656        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2657            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2658        else:
    2659            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2660                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2661            elif offset:
    2662                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2663            else:
    2664                suffix = alias
    2665
    2666        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"

def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere ) -> str: View Source

    2668    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
    2669        return ""

def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where ) -> str: View Source

    2671    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2672        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2673        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window ) -> str: View Source

    2675    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2676        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2677        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2678        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2679        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2680        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2681        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2682        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2683
    2684        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2685
    2686        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2687        if first is None:
    2688            first = ""
    2689        else:
    2690            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2691
    2692        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2693            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2694
    2695        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
    2696        return f"{this} ({args})"

def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize ) -> str: View Source

    2698    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2699        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2700        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""

def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec ) -> str: View Source

    2702    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2703        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2704        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2705        end = (
    2706            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2707            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2708        )
    2709        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"

def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup ) -> str: View Source

    2711    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2712        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2713        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2714        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"

def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between ) -> str: View Source

    2716    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2718        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2719        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2720        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"

def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket, index_offset: Optional[int] = None) -> List[ sqlglot.expressions.Expression ]: View Source

    2722    def bracket_offset_expressions(
    2723        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
    2724    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2725        return apply_index_offset(
    2726            expression.this,
    2727            expression.expressions,
    2728            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2729        )

def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket ) -> str: View Source

    2731    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2732        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
    2733        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2734        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"

def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All ) -> str: View Source

    2736    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2737        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"

def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any ) -> str: View Source

    2739    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2740        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2741        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
    2742            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
    2743                this = self.wrap(this)
    2744            return f"ANY{this}"
    2745        return f"ANY {this}"

def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists ) -> str: View Source

    2747    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2748        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"

def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case ) -> str: View Source

    2750    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2751        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2752        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2753
    2754        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2755            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2756            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2757
    2758        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2759
    2760        if default:
    2761            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2762
    2763        statements.append("END")
    2764
    2765        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
    2766            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2767
    2768        return " ".join(statements)

def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint ) -> str: View Source

    2770    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2771        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2772        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2773        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"

def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor ) -> str: View Source

    2775    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2776        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2777        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2778        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"

def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract ) -> str: View Source

    2780    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2781        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2782        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2783        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"

def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim ) -> str: View Source

    2785    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2786        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2787
    2788        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2789            func_name = "LTRIM"
    2790        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2791            func_name = "RTRIM"
    2792        else:
    2793            func_name = "TRIM"
    2794
    2795        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)

def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs ) -> List[ sqlglot.expressions.Expression ]: View Source

    2797    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2798        args = expression.expressions
    2799        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2800            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2801
    2802        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2803            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
    2804
    2805        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2806            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2807
    2808        return args

def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat ) -> str: View Source

    2810    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2811        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2812
    2813        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2814        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2815            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2816
    2817        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)

def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs ) -> str: View Source

    2819    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2820        return self.func(
    2821            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2822        )

def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check ) -> str: View Source

    2824    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2825        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2826        return f"CHECK ({this})"

def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey ) -> str: View Source

    2828    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2829        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2830        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2831        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2832        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2833        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2834        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2835        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2836        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"

def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey ) -> str: View Source

    2838    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2839        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2840        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2841        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2842        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"

def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If ) -> str: View Source

    2844    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2845        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))

def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst ) -> str: View Source

    2847    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2848        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2849        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2850        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"

def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue ) -> str: View Source

    2852    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2853        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath ) -> str: View Source

    2855    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2856        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2857
    2858        if expression.args.get("escape"):
    2859            path = self.escape_str(path)
    2860
    2861        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
    2862            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2863
    2864        return path

def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart ) -> str: View Source

    2866    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    2867        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    2868            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    2869            if not callable(transform):
    2870                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    2871                return ""
    2872
    2873            return transform(self, expression)
    2874
    2875        if isinstance(expression, int):
    2876            return str(expression)
    2877
    2878        if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    2879            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    2880            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    2881        else:
    2882            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    2883            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    2884
    2885        return escaped

def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson ) -> str: View Source

    2887    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    2888        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"

def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg ) -> str: View Source

    2890    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2891        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2892        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2893
    2894        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    2895        if unique_keys is not None:
    2896            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    2897        else:
    2898            unique_keys = ""
    2899
    2900        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2901        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2902        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    2903        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    2904
    2905        return self.func(
    2906            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    2907            *expression.expressions,
    2908            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    2909        )

def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg ) -> str: View Source

    2911    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2912        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)

def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray ) -> str: View Source

