# sqlglot.generator API documentation

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# sqlglot.generator

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       1from __future__ import annotations
       2
       3import logging
       4import re
       5import typing as t
       6from collections import defaultdict
       7from functools import reduce, wraps
       8
       9from sqlglot import exp
      10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
      11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
      12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
      13from sqlglot.time import format_time
      14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
      15
      16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
      17    from sqlglot._typing import E
      18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
      19
      20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
      21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
      22
      23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
      24
      25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
      26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
      27
      28
      29def unsupported_args(
      30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
      31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
      32    """
      33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
      34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
      35    """
      36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
      37    for arg in args:
      38        if isinstance(arg, str):
      39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
      40        else:
      41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
      42
      43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
      44        @wraps(func)
      45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
      46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
      47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
      48
      49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
      50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
      51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
      52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
      53                    )
      54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
      55
      56            return func(generator, expression)
      57
      58        return _func
      59
      60    return decorator
      61
      62
      63class _Generator(type):
      64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
      65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
      66
      67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
      68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
      69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
      70
      71        return klass
      72
      73
      74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
      75    """
      76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
      77
      78    Args:
      79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
      80            Default: False.
      81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
      82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
      83            True or 'always': Always quote.
      84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
      85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
      86            Default: False.
      87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
      88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
      89            Default: 2.
      90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
      91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
      92            Default: 2.
      93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
      94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
      95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
      96            False: Disables function name normalization.
      97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
      98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
      99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
     100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
     101            Default: 3
     102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
     103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
     104            Default: False
     105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
     106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
     107            line length.
     108            Default: 80
     109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
     110            Default: True
     111    """
     112
     113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
     114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
     115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
     116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
     117        exp.AnalyzeColumns: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
     118        exp.AnalyzeWith: lambda self, e: self.expressions(e, prefix="WITH ", sep=" "),
     119        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
     120        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
     121        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     122        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     123        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
     124        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
     125        exp.Ceil: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
     126        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     127        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
     128        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     129        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     130        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     131        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     132        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     133        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     134        exp.ConvertToCharset: lambda self, e: self.func(
     135            "CONVERT", e.this, e.args["dest"], e.args.get("source")
     136        ),
     137        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
     138        exp.CredentialsProperty: lambda self,
     139        e: f"CREDENTIALS=({self.expressions(e, 'expressions', sep=' ')})",
     140        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     141        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     142        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
     143        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
     144        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     145        exp.EnviromentProperty: lambda self, e: f"ENVIRONMENT ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     146        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     147        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
     148        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
     149        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     150        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     151        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
     152        exp.Floor: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
     153        exp.Get: lambda self, e: self.get_put_sql(e),
     154        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
     155        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
     156        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
     157        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     158        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     159        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     160        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     161        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
     162        exp.Int64: lambda self, e: self.sql(exp.cast(e.this, exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT)),
     163        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     164        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     165        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
     166        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
     167        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     168        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     169        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
     170        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
     171        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
     172        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
     173        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     174        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     175        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
     176        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     177        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     178        exp.PartitionedByBucket: lambda self, e: self.func("BUCKET", e.this, e.expression),
     179        exp.PartitionByTruncate: lambda self, e: self.func("TRUNCATE", e.this, e.expression),
     180        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     181        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     182        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     183        exp.Put: lambda self, e: self.get_put_sql(e),
     184        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
     185        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     186        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
     187            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
     188        ),
     189        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     190        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
     191        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     192        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
     193        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
     194        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
     195        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     196        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     197        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
     198        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
     199        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     200        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     201        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
     202        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
     203        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     204        exp.Tags: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     205        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
     206        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     207        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     208        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
     209        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
     210        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
     211        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     212        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
     213        exp.UsingTemplateProperty: lambda self, e: f"USING TEMPLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     214        exp.UsingData: lambda self, e: f"USING DATA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     215        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
     216        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
     217        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
     218        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     219        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
     220        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     221        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
     222        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     223        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
     224        exp.ForceProperty: lambda *_: "FORCE",
     225    }
     226
     227    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
     228    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
     229    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
     230    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
     231
     232    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
     233    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
     234    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
     235
     236    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
     237    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
     238
     239    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
     240    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
     241
     242    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
     243    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
     244
     245    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
     246    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
     247
     248    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
     249    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
     250
     251    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
     252    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
     253
     254    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
     255    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
     256
     257    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
     258    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
     259
     260    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
     261    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
     262
     263    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
     264    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
     265
     266    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
     267    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
     268
     269    # The string used for creating an index on a table
     270    INDEX_ON = "ON"
     271
     272    # Whether join hints should be generated
     273    JOIN_HINTS = True
     274
     275    # Whether table hints should be generated
     276    TABLE_HINTS = True
     277
     278    # Whether query hints should be generated
     279    QUERY_HINTS = True
     280
     281    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
     282    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
     283
     284    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
     285    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
     286
     287    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
     288    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
     289
     290    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
     291    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
     292
     293    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
     294    RETURNING_END = True
     295
     296    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
     297    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
     298
     299    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
     300    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
     301
     302    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
     303    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
     304
     305    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
     306    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
     307
     308    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
     309    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
     310    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
     311    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
     312
     313    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
     314    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
     315
     316    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
     317    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
     318
     319    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
     320    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
     321
     322    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
     323    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
     324
     325    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
     326    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
     327
     328    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
     329    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
     330
     331    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
     332    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
     333
     334    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
     335    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
     336
     337    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
     338    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
     339
     340    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
     341    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
     342
     343    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
     344    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
     345
     346    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
     347    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
     348
     349    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
     350    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
     351
     352    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
     353    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
     354
     355    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
     356    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
     357
     358    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
     359    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
     360
     361    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
     362    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
     363
     364    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
     365    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
     366
     367    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
     368    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
     369
     370    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
     371    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
     372
     373    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
     374    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
     375
     376    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
     377    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
     378
     379    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
     380    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
     381
     382    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
     383    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
     384
     385    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
     386    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
     387
     388    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
     389    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
     390    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
     391
     392    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
     393    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
     394
     395    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
     396    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
     397
     398    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
     399    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
     400
     401    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
     402    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
     403
     404    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
     405    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
     406
     407    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
     408    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
     409
     410    # Whether EXCLUDE in window specification is supported
     411    SUPPORTS_WINDOW_EXCLUDE = False
     412
     413    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
     414    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
     415    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
     416    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
     417
     418    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
     419    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
     420
     421    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