    2914    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    2915        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2916        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2917        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2918        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2919        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2920        return self.func(
    2921            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    2922        )

def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg ) -> str: View Source

    2924    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    2925        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2926        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2927        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2928        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2929        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2930        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2931        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2932        return self.func(
    2933            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    2934            this,
    2935            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    2936        )

def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef ) -> str: View Source

    2938    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2939        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2940        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    2941        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    2942
    2943        if nested_schema:
    2944            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    2945
    2946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2947        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2948        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    2949        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"

def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema ) -> str: View Source

    2951    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    2952        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)

def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable ) -> str: View Source

    2954    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    2955        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2956        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2957        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2958        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    2959        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    2960        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    2961        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    2962        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    2963        return self.func(
    2964            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    2965        )

def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef ) -> str: View Source

    2967    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2969        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2970        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2971        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    2972        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    2973        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"

def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON ) -> str: View Source

    2975    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    2976        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2977        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2978        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2979        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2980        with_ = (
    2981            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2982            if expressions
    2983            else ""
    2984        )
    2985        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"

def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In ) -> str: View Source

    2987    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    2988        query = expression.args.get("query")
    2989        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    2990        field = expression.args.get("field")
    2991        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    2992
    2993        if query:
    2994            in_sql = self.sql(query)
    2995        elif unnest:
    2996            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    2997        elif field:
    2998            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    2999        else:
    3000            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    3001
    3002        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"

def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest ) -> str: View Source

    3004    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    3005        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"

def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval ) -> str: View Source

    3007    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    3008        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    3009        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    3010            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    3011        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    3012
    3013        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    3014            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    3015            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    3016
    3017        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3018        if this:
    3019            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    3020            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    3021
    3022        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"

def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return ) -> str: View Source

    3024    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    3025        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference ) -> str: View Source

    3027    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    3028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3029        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3030        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3031        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    3032        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3033        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"

def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous ) -> str: View Source

    3035    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    3036        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
    3037        parent = expression.parent
    3038        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
    3039        return self.func(
    3040            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
    3041        )

def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren ) -> str: View Source

    3043    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    3044        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    3045        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"

def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg ) -> str: View Source

    3047    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    3048        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    3049        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3050        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    3051        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"

def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not ) -> str: View Source

    3053    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    3054        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias ) -> str: View Source

    3056    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    3057        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    3058        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    3059        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"

def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias ) -> str: View Source

    3061    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    3062        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    3063
    3064        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    3065        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
    3066
    3067        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3068            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    3069        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3070            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    3071
    3072        return self.alias_sql(expression)

def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases ) -> str: View Source

    3074    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    3075        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone ) -> str: View Source

    3077    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3078        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3079        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3080        return f"{this} AT {index}"

def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone ) -> str: View Source

    3082    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3083        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3084        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3085        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"

def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone ) -> str: View Source

    3087    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    3088        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3089        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3090        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"

def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add ) -> str: View Source

    3092    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    3093        return self.binary(expression, "+")

def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression ]] = None) -> str: View Source

    3095    def and_sql(
    3096        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3097    ) -> str:
    3098        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)

def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression ]] = None) -> str: View Source

    3100    def or_sql(
    3101        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3102    ) -> str:
    3103        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)

def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression ]] = None) -> str: View Source

    3105    def xor_sql(
    3106        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3107    ) -> str:
    3108        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)

def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression ]] = None) -> str: View Source

    3110    def connector_sql(
    3111        self,
    3112        expression: exp.Connector,
    3113        op: str,
    3114        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3115    ) -> str:
    3116        if stack is not None:
    3117            if expression.expressions:
    3118                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
    3119            else:
    3120                stack.append(expression.right)
    3121                if expression.comments and self.comments:
    3122                    for comment in expression.comments:
    3123                        if comment:
    3124                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
    3125                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
    3126            return op
    3127
    3128        stack = [expression]
    3129        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3130        ops = set()
    3131
    3132        while stack:
    3133            node = stack.pop()
    3134            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
    3135                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
    3136            else:
    3137                sql = self.sql(node)
    3138                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
    3139                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
    3140                else:
    3141                    sqls.append(sql)
    3142
    3143        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
    3144        return sep.join(sqls)

def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd ) -> str: View Source

    3146    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    3147        return self.binary(expression, "&")

def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift ) -> str: View Source

    3149    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    3150        return self.binary(expression, "<<")

def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot ) -> str: View Source

    3152    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    3153        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr ) -> str: View Source

    3155    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    3156        return self.binary(expression, "|")

def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift ) -> str: View Source

    3158    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    3159        return self.binary(expression, ">>")

def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor ) -> str: View Source

    3161    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    3162        return self.binary(expression, "^")

def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str: View Source

    3164    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    3165        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    3166        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    3167        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3168        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    3169        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    3170        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
    3171        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"

def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate ) -> str: View Source

    3173    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    3174        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3175        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"

def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate ) -> str: View Source

    3177    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    3178        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    3179            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3180        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")

def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command ) -> str: View Source

    3182    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    3183        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"

def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment ) -> str: View Source

    3185    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    3186        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3187        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    3188        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    3189        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3190        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3191        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"

def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction ) -> str: View Source

    3193    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    3194        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3195        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    3196        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    3197        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    3198        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    3199        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    3200        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    3201        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    3202        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"

def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL ) -> str: View Source

    3204    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    3205        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    3206        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    3207        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    3208        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    3209
    3210        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    3211            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    3212
    3213        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"

def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction ) -> str: View Source

    3215    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    3216        return "BEGIN"

def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit ) -> str: View Source

    3218    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    3219        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    3220        if chain is not None:
    3221            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    3222
    3223        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"

def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback ) -> str: View Source

    3225    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    3226        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    3227        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    3228        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"

def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn ) -> str: View Source

    3230    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    3231        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3232
    3233        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    3234        if dtype:
    3235            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    3236            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    3237            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3238            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    3239            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
    3240
    3241        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    3242        if default:
    3243            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    3244
    3245        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3246        if comment:
    3247            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    3248
    3249        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
    3250        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
    3251
    3252        if not drop and not allow_null:
    3253            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    3254
    3255        if allow_null is not None:
    3256            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
    3257            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
    3258
    3259        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"

def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle ) -> str: View Source

    3261    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
    3262        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3263        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
    3264            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
    3265        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"

def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey ) -> str: View Source

    3267    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
    3268        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
    3269        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3270        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3271        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3272        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"

def alterrename_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterRename ) -> str: View Source

    3274    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
    3275        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    3276            # Remove db from tables
    3277            expression = expression.transform(
    3278                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    3279            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
    3280        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3281        return f"RENAME TO {this}"

def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn ) -> str: View Source

    3283    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    3284        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3285        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3286        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3287        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"

def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet ) -> str: View Source

    3289    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
    3290        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3291        return f"SET {exprs}"

def alter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter ) -> str: View Source

    3293    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
    3294        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    3295
    3296        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
    3297            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
    3298        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
    3299            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
    3300        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
    3301            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3302        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
    3303            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
    3304        else:
    3305            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3306
    3307        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3308        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3309        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3310        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    3311        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    3312        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
    3313        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3314        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
    3315
    3316        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"

def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter ) -> str: View Source

    3318    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
    3319        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    3320            return self.expressions(
    3321                expression,
    3322                key="actions",
    3323                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
    3324                skip_first=True,
    3325            )
    3326        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"

def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition ) -> str: View Source

    3328    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    3329        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3330        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3331        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"

def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    3333    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    3334        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"

def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct ) -> str: View Source

    3336    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    3337        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3338
    3339        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    3340            case = exp.case()
    3341            for arg in expression.expressions:
    3342                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    3343            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    3344
    3345        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3346
    3347        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    3348        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    3349        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"

def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls ) -> str: View Source

    3351    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    3352        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")

def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls ) -> str: View Source

    3354    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    3355        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")

def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax ) -> str: View Source

    3357    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
    3358        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3359        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3360        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
    3361        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"

def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv ) -> str: View Source

    3363    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    3364        return self.sql(
    3365            exp.Cast(
    3366                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    3367                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    3368            )
    3369        )

def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe ) -> str: View Source

    3371    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    3372        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3373            return self.func(
    3374                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
    3375            )
    3376        return self.binary(expression, "||")

def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div ) -> str: View Source