     422    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
     423
     424    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
     425    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
     426
     427    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
     428    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
     429
     430    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
     431    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
     432
     433    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
     434    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
     435
     436    # The HEX function name
     437    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
     438
     439    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
     440    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
     441
     442    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
     443    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
     444
     445    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
     446    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
     447
     448    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
     449    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
     450
     451    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
     452    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
     453
     454    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
     455    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
     456
     457    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
     458    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
     459
     460    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
     461    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
     462
     463    # Whether to wrap <props> in `AlterSet`, e.g., ALTER ... SET (<props>)
     464    ALTER_SET_WRAPPED = False
     465
     466    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
     467    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
     468
     469    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
     470    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
     471
     472    # The syntax to use when altering the type of a column
     473    ALTER_SET_TYPE = "SET DATA TYPE"
     474
     475    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
     476    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
     477    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
     478    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
     479    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
     480
     481    TYPE_MAPPING = {
     482        exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2: "TIMESTAMP",
     483        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
     484        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
     485        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
     486        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
     487        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
     488        exp.DataType.Type.BLOB: "VARBINARY",
     489        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
     490        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
     491        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
     492        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
     493        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
     494        exp.DataType.Type.SMALLDATETIME: "TIMESTAMP",
     495    }
     496
     497    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
     498        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
     499        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
     500        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
     501        "HOURS": "HOUR",
     502        "DAYS": "DAY",
     503        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
     504        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
     505        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
     506        "YEARS": "YEAR",
     507    }
     508
     509    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
     510        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
     511        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
     512        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
     513        "windows": lambda self, e: (
     514            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
     515            if e.args.get("windows")
     516            else ""
     517        ),
     518        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
     519    }
     520
     521    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
     522
     523    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
     524
     525    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
     526    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
     527
     528    EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: t.Set[str] = set()
     529
     530    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
     531        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     532        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     533        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     534        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     535        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     536        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     537        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     538        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     539        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     540        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     541        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     542        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     543        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     544        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     545        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     546        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     547        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     548        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     549        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     550        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     551        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     552        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     553        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     554        exp.EncodeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     555        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     556        exp.EnviromentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     557        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     558        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     559        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     560        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     561        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     562        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     563        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     564        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     565        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     566        exp.IncludeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     567        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     568        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     569        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     570        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     571        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     572        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     573        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     574        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
     575        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     576        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     577        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     578        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     579        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     580        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     581        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     582        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     583        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     584        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     585        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     586        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     587        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     588        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     589        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     590        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     591        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     592        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     593        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     594        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     595        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     596        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     597        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     598        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     599        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     600        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     601        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     602        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     603        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     604        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     605        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     606        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     607        exp.StorageHandlerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     608        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     609        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     610        exp.Tags: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     611        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     612        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     613        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     614        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     615        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     616        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     617        exp.UsingTemplateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     618        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     619        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     620        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     621        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     622        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     623        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     624        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     625        exp.ForceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     626    }
     627
     628    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
     629    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
     630
     631    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
     632    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     633        exp.Command,
     634        exp.Create,
     635        exp.Describe,
     636        exp.Delete,
     637        exp.Drop,
     638        exp.From,
     639        exp.Insert,
     640        exp.Join,
     641        exp.MultitableInserts,
     642        exp.Select,
     643        exp.SetOperation,
     644        exp.Update,
     645        exp.Where,
     646        exp.With,
     647    )
     648
     649    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
     650    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     651        exp.Binary,
     652        exp.SetOperation,
     653    )
     654
     655    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
     656    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     657        exp.Column,
     658        exp.Literal,
     659        exp.Neg,
     660        exp.Paren,
     661    )
     662
     663    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
     664        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
     665        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
     666        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
     667        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
     668    }
     669
     670    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
     671    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
     672
     673    RESPECT_IGNORE_NULLS_UNSUPPORTED_EXPRESSIONS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = ()
     674
     675    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
     676
     677    __slots__ = (
     678        "pretty",
     679        "identify",
     680        "normalize",
     681        "pad",
     682        "_indent",
     683        "normalize_functions",
     684        "unsupported_level",
     685        "max_unsupported",
     686        "leading_comma",
     687        "max_text_width",
     688        "comments",
     689        "dialect",
     690        "unsupported_messages",
     691        "_escaped_quote_end",
     692        "_escaped_identifier_end",
     693        "_next_name",
     694        "_identifier_start",
     695        "_identifier_end",
     696        "_quote_json_path_key_using_brackets",
     697    )
     698
     699    def __init__(
     700        self,
     701        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
     702        identify: str | bool = False,
     703        normalize: bool = False,
     704        pad: int = 2,
     705        indent: int = 2,
     706        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
     707        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
     708        max_unsupported: int = 3,
     709        leading_comma: bool = False,
     710        max_text_width: int = 80,
     711        comments: bool = True,
     712        dialect: DialectType = None,
     713    ):
     714        import sqlglot
     715        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
     716
     717        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
     718        self.identify = identify
     719        self.normalize = normalize
     720        self.pad = pad
     721        self._indent = indent
     722        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
     723        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
     724        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
     725        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
     726        self.comments = comments
     727        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
     728
     729        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
     730        self.normalize_functions = (
     731            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
     732        )
     733
     734        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
     735        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
     736            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
     737        )
     738        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
     739
     740        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
     741
     742        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
     743        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
     744
     745        self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets = True
     746
     747    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
     748        """
     749        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
     750
     751        Args:
     752            expression: The syntax tree.
     753            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
     754                it is safer to copy.
     755
     756        Returns:
     757            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
     758        """
     759        if copy:
     760            expression = expression.copy()
     761
     762        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
     763
     764        self.unsupported_messages = []
     765        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
     766
     767        if self.pretty:
     768            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
     769
     770        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
     771            return sql
     772
     773        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
     774            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
     775                logger.warning(msg)
     776        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
     777            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
     778
     779        return sql
     780
     781    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
     782        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
     783        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     784
     785        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
     786            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
     787
     788            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
     789
     790        return expression
     791
     792    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
     793        if (
     794            not expression.parent
     795            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
     796            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
     797        ):
     798            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
     799
     800            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     801        return expression
     802
     803    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
     804        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
     805            raise UnsupportedError(message)
     806        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
     807
     808    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     809        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
     810
     811    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     812        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
     813
     814    def sanitize_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
     815        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
     816        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
     817
     818        if not self.dialect.tokenizer_class.NESTED_COMMENTS:
     819            # Necessary workaround to avoid syntax errors due to nesting: /* ... */ ... */
     820            comment = comment.replace("*/", "* /")
     821
     822        return comment
     823
     824    def maybe_comment(
     825        self,
     826        sql: str,
     827        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
     828        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
     829        separated: bool = False,
     830    ) -> str:
     831        comments = (
     832            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
     833            if self.comments
     834            else None
     835        )
     836
     837        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
     838            return sql
     839
     840        comments_sql = " ".join(
     841            f"/*{self.sanitize_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
     842        )
     843
     844        if not comments_sql:
     845            return sql
     846
     847        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
     848
     849        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
     850            return (
     851                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
     852                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
     853                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
     854            )
     855
     856        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
     857
     858    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
     859        this_sql = (
     860            self.sql(expression)
     861            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
     862            else self.sql(expression, "this")
     863        )
     864        if not this_sql:
     865            return "()"
     866
     867        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