    3378    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    3379        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    3380
    3381        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3382            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    3383
    3384        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    3385            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
    3386                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3387
    3388        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    3389            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    3390                return self.sql(
    3391                    exp.cast(
    3392                        l / r,
    3393                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    3394                    )
    3395                )
    3396
    3397        return self.binary(expression, "/")

def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps ) -> str: View Source

    3399    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    3400        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")

def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance ) -> str: View Source

    3402    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    3403        return self.binary(expression, "<->")

def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot ) -> str: View Source

    3405    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    3406        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ ) -> str: View Source

    3408    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    3409        return self.binary(expression, "=")

def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ ) -> str: View Source

    3411    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    3412        return self.binary(expression, ":=")

def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape ) -> str: View Source

    3414    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    3415        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")

def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob ) -> str: View Source

    3417    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    3418        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")

def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT ) -> str: View Source

    3420    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    3421        return self.binary(expression, ">")

def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE ) -> str: View Source

    3423    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    3424        return self.binary(expression, ">=")

def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike ) -> str: View Source

    3426    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    3427        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")

def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny ) -> str: View Source

    3429    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    3430        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")

def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is ) -> str: View Source

    3432    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    3433        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    3434            return self.sql(
    3435                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    3436            )
    3437        return self.binary(expression, "IS")

def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like ) -> str: View Source

    3439    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    3440        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")

def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny ) -> str: View Source

    3442    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    3443        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")

def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo ) -> str: View Source

    3445    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    3446        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")

def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT ) -> str: View Source

    3448    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    3449        return self.binary(expression, "<")

def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE ) -> str: View Source

    3451    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    3452        return self.binary(expression, "<=")

def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod ) -> str: View Source

    3454    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    3455        return self.binary(expression, "%")

def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul ) -> str: View Source

    3457    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    3458        return self.binary(expression, "*")

def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ ) -> str: View Source

    3460    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    3461        return self.binary(expression, "<>")

def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ ) -> str: View Source

    3463    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    3464        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")

def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ ) -> str: View Source

    3466    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    3467        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")

def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice ) -> str: View Source

    3469    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    3470        return self.binary(expression, ":")

def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub ) -> str: View Source

    3472    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    3473        return self.binary(expression, "-")

def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast ) -> str: View Source

    3475    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    3476        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")

def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try ) -> str: View Source

    3478    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
    3479        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
    3480            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
    3481            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    3482
    3483        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)

def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log ) -> str: View Source

    3485    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    3486        this = expression.this
    3487        expr = expression.expression
    3488
    3489        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
    3490            this, expr = expr, this
    3491        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
    3492            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
    3493                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
    3494
    3495            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
    3496
    3497        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)

def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use ) -> str: View Source

    3499    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3500        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3501        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3502        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3503        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3504        return f"USE{kind}{this}"

def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str: View Source

    3506    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3507        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3508        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    3509        binary_type = type(expression)
    3510
    3511        while stack:
    3512            node = stack.pop()
    3513
    3514            if type(node) is binary_type:
    3515                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
    3516                if op_func:
    3517                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
    3518
    3519                stack.append(node.right)
    3520                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
    3521                stack.append(node.left)
    3522            else:
    3523                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    3524
    3525        return "".join(sqls)

def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func ) -> str: View Source

    3527    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3528        args = []
    3529
    3530        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3531            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3532
    3533            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3534                for value in arg_value:
    3535                    args.append(value)
    3536            elif arg_value is not None:
    3537                args.append(arg_value)
    3538
    3539        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
    3540            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3541        else:
    3542            name = expression.sql_name()
    3543
    3544        return self.func(name, *args)

def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression , NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')', normalize: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    3546    def func(
    3547        self,
    3548        name: str,
    3549        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3550        prefix: str = "(",
    3551        suffix: str = ")",
    3552        normalize: bool = True,
    3553    ) -> str:
    3554        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
    3555        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"

def format_args( self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression , NoneType], sep: str = ', ') -> str: View Source