     868        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
     869
     870    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
     871        original = self.identify
     872        self.identify = False
     873        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
     874        self.identify = original
     875        return result
     876
     877    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
     878        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
     879            return name.upper()
     880        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
     881            return name.lower()
     882        return name
     883
     884    def indent(
     885        self,
     886        sql: str,
     887        level: int = 0,
     888        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
     889        skip_first: bool = False,
     890        skip_last: bool = False,
     891    ) -> str:
     892        if not self.pretty or not sql:
     893            return sql
     894
     895        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
     896        lines = sql.split("\n")
     897
     898        return "\n".join(
     899            (
     900                line
     901                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
     902                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
     903            )
     904            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
     905        )
     906
     907    def sql(
     908        self,
     909        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
     910        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
     911        comment: bool = True,
     912    ) -> str:
     913        if not expression:
     914            return ""
     915
     916        if isinstance(expression, str):
     917            return expression
     918
     919        if key:
     920            value = expression.args.get(key)
     921            if value:
     922                return self.sql(value)
     923            return ""
     924
     925        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
     926
     927        if callable(transform):
     928            sql = transform(self, expression)
     929        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
     930            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
     931
     932            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
     933                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
     934            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
     935                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
     936            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
     937                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
     938            else:
     939                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
     940        else:
     941            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
     942
     943        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
     944
     945    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
     946        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     947        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     948        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
     949
     950    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
     951        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
     952        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     953        options = expression.args.get("options")
     954        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
     955        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     956        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
     957        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
     958        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
     959
     960    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
     961        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
     962            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     963        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
     964        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     965
     966    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     967        return ".".join(
     968            self.sql(part)
     969            for part in (
     970                expression.args.get("catalog"),
     971                expression.args.get("db"),
     972                expression.args.get("table"),
     973                expression.args.get("this"),
     974            )
     975            if part
     976        )
     977
     978    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     979        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
     980
     981        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
     982            join_mark = ""
     983            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
     984
     985        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
     986
     987    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
     988        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     989        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     990        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     991        return f"{position}{this}"
     992
     993    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     994        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
     995        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     996        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
     997        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     998        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
     999        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
    1000        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
    1001        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
    1002
    1003        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
    1004            kind = ""
    1005
    1006        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
    1007
    1008    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1009        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1010        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
    1011        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
    1012
    1013    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1014        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1015        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
    1016            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
    1017        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
    1018            persisted = " PERSISTED"
    1019        else:
    1020            persisted = ""
    1021
    1022        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
    1023
    1024    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
    1025        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
    1026
    1027    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1028        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1029            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
    1030        else:
    1031            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1032
    1033        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
    1034
    1035    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
    1036        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
    1037    ) -> str:
    1038        this = ""
    1039        if expression.this is not None:
    1040            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
    1041            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
    1042
    1043        start = expression.args.get("start")
    1044        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1045        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
    1046        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1047        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
    1048        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1049        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
    1050        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1051        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
    1052        cycle_sql = ""
    1053
    1054        if cycle is not None:
    1055            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
    1056            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
    1057
    1058        sequence_opts = ""
    1059        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
    1060            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
    1061            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
    1062
    1063        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1064        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
    1065
    1066        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
    1067
    1068    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
    1069        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
    1070    ) -> str:
    1071        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
    1072        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
    1073        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
    1074
    1075    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
    1076        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
    1077    ) -> str:
    1078        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    1079
    1080    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1081        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
    1082
    1083    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1084        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    1085        if desc is not None:
    1086            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
    1087        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1088        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1089        return f"PRIMARY KEY{options}"
    1090
    1091    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1093        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1094        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
    1095        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    1096        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
    1097        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1098        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
    1099        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1100        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1101        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}{options}"
    1102
    1103    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
    1104        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1105
    1106    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
    1107        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1108        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1109        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
    1110        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
    1111
    1112        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
    1113
    1114        properties_sql = ""
    1115        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
    1116            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
    1117        ):
    1118            properties_sql = self.sql(
    1119                exp.Properties(
    1120                    expressions=[
    1121                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
    1122                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
    1123                    ]
    1124                )
    1125            )
    1126
    1127            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
    1128                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
    1129            elif not self.pretty:
    1130                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
    1131                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
    1132
    1133        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
    1134        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
    1135
    1136        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1137        if expression_sql:
    1138            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
    1139
    1140            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
    1141                postalias_props_sql = ""
    1142                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
    1143                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
    1144                        exp.Properties(
    1145                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
    1146                        ),
    1147                        wrapped=False,
    1148                    )
    1149                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
    1150                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
    1151
    1152        postindex_props_sql = ""
    1153        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
    1154            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
    1155                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
    1156                wrapped=False,
    1157                prefix=" ",
    1158            )
    1159
    1160        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
    1161        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
    1162        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
    1163
    1164        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
    1165        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
    1166        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1167
    1168        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
    1169        if clustered is None:
    1170            clustered_sql = ""
    1171        elif clustered:
    1172            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1173        else:
    1174            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1175
    1176        postcreate_props_sql = ""
    1177        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
    1178            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
    1179                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
    1180                sep=" ",
    1181                prefix=" ",
    1182                wrapped=False,
    1183            )
    1184
    1185        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
    1186
    1187        postexpression_props_sql = ""
    1188        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
    1189            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
    1190                exp.Properties(
    1191                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
    1192                ),
    1193                sep=" ",
    1194                prefix=" ",
    1195                wrapped=False,
    1196            )
    1197
    1198        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1199        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1200        no_schema_binding = (
    1201            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
    1202        )
    1203
    1204        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
    1205        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
    1206
    1207        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
    1208            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
    1209        else:
    1210            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"
    1211
    1212        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
    1213        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
    1214
    1215    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
    1216        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1217        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1218        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
    1219        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1220        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
    1221        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1222        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
    1223        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1224        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
    1225        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
    1226
    1227        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
    1228        if cache is None:
    1229            cache_str = ""
    1230        elif cache is True:
    1231            cache_str = " CACHE"
    1232        else:
    1233            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
    1234
    1235        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1236        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1237
    1238        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
    1239
    1240    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
    1241        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1242        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
    1243        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
    1244        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
    1245
    1246    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
    1247        style = expression.args.get("style")
    1248        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
    1249        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1250        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1251        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1252        format = f" {format}" if format else ""
    1253
    1254        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
    1255
    1256    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
    1257        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
    1258        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
    1259
    1260    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
    1261        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
    1262        if with_:
    1263            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    1264        return sql
    1265
    1266    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
    1267        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1268        recursive = (
    1269            "RECURSIVE "
    1270            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
    1271            else ""
    1272        )
    1273        search = self.sql(expression, "search")
    1274        search = f" {search}" if search else ""
    1275
    1276        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}{search}"
    1277
    1278    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
    1279        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    1280        if alias:
    1281            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
    1282
    1283        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1284
    1285        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
    1286        if materialized is False:
    1287            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
    1288        elif materialized:
    1289            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
    1290
    1291        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
    1292
    1293    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
    1294        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1295        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1296        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1297
    1298        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
    1299            columns = ""
    1300            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
    1301
    1302        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    1303            alias = self._next_name()
    1304
    1305        return f"{alias}{columns}"
    1306
    1307    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
    1308        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1309        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
    1310            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1311        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
    1312
    1313    def hexstring_sql(
    1314        self, expression: exp.HexString, binary_function_repr: t.Optional[str] = None
    1315    ) -> str:
    1316        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1317        is_integer_type = expression.args.get("is_integer")
    1318
    1319        if (is_integer_type and not self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE) or (
    1320            not self.dialect.HEX_START and not binary_function_repr
    1321        ):
    1322            # Integer representation will be returned if:
    1323            # - The read dialect treats the hex value as integer literal but not the write
    1324            # - The transpilation is not supported (write dialect hasn't set HEX_START or the param flag)
    1325            return f"{int(this, 16)}"
    1326
    1327        if not is_integer_type:
    1328            # Read dialect treats the hex value as BINARY/BLOB
    1329            if binary_function_repr:
    1330                # The write dialect supports the transpilation to its equivalent BINARY/BLOB
    1331                return self.func(binary_function_repr, exp.Literal.string(this))
    1332            if self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE:
    1333                # The write dialect does not support the transpilation, it'll treat the hex value as INTEGER
    1334                self.unsupported("Unsupported transpilation from BINARY/BLOB hex string")
    1335
    1336        return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
    1337
    1338    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1339        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1340        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1341            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1342        return this
    1343
    1344    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1345        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1346        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1347
    1348        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1349            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
    1350            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
    1351        else:
    1352            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
    1353            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
    1354
    1355        if escape:
    1356            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1357            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
    1358        else:
    1359            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1360            escape_sql = ""
    1361
    1362        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
    1363            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
    1364
    1365        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
    1366
    1367    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1368        string = expression.this
    1369        if "\\" in self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES:
    1370            string = string.replace("\\", "\\\\")
    1371
    1372        string = self.escape_str(string, escape_backslash=False)
    1373        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1374
    1375    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1376        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1377        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1378        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1379        return f"{this}{specifier}"
    1380
    1381    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1382        nested = ""
    1383        values = ""
    1384        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1385
    1386        type_value = expression.this
    1387        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1388            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1389        else:
    1390            type_sql = (
    1391                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1392                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1393                else type_value
    1394            )
    1395
    1396        if interior:
    1397            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1398                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1399                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1400                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1401                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1402                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1403            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1404                nested = f" {interior}"
    1405            else:
    1406                nested = f"({interior})"
    1407
    1408        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1409        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1410            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1411            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1412        ):
    1413            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1414
    1415        return type_sql
    1416
    1417    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1418        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1419        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1420        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1421        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
    1422
    1423    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1424        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1425        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1426        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1427        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1428        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1429        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
    1430        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1431        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1432        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1433        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1434        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1435        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1436            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1437        else:
    1438            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
    1439        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
    1440
    1441    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1442        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1443        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1444        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    1445        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1446        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1447        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1448        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1449        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1450        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    1451        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1452        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1453        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1454        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1455        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1456        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
    1457
    1458    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1459        op_type = type(expression)
    1460        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
    1461
    1462        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
    1463        if (
    1464            distinct is False
    1465            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
    1466            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
    1467        ):
    1468            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
    1469
    1470        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
    1471
    1472        if distinct is None:
    1473            distinct = default_distinct
    1474            if distinct is None:
    1475                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
    1476
    1477        if distinct is default_distinct:
    1478            distinct_or_all = ""
    1479        else:
    1480            distinct_or_all = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
    1481
    1482        side_kind = " ".join(filter(None, [expression.side, expression.kind]))
    1483        side_kind = f"{side_kind} " if side_kind else ""
    1484
    1485        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1486        on = self.expressions(expression, key="on", flat=True)
    1487        on = f" ON ({on})" if on else ""
    1488
    1489        return f"{side_kind}{op_name}{distinct_or_all}{by_name}{on}"
    1490
    1491    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1492        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
    1493            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    1494            order = expression.args.get("order")
    1495
    1496            if limit or order:
    1497                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
    1498                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
    1499                )
    1500
    1501                if limit:
    1502                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
    1503                if order:
    1504                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
    1505                return self.sql(select)
    1506
    1507        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    1508        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    1509
    1510        while stack:
    1511            node = stack.pop()
    1512
    1513            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
    1514                stack.append(node.expression)
    1515                stack.append(
    1516                    self.maybe_comment(
    1517                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
    1518                    )
    1519                )
    1520                stack.append(node.this)
    1521            else:
    1522                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    1523
    1524        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
    1525        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
    1526        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
    1527
    1528    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1529        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1530        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1531        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
    1532        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1533        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
    1534        limit_options = f"{limit_options}" if limit_options else " ROWS ONLY"
    1535        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count}{limit_options}"
    1536
    1537    def limitoptions_sql(self, expression: exp.LimitOptions) -> str:
    1538        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1539        rows = " ROWS" if expression.args.get("rows") else ""
    1540        with_ties = " WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else ""
    1541        if not with_ties and rows:
    1542            with_ties = " ONLY"
    1543        return f"{percent}{rows}{with_ties}"
    1544
    1545    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1546        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1547            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1548            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1549            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1550
    1551        agg = expression.this
    1552        agg_arg = agg.this
    1553        cond = expression.expression.this
    1554        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1555        return self.sql(agg)
    1556
    1557    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1558        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1559            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1560            return ""
    1561
    1562        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
    1563
    1564    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
    1565        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1566        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1567        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1568        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1569        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1570        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1571        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1572        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1573        if include:
    1574            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1575        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
    1576        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
    1577        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
    1578        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
    1579        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1580        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    1581
    1582        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
    1583
    1584    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1585        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1586        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1587        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1588        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1589        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1590        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1591        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1592
    1593        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1594
    1595        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
    1596        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
    1597
    1598    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1599        text = expression.name
    1600        lower = text.lower()
    1601        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1602        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1603        if (
    1604            expression.quoted
    1605            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1606            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1607            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1608        ):
    1609            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
    1610        return text
    1611
    1612    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
    1613        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1614        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1615            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1616
    1617        return text
    1618
    1619    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
    1620        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1621        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1622            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1623        return text
    1624
    1625    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1626        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1627        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1628        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1629        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1630        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
    1631
    1632    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1633        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1634        return f"{prefix}{string}"
    1635
    1636    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1637        partition_keyword = "SUBPARTITION" if expression.args.get("subpartition") else "PARTITION"
    1638        return f"{partition_keyword}({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1639
    1640    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1641        root_properties = []
    1642        with_properties = []
    1643
    1644        for p in expression.expressions:
    1645            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1646            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1647                with_properties.append(p)
    1648            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1649                root_properties.append(p)
    1650
    1651        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
    1652        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
    1653
    1654        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
    1655            with_props = " " + with_props
    1656
    1657        return root_props + with_props
    1658
    1659    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1660        if properties.expressions:
    1661            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1662        return ""
    1663
    1664    def properties(
    1665        self,
    1666        properties: exp.Properties,
    1667        prefix: str = "",
    1668        sep: str = ", ",
    1669        suffix: str = "",
    1670        wrapped: bool = True,
    1671    ) -> str:
    1672        if properties.expressions:
    1673            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1674            if expressions:
    1675                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1676                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1677        return ""
    1678
    1679    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1680        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
    1681
    1682    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1683        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1684        for p in properties.expressions:
    1685            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1686            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1687                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1688            else:
    1689                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1690
    1691        return properties_locs
    1692
    1693    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1694        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1695            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1696        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
    1697
    1698    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1699        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1700        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1701            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1702
    1703        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1704        if not property_name:
    1705            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1706
    1707        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1708
    1709    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1710        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1711            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1712            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1713
    1714            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1715            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1716                like = f"({like})"
    1717
    1718            return like
    1719
    1720        if expression.expressions:
    1721            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1722
    1723        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1724        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
    1725
    1726    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1727        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1728        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1729        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
    1730
    1731    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1732        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1733        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1734        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1735        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1736        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1737        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1738        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
    1739
    1740    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1741        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1742        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1743        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
    1744
    1745    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1746        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1747            property = "DEFAULT"
    1748        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1749            property = "ON"
    1750        else:
    1751            property = "OFF"