    3557    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
    3558        arg_sqls = tuple(
    3559            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
    3560        )
    3561        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
    3562            return self.indent(
    3563                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
    3564            )
    3565        return sep.join(arg_sqls)

def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool: View Source

    3567    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
    3568        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width

def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]: View Source

    3570    def format_time(
    3571        self,
    3572        expression: exp.Expression,
    3573        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
    3574        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
    3575    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3576        return format_time(
    3577            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3578            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3579            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3580        )

def expressions( self, expression: Optional[ sqlglot.expressions.Expression ] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression ]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    3582    def expressions(
    3583        self,
    3584        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3585        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3586        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3587        flat: bool = False,
    3588        indent: bool = True,
    3589        skip_first: bool = False,
    3590        skip_last: bool = False,
    3591        sep: str = ", ",
    3592        prefix: str = "",
    3593        dynamic: bool = False,
    3594        new_line: bool = False,
    3595    ) -> str:
    3596        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3597
    3598        if not expressions:
    3599            return ""
    3600
    3601        if flat:
    3602            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3603
    3604        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3605        result_sqls = []
    3606
    3607        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3608            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3609            if not sql:
    3610                continue
    3611
    3612            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3613
    3614            if self.pretty:
    3615                if self.leading_comma:
    3616                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3617                else:
    3618                    result_sqls.append(
    3619                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3620                    )
    3621            else:
    3622                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3623
    3624        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
    3625            if new_line:
    3626                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
    3627                result_sqls.append("")
    3628            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
    3629        else:
    3630            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
    3631
    3632        return (
    3633            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
    3634            if indent
    3635            else result_sql
    3636        )

def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    3638    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3639        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3640        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3641        if flat:
    3642            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3643        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"

def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property ) -> str: View Source

    3645    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3646        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3647        if not property_name:
    3648            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3649        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag ) -> str: View Source

    3651    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3652        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"

def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType ) -> str: View Source

    3654    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3655        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)

def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction ) -> str: View Source

    3657    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3658        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3659        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3660        expressions = (
    3661            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3662        )
    3663        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this

def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint ) -> str: View Source

    3665    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3666        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3667        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3668        return f"{this}({expressions})"

def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg ) -> str: View Source

    3670    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3671        return self.binary(expression, "=>")

def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When ) -> str: View Source

    3673    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3674        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3675        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3676        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3677        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3678
    3679        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3680        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3681            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
    3682            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
    3683            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
    3684            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
    3685        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3686            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3687                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3688            else:
    3689                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
    3690        else:
    3691            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3692        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"

def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge ) -> str: View Source

    3694    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3695        table = expression.this
    3696        table_alias = ""
    3697
    3698        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3699        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3700            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3701            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3702
    3703        this = self.sql(table)
    3704        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3705        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3706        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
    3707        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    3708        if returning:
    3709            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
    3710
    3711        sep = self.sep()
    3712
    3713        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3714            expression,
    3715            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
    3716        )

@unsupported_args('format')
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar ) -> str: View Source

    3718    @unsupported_args("format")
    3719    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3720        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))

def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber ) -> str: View Source

    3722    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
    3723        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
    3724            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
    3725            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3726
    3727        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
    3728        if not fmt:
    3729            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
    3730            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3731
    3732        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)

def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty ) -> str: View Source

    3734    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3735        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3736        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3737        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3738        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3739        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"

def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange ) -> str: View Source

    3741    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3742        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3743        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3744        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3745        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"

def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty ) -> str: View Source

    3747    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3748        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"

def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty ) -> str: View Source

    3750    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
    3751        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty ) -> str: View Source

    3754    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
    3755        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3756        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
    3757        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3758        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3759        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
    3760        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    3761        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"

def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster ) -> str: View Source

    3763    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3764        return ""

def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty ) -> str: View Source

    3766    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3767        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3768        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3769        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3770        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3771        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"

def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue ) -> str: View Source

    3773    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3774        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3775        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3776
    3777        if having:
    3778            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3779
    3780        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)

def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform ) -> str: View Source

    3782    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3783        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3784        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3785        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3786        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3787        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3788        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3789        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3790        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3791        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3792        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3793        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3794        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3795        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"

def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption ) -> str: View Source

    3797    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3798        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3799        if key_block_size:
    3800            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3801
    3802        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3803        if using:
    3804            return f"USING {using}"
    3805
    3806        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    3807        if parser:
    3808            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    3809
    3810        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3811        if comment:
    3812            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    3813
    3814        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3815        if visible is not None:
    3816            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3817
    3818        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    3819        if engine_attr:
    3820            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    3821
    3822        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    3823        if secondary_engine_attr:
    3824            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    3825
    3826        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    3827        return ""

def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    3829    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3830        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
    3831        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"

def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    3833    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3834        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3835        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    3836        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3837        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3838        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    3839        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    3840        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3841        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3842        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    3843        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3844        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"

def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2 ) -> str: View Source

    3846    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    3847        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    3848            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3849
    3850        case = exp.Case().when(
    3851            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    3852            expression.args["true"],
    3853            copy=False,
    3854        )
    3855        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    3856        if else_cond:
    3857            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    3858
    3859        return self.sql(case)

def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension ) -> str: View Source