    1752        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
    1753
    1754    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1755        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1756            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1757        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1758            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1759
    1760        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1761        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
    1762
    1763    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1764        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1765        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1766        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1767        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1768            if default:
    1769                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1770            elif minimum:
    1771                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1772            else:
    1773                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1774            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1775        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1776        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1777        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
    1778
    1779    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1780        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1781        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1782        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1783        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1784        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1785
    1786        if autotemp is not None:
    1787            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1788        elif always:
    1789            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1790        elif default:
    1791            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1792        elif manual:
    1793            prop = "MANUAL"
    1794        elif never:
    1795            prop = "NEVER"
    1796        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
    1797
    1798    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1799        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1800        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1801        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1802        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1803        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1804        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
    1805        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
    1806
    1807    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1808        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1809            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1810        if expression.this:
    1811            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1812            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1813            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1814
    1815        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1816        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1817        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
    1818
    1819    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1821
    1822        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1823        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1824            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1825        else:
    1826            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1827
    1828        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
    1829
    1830    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1831        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1832        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1833        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1834        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1835        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1836        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1837        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
    1838
    1839    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1840        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1841        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1842        statistics_sql = ""
    1843        if statistics is not None:
    1844            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1845        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
    1846
    1847    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1849        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
    1850        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
    1851        data_consistency = (
    1852            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
    1853        )
    1854        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    1855        retention_period = (
    1856            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    1857        )
    1858
    1859        if this:
    1860            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
    1861        else:
    1862            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    1863
    1864        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
    1865
    1866        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
    1867
    1868    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1869        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    1870        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1871
    1872        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1873            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1874        else:
    1875            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1876
    1877        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
    1878        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
    1879        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1880        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1881        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1882        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
    1883        if is_function:
    1884            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
    1885        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1886
    1887        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1888        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1889        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1890        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1891        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1892        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1893        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1894        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1895
    1896        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1897            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
    1898        else:
    1899            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
    1900
    1901        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1902        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1903        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
    1904        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
    1905
    1906        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
    1907        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
    1908
    1909        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
    1910        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1911
    1912    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1913        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1914
    1915    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1916        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1917        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1918        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1919        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1920        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
    1921
    1922    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1923        return expression.name
    1924
    1925    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1926        return expression.name
    1927
    1928    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1929        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1930
    1931        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1932        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
    1933
    1934        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
    1935        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
    1936        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    1937
    1938        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1939        if expressions:
    1940            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1941            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1942
    1943        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1944        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}{where}"
    1945
    1946    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1947        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    1948
    1949    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1950        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
    1951        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1952        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
    1953        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1954        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
    1955        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1956        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
    1957        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1958        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
    1959        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1960        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    1961        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1962        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
    1963
    1964    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1965        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1966
    1967    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1968        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1969        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1970        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1971        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1972
    1973    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1974        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1975        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1976        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1977        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
    1978
    1979    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
    1980        return ".".join(
    1981            self.sql(part)
    1982            for part in (
    1983                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1984                expression.args.get("db"),
    1985                expression.args.get("this"),
    1986            )
    1987            if part is not None
    1988        )
    1989
    1990    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1991        table = self.table_parts(expression)
    1992        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    1993        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1994        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1995        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1996        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1997        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1998        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    1999
    2000        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    2001        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
    2002            sample_pre_alias = sample
    2003            sample_post_alias = ""
    2004        else:
    2005            sample_pre_alias = ""
    2006            sample_post_alias = sample
    2007
    2008        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    2009        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    2010        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    2011        joins = self.indent(
    2012            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    2013        )
    2014        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    2015
    2016        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    2017        if file_format:
    2018            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2019            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    2020            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    2021
    2022        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    2023        if ordinality:
    2024            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    2025            alias = ""
    2026
    2027        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    2028        if when:
    2029            table = f"{table} {when}"
    2030
    2031        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
    2032        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
    2033
    2034        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
    2035        if rows_from:
    2036            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
    2037
    2038        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
    2039
    2040    def tablefromrows_sql(self, expression: exp.TableFromRows) -> str:
    2041        table = self.func("TABLE", expression.this)
    2042        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2043        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2044        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    2045        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    2046        joins = self.indent(
    2047            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    2048        )
    2049        return f"{table}{alias}{pivots}{sample}{joins}"
    2050
    2051    def tablesample_sql(
    2052        self,
    2053        expression: exp.TableSample,
    2054        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    2055    ) -> str:
    2056        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    2057        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    2058        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    2059        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    2060        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    2061        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    2062        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    2063        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    2064        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    2065
    2066        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    2067        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    2068            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    2069
    2070        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    2071        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    2072            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    2073
    2074        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    2075        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    2076            expr = f"({expr})"
    2077
    2078        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
    2079
    2080    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    2081        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2082        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
    2083
    2084        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    2085
    2086        if expression.this:
    2087            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2088            if not expressions:
    2089                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    2090
    2091            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    2092            into = self.sql(expression, "into")
    2093            into = f"{self.seg('INTO')} {into}" if into else ""
    2094            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    2095            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    2096            return f"{direction} {this}{on}{into}{using}{group}"
    2097
    2098        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2099        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2100
    2101        fields = self.expressions(
    2102            expression,
    2103            "fields",
    2104            sep=" ",
    2105            dynamic=True,
    2106            new_line=True,
    2107            skip_first=True,
    2108            skip_last=True,
    2109        )
    2110
    2111        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    2112        if include_nulls is not None:
    2113            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    2114        else:
    2115            nulls = ""
    2116
    2117        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
    2118        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
    2119        return f"{self.seg(direction)}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {fields}{default_on_null}{group}){alias}"
    2120
    2121    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    2122        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    2123        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2124        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2125        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
    2126
    2127    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    2128        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
    2129
    2130    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    2131        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2132        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2133        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2134        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    2135        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    2136        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2137        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    2138        if self.RETURNING_END:
    2139            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    2140        else:
    2141            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    2142        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    2143        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2144
    2145    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
    2146        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
    2147
    2148        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    2149        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    2150            args = self.expressions(expression)
    2151            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2152            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    2153            values = (
    2154                f"({values})"
    2155                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
    2156                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
    2157                else values
    2158            )
    2159            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    2160
    2161        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    2162        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    2163        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    2164
    2165        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
    2166
    2167        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    2168            row = tup.expressions
    2169
    2170            if i == 0 and column_names:
    2171                row = [
    2172                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    2173                ]
    2174
    2175            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    2176
    2177        if self.pretty:
    2178            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    2179            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    2180            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    2181            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    2182            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
    2183