    3861    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    3862        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3863        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3864        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    3865        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3866        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    3867        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"

def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix ) -> str: View Source

    3869    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    3870        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"

def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass ) -> str: View Source

    3872    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    3873        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict ) -> str: View Source

    3875    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    3876        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3877        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    3878        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3879        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    3880        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    3881        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)

def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn ) -> str: View Source

    3883    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    3884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3885        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3886        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"

def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh ) -> str: View Source

    3888    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    3889        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3890        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    3891        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"

def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray ) -> str: View Source

    3893    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    3894        arg = expression.this
    3895        if not arg.type:
    3896            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    3897
    3898            arg = annotate_types(arg)
    3899
    3900        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    3901            return self.sql(arg)
    3902
    3903        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    3904        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))

def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime ) -> str: View Source

    3906    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    3907        this = expression.this
    3908        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    3909            return self.sql(this)
    3910
    3911        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))

def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp ) -> str: View Source

    3913    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
    3914        this = expression.this
    3915        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
    3916            return self.sql(this)
    3917
    3918        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))

def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDatetime ) -> str: View Source

    3920    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
    3921        this = expression.this
    3922        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
    3923            return self.sql(this)
    3924
    3925        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))

def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate ) -> str: View Source

    3927    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    3928        this = expression.this
    3929        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    3930
    3931        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    3932            return self.sql(
    3933                exp.cast(
    3934                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    3935                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
    3936                )
    3937            )
    3938
    3939        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    3940            return self.sql(this)
    3941
    3942        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))

def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate ) -> str: View Source

    3944    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    3945        return self.sql(
    3946            exp.func(
    3947                "DATEDIFF",
    3948                expression.this,
    3949                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
    3950                "day",
    3951            )
    3952        )

def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay ) -> str: View Source

    3954    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    3955        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    3956            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3957
    3958        unit = expression.text("unit")
    3959        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    3960            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    3961
    3962        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)

def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd ) -> str: View Source

    3964    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
    3965        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
    3966
    3967        return self.func(
    3968            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
    3969        )

def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny ) -> str: View Source

    3971    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
    3972        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
    3973            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
    3974            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
    3975            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
    3976            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
    3977
    3978        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    3979
    3980        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
    3981        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
    3982            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
    3983
    3984        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct ) -> str: View Source

    3986    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
    3987        expression.set(
    3988            "expressions",
    3989            [
    3990                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
    3991                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
    3992                else e
    3993                for e in expression.expressions
    3994            ],
    3995        )
    3996
    3997        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange ) -> str: View Source

    3999    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
    4000        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4001        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4002
    4003        return f"{low} TO {high}"

def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable ) -> str: View Source

    4005    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
    4006        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
    4007        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
    4008
    4009        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    4010
    4011        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    4012        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    4013
    4014        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
    4015        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
    4016
    4017        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    4018        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    4019
    4020        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    4021        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    4022
    4023        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"

def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert ) -> str: View Source

    4027    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
    4028        to = expression.this
    4029        value = expression.expression
    4030        style = expression.args.get("style")
    4031        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
    4032        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
    4033
    4034        if not to or not value:
    4035            return ""
    4036
    4037        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
    4038        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    4039            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
    4040
    4041        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
    4042        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
    4043
    4044        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
    4045        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
    4046            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
    4047
    4048            style_value = style.name
    4049            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
    4050            if not converted_style:
    4051                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
    4052
    4053            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
    4054
    4055            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
    4056                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
    4057            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
    4058                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
    4059            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    4060                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
    4061            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
    4062                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
    4063
    4064        if not transformed:
    4065            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
    4066
    4067        return self.sql(transformed)

def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter ) -> str: View Source

    4127    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
    4128        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4129
    4130        if expression.expressions:
    4131            upper = option.upper()
    4132
    4133            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
    4134            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
    4135
    4136            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
    4137            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
    4138            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
    4139            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
    4140
    4141        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4142
    4143        if not value:
    4144            return option
    4145
    4146        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
    4147
    4148        return f"{option}{op}{value}"

def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials ) -> str: View Source