    2184        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    2185        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    2186        return f"({unions}){alias}"
    2187
    2188    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    2189        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    2190
    2191    @unsupported_args("expressions")
    2192    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    2193        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    2194        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    2195        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2196
    2197    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    2198        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2199
    2200    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
    2201        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2202        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
    2203
    2204    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
    2205        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2206        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
    2207
    2208    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
    2209        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2210        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
    2211
    2212    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    2213        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
    2214        if group_by_all is True:
    2215            modifier = " ALL"
    2216        elif group_by_all is False:
    2217            modifier = " DISTINCT"
    2218        else:
    2219            modifier = ""
    2220
    2221        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
    2222
    2223        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
    2224        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
    2225        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
    2226
    2227        groupings = csv(
    2228            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
    2229            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
    2230            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
    2231            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    2232            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    2233        )
    2234
    2235        if (
    2236            expression.expressions
    2237            and groupings
    2238            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
    2239        ):
    2240            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    2241
    2242        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
    2243
    2244    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    2245        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2246        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2247
    2248    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    2249        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    2250        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    2251        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
    2252        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    2253        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
    2254        return start + connect
    2255
    2256    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    2257        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2258
    2259    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    2260        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    2261            side = None
    2262        else:
    2263            side = expression.side
    2264
    2265        op_sql = " ".join(
    2266            op
    2267            for op in (
    2268                expression.method,
    2269                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    2270                side,
    2271                expression.kind,
    2272                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    2273            )
    2274            if op
    2275        )
    2276        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
    2277        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
    2278        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    2279        using = expression.args.get("using")
    2280
    2281        if not on_sql and using:
    2282            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    2283
    2284        this = expression.this
    2285        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    2286
    2287        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
    2288        if exprs:
    2289            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
    2290
    2291        if on_sql:
    2292            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    2293            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    2294            if using:
    2295                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    2296            else:
    2297                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    2298        elif not op_sql:
    2299            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    2300                return f" {this_sql}"
    2301
    2302            return f", {this_sql}"
    2303
    2304        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
    2305            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    2306
    2307        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    2308        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}{pivots}"
    2309
    2310    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    2311        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2312        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    2313        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2314
    2315    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2316        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    2317
    2318        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    2319        if cross_apply is True:
    2320            op = "INNER JOIN "
    2321        elif cross_apply is False:
    2322            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    2323        else:
    2324            op = ""
    2325
    2326        return f"{op}LATERAL"
    2327
    2328    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2329        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2330
    2331        if expression.args.get("view"):
    2332            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2333            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    2334            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    2335            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    2336            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    2337            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    2338
    2339        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2340        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2341
    2342        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    2343        if ordinality:
    2344            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    2345            alias = ""
    2346
    2347        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}{ordinality}"
    2348
    2349    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    2350        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2351
    2352        args = [
    2353            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    2354            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    2355            if e
    2356        ]
    2357
    2358        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    2359        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    2360        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2361        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
    2362        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2363
    2364        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{limit_options}{expressions}"
    2365
    2366    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    2367        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2368        value = expression.expression
    2369        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    2370        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2371        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2372        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
    2373
    2374    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    2375        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2376        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    2377        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2378        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2379        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2380        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2381        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    2382        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
    2383
    2384    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    2385        expressions = f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    2386        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    2387        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
    2388
    2389    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    2390        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2391
    2392    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    2393        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    2394            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    2395            return ""
    2396
    2397        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    2398        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2399        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2400        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    2401
    2402        if wait is not None:
    2403            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    2404                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    2405            else:
    2406                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    2407
    2408        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
    2409
    2410    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    2411        text = expression.this or ""
    2412        if expression.is_string:
    2413            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2414        return text
    2415
    2416    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
    2417        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
    2418            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
    2419            text = "".join(
    2420                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
    2421            )
    2422
    2423        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
    2424            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
    2425        )
    2426
    2427    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    2428        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    2429        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    2430        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    2431        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2432        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    2433        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    2434        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    2435        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    2436        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    2437        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    2438        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
    2439
    2440    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    2441        return "NULL"
    2442
    2443    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    2444        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
    2445
    2446    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    2447        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2448        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    2449        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    2450        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
    2451
    2452    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    2453        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2454        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    2455        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2456        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2457        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    2458        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    2459        interpolated_values = [
    2460            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
    2461            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2462            else self.sql(e, "this")
    2463            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    2464        ]
    2465        interpolate = (
    2466            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    2467        )
    2468        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
    2469
    2470    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    2471        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
    2472
    2473    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    2474        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
    2475
    2476    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    2477        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
    2478
    2479    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    2480        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    2481        asc = not desc
    2482
    2483        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    2484        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    2485        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    2486        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    2487        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    2488
    2489        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2490
    2491        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    2492        nulls_sort_change = ""
    2493        if nulls_first and (
    2494            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    2495        ):
    2496            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    2497        elif (
    2498            nulls_last
    2499            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    2500            and not nulls_are_last
    2501        ):
    2502            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    2503
    2504        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    2505        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    2506            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2507            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    2508                self.unsupported(
    2509                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    2510                )
    2511                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2512            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False and (
    2513                (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
    2514                or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
    2515            ):
    2516                # BigQuery does not allow these ordering/nulls combinations when used under
    2517                # an aggregation func or under a window containing one
    2518                ancestor = expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2519
    2520                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.Window):
    2521                    ancestor = ancestor.this
    2522                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.AggFunc):
    2523                    self.unsupported(
    2524                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
    2525                    )
    2526                    nulls_sort_change = ""
    2527            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    2528                if expression.this.is_int:
    2529                    self.unsupported(
    2530                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2531                    )
    2532                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
    2533                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2534                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2535                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2536
    2537        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2538        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2539
    2540        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
    2541
    2542    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
    2543        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
    2544        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
    2545
    2546        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2547
    2548        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
    2549
    2550    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2551        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2552        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2553        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2554        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2555        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2556        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2557        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2558        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2559        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2560        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2561        definition_sqls = [
    2562            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2563            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2564        ]
    2565        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2566        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2567        body = "".join(
    2568            (
    2569                partition,
    2570                order,
    2571                measures,
    2572                rows,
    2573                after,
    2574                pattern,
    2575                define,
    2576            )
    2577        )
    2578        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2579        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2580        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
    2581
    2582    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2583        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2584
    2585        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2586            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2587        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2588            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2589
    2590        return csv(
    2591            *sqls,
    2592            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2593            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2594            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2595            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
    2596            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2597            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2598            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2599            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2600            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
    2601            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2602            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
    2603            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2604            self.options_modifier(expression),
    2605            self.for_modifiers(expression),
    2606            sep="",
    2607        )
    2608
    2609    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
    2610        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2611        return f" {options}" if options else ""
    2612
    2613    def for_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
    2614        for_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="for")
    2615        return f"{self.sep()}FOR XML{self.seg(for_modifiers)}" if for_modifiers else ""
    2616
    2617    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
    2618        self.unsupported("Unsupported query option.")
    2619        return ""
    2620
    2621    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2622        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2623    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2624        return [
    2625            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2626            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2627        ]
    2628
    2629    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2630        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2631        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2632        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
    2633
    2634    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2635        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2636        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2637            into.pop()
    2638
    2639        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2640        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2641        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2642        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2643
    2644        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2645        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
    2646            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2647            limit.pop()
    2648        else:
    2649            top = ""
    2650
    2651        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2652
    2653        if kind:
    2654            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2655                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2656            else:
    2657                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2658                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2659                        sqls=[
    2660                            self.sql(
    2661                                exp.Struct(
    2662                                    expressions=[
    2663                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
    2664                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2665                                        else e
    2666                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2667                                    ]
    2668                                )
    2669                            )
    2670                        ]
    2671                    )
    2672                kind = ""
    2673
    2674        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
    2675        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
    2676
    2677        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2678        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2679        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2680        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2681        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2682            expression,
    2683            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
    2684            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2685            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2686        )
    2687
    2688        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
    2689        if expression.args.get("with"):
    2690            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
    2691            expression.pop_comments()
    2692
    2693        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2694
    2695        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2696            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2697                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2698            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2699                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2700            else:
    2701                table_kind = ""
    2702            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2703
    2704        return sql
    2705
    2706    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2707        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2708        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2709        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
    2710
    2711    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2712        if expression.expressions:
    2713            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2714        return ""
    2715
    2716    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2717        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2718        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2719        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2720        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2721        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
    2722        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
    2723        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
    2724
    2725    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2726        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2727        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
    2728
    2729    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2730        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2731        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2732        if kind:
    2733            kind = f"{kind}."
    2734        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
    2735
    2736    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2737        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
    2738
    2739    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2740        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2741        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2742        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    2743        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
    2744            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
    2745
    2746            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
    2747            expression.set("sample", None)
    2748
    2749        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    2750        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2751        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2752
    2753    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2754        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2755        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2756
    2757    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2758        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2759
    2760        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2761        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2762
    2763        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2764            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2765                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2766
    2767        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2768            columns = alias.columns
    2769            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2770        else:
    2771            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2772
    2773        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2774        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2775            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2776        else:
    2777            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2778                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2779            elif offset:
    2780                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2781            else:
    2782                suffix = alias
    2783
    2784        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
    2785
    2786    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
    2787        return ""
    2788
    2789    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2790        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2791        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2792
    2793    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2794        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2795        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2796        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2797        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2798        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2799        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2800        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2801
    2802        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2803
    2804        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2805        if first is None:
    2806            first = ""
    2807        else:
    2808            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2809
    2810        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2811            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2812
    2813        args = self.format_args(
    2814            *[arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg], sep=" "
    2815        )
    2816        return f"{this} ({args})"
    2817
    2818    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2819        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2820        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
    2821
    2822    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2823        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2824        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2825        end = (
    2826            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2827            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2828        )
    2829
    2830        window_spec = f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
    2831
    2832        exclude = self.sql(expression, "exclude")
    2833        if exclude:
    2834            if self.SUPPORTS_WINDOW_EXCLUDE:
    2835                window_spec += f" EXCLUDE {exclude}"
    2836            else:
    2837                self.unsupported("EXCLUDE clause is not supported in the WINDOW clause")
    2838
    2839        return window_spec
    2840
    2841    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2842        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2843        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2844        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
    2845
    2846    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2847        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2848        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2849        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2850        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
    2851
    2852    def bracket_offset_expressions(
    2853        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
    2854    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2855        return apply_index_offset(
    2856            expression.this,
    2857            expression.expressions,
    2858            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2859            dialect=self.dialect,
    2860        )
    2861
    2862    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2863        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
    2864        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2865        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
    2866
    2867    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2868        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
    2869
    2870    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2872        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
    2873            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
    2874                this = self.wrap(this)
    2875            return f"ANY{this}"
    2876        return f"ANY {this}"
    2877
    2878    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2879        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
    2880
    2881    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2882        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2883        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2884
    2885        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2886            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2887            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2888
    2889        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2890
    2891        if default:
    2892            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2893
    2894        statements.append("END")
    2895
    2896        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
    2897            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2898
    2899        return " ".join(statements)
    2900
    2901    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2903        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2904        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
    2905
    2906    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2907        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2908        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2909        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
    2910
    2911    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2912        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2913        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2914        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
    2915
    2916    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2917        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2918
    2919        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2920            func_name = "LTRIM"
    2921        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2922            func_name = "RTRIM"
    2923        else:
    2924            func_name = "TRIM"
    2925
    2926        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
    2927
    2928    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2929        args = expression.expressions
    2930        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2931            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2932
    2933        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2934            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
    2935
    2936        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2937            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2938
    2939        return args
    2940
    2941    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2942        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2943
    2944        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2945        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2946            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2947
    2948        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
    2949
    2950    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2951        return self.func(
    2952            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2953        )
    2954
    2955    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2956        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2957        return f"CHECK ({this})"
    2958
    2959    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2960        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2961        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    2962        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2963        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2964        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2965        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2966        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2967        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2968        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2969        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2970        return f"FOREIGN KEY{expressions}{reference}{delete}{update}{options}"
    2971
    2972    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2973        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2974        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2975        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2976        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
    2977
    2978    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2979        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
    2980
    2981    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2982        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2983        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2984        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
    2985
    2986    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2987        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    2988
    2989    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2990        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2991
    2992        if expression.args.get("escape"):
    2993            path = self.escape_str(path)
    2994
    2995        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
    2996            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2997
    2998        return path
    2999
    3000    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    3001        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    3002            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    3003            if not callable(transform):
    3004                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3005                return ""
    3006
    3007            return transform(self, expression)
    3008
    3009        if isinstance(expression, int):
    3010            return str(expression)
    3011
    3012        if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    3013            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    3014            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    3015        else:
    3016            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    3017            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    3018
    3019        return escaped
    3020
    3021    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    3022        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
    3023
    3024    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    3025        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    3026        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    3027
    3028        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    3029        if unique_keys is not None:
    3030            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    3031        else:
    3032            unique_keys = ""
    3033
    3034        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    3035        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    3036        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    3037        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    3038
    3039        return self.func(
    3040            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    3041            *expression.expressions,
    3042            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    3043        )
    3044
    3045    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    3046        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
    3047
    3048    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    3049        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    3050        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    3051        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    3052        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    3053        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    3054        return self.func(
    3055            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    3056        )
    3057
    3058    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    3059        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3060        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    3061        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    3062        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    3063        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    3064        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    3065        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    3066        return self.func(
    3067            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    3068            this,
    3069            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    3070        )
    3071
    3072    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    3073        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    3074        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    3075        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    3076