    4150    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
    4151        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
    4152        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
    4153            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
    4154            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4155            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
    4156        else:
    4157            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
    4158            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4159            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
    4160
    4161        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
    4162        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
    4163
    4164        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4165        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
    4166
    4167        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
    4168        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
    4169
    4170        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
    4171        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
    4172
    4173        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"

def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy ) -> str: View Source

    4175    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
    4176        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4177        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
    4178
    4179        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4180        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
    4181        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
    4182        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
    4183
    4184        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
    4185        params = self.expressions(
    4186            expression,
    4187            key="params",
    4188            sep=sep,
    4189            new_line=True,
    4190            skip_last=True,
    4191            skip_first=True,
    4192            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
    4193        )
    4194
    4195        if params:
    4196            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
    4197                params = f" WITH ({params})"
    4198            elif not self.pretty:
    4199                params = f" {params}"
    4200
    4201        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"

def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon ) -> str: View Source

    4203    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
    4204        return ""

def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty ) -> str: View Source

    4206    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
    4207        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    4208        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
    4209        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
    4210        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    4211        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    4212
    4213        if filter_col or retention_period:
    4214            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
    4215
    4216        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"

def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    4218    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
    4219        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
    4220    ) -> str:
    4221        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4222        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4223        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    4224        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"

def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill ) -> str: View Source

    4226    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
    4227        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4228        this = f"TABLE {this}"
    4229        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])

def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str: View Source

    4231    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
    4232        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)

def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ScopeResolution ) -> str: View Source

    4234    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
    4235        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4236        expr = expression.expression
    4237
    4238        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
    4239            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
    4240            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
    4241        else:
    4242            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4243
    4244        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)

def parsejson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ParseJSON ) -> str: View Source

    4246    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
    4247        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
    4248            return self.sql(expression.this)
    4249
    4250        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)

def rand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rand ) -> str: View Source

    4252    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
    4253        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
    4254        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
    4255
    4256        if lower and upper:
    4257            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
    4258        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)

def changes_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Changes ) -> str: View Source

    4260    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
    4261        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
    4262        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
    4263        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
    4264        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
    4265        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
    4266        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
    4267
    4268        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"

def pad_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pad ) -> str: View Source

    4270    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
    4271        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
    4272
    4273        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
    4274        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
    4275            fill_pattern = "' '"
    4276
    4277        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)

def summarize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Summarize ) -> str: View Source

    4279    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
    4280        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
    4281        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"

def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ExplodingGenerateSeries ) -> str: View Source

    4283    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
    4284        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
    4285
    4286        parent = expression.parent
    4287        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
    4288            parent = parent.parent
    4289
    4290        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
    4291            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
    4292
    4293        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
    4294            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
    4295
    4296        return self.sql(generate_series)

def arrayconcat_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayConcat, name: str = 'ARRAY_CONCAT') -> str: View Source

    4298    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
    4299        exprs = expression.expressions
    4300        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
    4301            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
    4302        else:
    4303            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
    4304
    4305        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)

def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConvertTimezone ) -> str: View Source

    4307    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
    4308        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
    4309            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4310
    4311        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
    4312        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
    4313        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
    4314
    4315        if source_tz and timestamp:
    4316            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
    4317                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
    4318            )
    4319
    4320        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
    4321
    4322        return self.sql(expr)

def json_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSON ) -> str: View Source

    4324    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
    4325        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4326        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4327
    4328        _with = expression.args.get("with")
    4329
    4330        if _with is None:
    4331            with_sql = ""
    4332        elif not _with:
    4333            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
    4334        else:
    4335            with_sql = " WITH"
    4336
    4337        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    4338
    4339        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"

def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONValue ) -> str: View Source

    4341    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
    4342        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
    4343            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
    4344
    4345        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4346        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    4347        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
    4348
    4349        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4350        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4351
    4352        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")

def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConditionalInsert ) -> str: View Source

    4354    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
    4355        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
    4356        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4357        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
    4358        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
    4359        return f"{condition}{insert}"

def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MultitableInserts ) -> str: View Source

    4361    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
    4362        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4363        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
    4364        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
    4365        return res

def oncondition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCondition ) -> str: View Source

    4367    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
    4368        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
    4369        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
    4370        empty = (
    4371            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
    4372            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
    4373            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
    4374        )
    4375
    4376        error = expression.args.get("error")
    4377        error = (
    4378            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
    4379            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
    4380            else self.sql(expression, "error")
    4381        )
    4382
    4383        if error and empty:
    4384            error = (
    4385                f"{empty} {error}"
    4386                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
    4387                else f"{error} {empty}"
    4388            )
    4389            empty = ""
    4390
    4391        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    4392
    4393        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"

def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONExists ) -> str: View Source

    4395    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
    4396        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4397        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4398
    4399        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
    4400        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
    4401
    4402        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4403        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4404
    4405        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
    4406
    4407        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)

def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAgg ) -> str: View Source

    4409    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
    4410        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4411
    4412        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
    4413        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
    4414        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
    4415            parent = expression.parent
    4416            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
    4417                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
    4418                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
    4419            else:
    4420                this = expression.this
    4421                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
    4422                if this.find(exp.Column):
    4423                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
    4424                    this_sql = (
    4425                        self.expressions(this)
    4426                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
    4427                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
    4428                    )
    4429
    4430                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
    4431
    4432        return array_agg

def apply_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Apply ) -> str: View Source

    4434    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
    4435        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4436        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4437
    4438        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"

def grant_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Grant ) -> str: View Source

    4440    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
    4441        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
    4442
    4443        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4444        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    4445
    4446        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
    4447        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
    4448
    4449        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
    4450
    4451        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
    4452
    4453        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"

def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GrantPrivilege ): View Source

    4455    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
    4456        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4457        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4458        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    4459
    4460        return f"{this}{columns}"

def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GrantPrincipal ): View Source

    4462    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
    4463        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4464
    4465        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4466        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    4467
    4468        return f"{kind}{this}"

def columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Columns ): View Source

    4470    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
    4471        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4472        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
    4473            func = f"*{func}"
    4474
    4475        return func

def overlay_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlay ): View Source

    4477    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
    4478        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4479        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4480        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    4481        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
    4482        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
    4483
    4484        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"

@unsupported_args('format')
def todouble_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToDouble ) -> str: View Source

    4486    @unsupported_args("format")
    4487    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
    4488        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))

def string_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.String ) -> str: View Source

    4490    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
    4491        this = expression.this
    4492        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
    4493
    4494        if zone:
    4495            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
    4496            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
    4497            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
    4498            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
    4499                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
    4500            )
    4501
    4502        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))

def median_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Median ): View Source

    4504    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
    4505        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
    4506            return self.sql(
    4507                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
    4508            )
    4509
    4510        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OverflowTruncateBehavior ) -> str: View Source

    4512    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
    4513        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4514        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
    4515        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
    4516        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"

def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixSeconds ) -> str: View Source

    4518    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
    4519        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
    4520            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4521
    4522        start_ts = exp.cast(
    4523            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
    4524        )
    4525
    4526        return self.sql(
    4527            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
    4528        )

def arraysize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArraySize ) -> str: View Source

    4530    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
    4531        dim = expression.expression
    4532
    4533        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
    4534        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
    4535            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
    4536                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
    4537            dim = None
    4538
    4539        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
    4540        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
    4541            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
    4542
    4543        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)

def attach_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Attach ) -> str: View Source

    4545    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
    4546        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4547        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    4548        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    4549        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    4550
    4551        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"

def detach_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Detach ) -> str: View Source

    4553    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
    4554        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4555        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    4556
    4557        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"

def attachoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AttachOption ) -> str: View Source

    4559    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
    4560        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4561        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4562        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
    4563        return f"{this}{value}"

def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FeaturesAtTime ) -> str: View Source

    4565    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
    4566        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4567        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
    4568            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"
    4569
    4570        return self.func(
    4571            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
    4572            this_sql,
    4573            expression.args.get("time"),
    4574            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
    4575            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
    4576        )

def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WatermarkColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    4578    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
    4579        return (
    4580            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    4581        )

def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EncodeProperty ) -> str: View Source

    4583    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
    4584        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
    4585        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    4586
    4587        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
    4588        if properties:
    4589            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"
    4590
    4591        return encode

def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IncludeProperty ) -> str: View Source

    4593    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
    4594        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4595        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"
    4596
    4597        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
    4598        if column_def:
    4599            include = f"{include} {column_def}"
    4600
    4601        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    4602        if alias:
    4603            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"
    4604
    4605        return include