    3077        if nested_schema:
    3078            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    3079
    3080        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3081        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3082        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3083        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
    3084
    3085    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    3086        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
    3087
    3088    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    3089        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3090        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    3091        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    3092        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    3093        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    3094        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    3095        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    3096        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3097        return self.func(
    3098            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    3099        )
    3100
    3101    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    3102        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3103        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3104        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    3105        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    3106        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    3107        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
    3108
    3109    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    3110        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3111        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    3112        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    3113        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3114        with_ = (
    3115            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    3116            if expressions
    3117            else ""
    3118        )
    3119        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
    3120
    3121    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    3122        query = expression.args.get("query")
    3123        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    3124        field = expression.args.get("field")
    3125        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    3126
    3127        if query:
    3128            in_sql = self.sql(query)
    3129        elif unnest:
    3130            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    3131        elif field:
    3132            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    3133        else:
    3134            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
    3135
    3136        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
    3137
    3138    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    3139        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
    3140
    3141    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    3142        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    3143        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    3144            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    3145        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    3146
    3147        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    3148            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    3149            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    3150
    3151        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3152        if this:
    3153            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    3154            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    3155
    3156        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
    3157
    3158    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    3159        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3160
    3161    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    3162        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3163        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3164        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3165        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    3166        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3167        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
    3168
    3169    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    3170        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
    3171        parent = expression.parent
    3172        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
    3173        return self.func(
    3174            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
    3175        )
    3176
    3177    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    3178        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    3179        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    3180
    3181    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    3182        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    3183        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3184        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    3185        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
    3186
    3187    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    3188        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3189
    3190    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    3191        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    3192        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    3193        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
    3194
    3195    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    3196        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    3197
    3198        parent = expression.parent
    3199        pivot = parent and parent.parent
    3200
    3201        if isinstance(pivot, exp.Pivot) and pivot.unpivot:
    3202            identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    3203            literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
    3204
    3205            if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3206                alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    3207            elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3208                alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    3209
    3210        return self.alias_sql(expression)
    3211
    3212    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    3213        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    3214
    3215    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3216        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3217        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3218        return f"{this} AT {index}"
    3219
    3220    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3221        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3222        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3223        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
    3224
    3225    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    3226        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3227        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3228        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
    3229
    3230    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    3231        return self.binary(expression, "+")
    3232
    3233    def and_sql(
    3234        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3235    ) -> str:
    3236        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
    3237
    3238    def or_sql(
    3239        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3240    ) -> str:
    3241        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
    3242
    3243    def xor_sql(
    3244        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3245    ) -> str:
    3246        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
    3247
    3248    def connector_sql(
    3249        self,
    3250        expression: exp.Connector,
    3251        op: str,
    3252        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3253    ) -> str:
    3254        if stack is not None:
    3255            if expression.expressions:
    3256                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
    3257            else:
    3258                stack.append(expression.right)
    3259                if expression.comments and self.comments:
    3260                    for comment in expression.comments:
    3261                        if comment:
    3262                            op += f" /*{self.sanitize_comment(comment)}*/"
    3263                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
    3264            return op
    3265
    3266        stack = [expression]
    3267        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3268        ops = set()
    3269
    3270        while stack:
    3271            node = stack.pop()
    3272            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
    3273                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
    3274            else:
    3275                sql = self.sql(node)
    3276                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
    3277                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
    3278                else:
    3279                    sqls.append(sql)
    3280
    3281        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
    3282        return sep.join(sqls)
    3283
    3284    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    3285        return self.binary(expression, "&")
    3286
    3287    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    3288        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
    3289
    3290    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    3291        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3292
    3293    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    3294        return self.binary(expression, "|")
    3295
    3296    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    3297        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
    3298
    3299    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    3300        return self.binary(expression, "^")
    3301
    3302    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    3303        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    3304        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    3305        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3306        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    3307        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    3308        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
    3309        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    3310        default = f" DEFAULT {default} ON CONVERSION ERROR" if default else ""
    3311        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{default}{format_sql}{action})"
    3312
    3313    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    3314        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3315        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
    3316
    3317    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    3318        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    3319            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3320        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
    3321
    3322    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    3323        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
    3324
    3325    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    3326        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3327        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    3328        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    3329        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3330        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3331        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
    3332
    3333    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    3334        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3335        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    3336        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    3337        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    3338        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    3339        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    3340        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    3341        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    3342        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
    3343
    3344    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    3345        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    3346        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    3347        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    3348        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    3349
    3350        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    3351            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    3352
    3353        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
    3354
    3355    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    3356        return "BEGIN"
    3357
    3358    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    3359        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    3360        if chain is not None:
    3361            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    3362
    3363        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
    3364
    3365    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    3366        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    3367        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    3368        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
    3369
    3370    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    3371        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3372
    3373        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    3374        if dtype:
    3375            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    3376            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    3377            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3378            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    3379            alter_set_type = self.ALTER_SET_TYPE + " " if self.ALTER_SET_TYPE else ""
    3380            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {alter_set_type}{dtype}{collate}{using}"
    3381
    3382        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    3383        if default:
    3384            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    3385
    3386        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3387        if comment:
    3388            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    3389
    3390        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3391        if visible:
    3392            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET {visible}"
    3393
    3394        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
    3395        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
    3396
    3397        if not drop and not allow_null:
    3398            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    3399
    3400        if allow_null is not None:
    3401            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
    3402            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
    3403
    3404        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
    3405
    3406    def alterindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterIndex) -> str:
    3407        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3408
    3409        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3410        visible_sql = "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3411
    3412        return f"ALTER INDEX {this} {visible_sql}"
    3413
    3414    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
    3415        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3416        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
    3417            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
    3418        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
    3419
    3420    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
    3421        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
    3422        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3423        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3424        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3425        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
    3426
    3427    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
    3428        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    3429            # Remove db from tables
    3430            expression = expression.transform(
    3431                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    3432            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
    3433        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3434        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
    3435
    3436    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    3437        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3438        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3439        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3440        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
    3441
    3442    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
    3443        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3444        if self.ALTER_SET_WRAPPED:
    3445            exprs = f"({exprs})"
    3446
    3447        return f"SET {exprs}"
    3448
    3449    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
    3450        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    3451
    3452        if not self.dialect.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_REQUIRED_FOR_EACH_COLUMN and isinstance(
    3453            actions[0], exp.ColumnDef
    3454        ):
    3455            actions_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3456            actions_sql = f"ADD {actions_sql}"
    3457        else:
    3458            actions_list = []
    3459            for action in actions:
    3460                if isinstance(action, (exp.ColumnDef, exp.Schema)):
    3461                    action_sql = self.add_column_sql(action)
    3462                else:
    3463                    action_sql = self.sql(action)
    3464                    if isinstance(action, exp.Query):
    3465                        action_sql = f"AS {action_sql}"
    3466
    3467                actions_list.append(action_sql)
    3468
    3469            actions_sql = self.format_args(*actions_list)
    3470
    3471        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3472        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3473        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3474        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    3475        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    3476        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
    3477        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3478        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
    3479
    3480        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions_sql}{not_valid}{options}"
    3481
    3482    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
    3483        sql = self.sql(expression)
    3484        if isinstance(expression, exp.Schema):
    3485            column_text = " COLUMNS"
    3486        elif isinstance(expression, exp.ColumnDef) and self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    3487            column_text = " COLUMN"
    3488        else:
    3489            column_text = ""
    3490
    3491        return f"ADD{column_text} {sql}"
    3492
    3493    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    3494        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3495        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3496        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
    3497
    3498    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    3499        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3500
    3501    def addpartition_sql(self, expression: exp.AddPartition) -> str:
    3502        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3503        return f"ADD {exists}{self.sql(expression.this)}"
    3504
    3505    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    3506        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3507
    3508        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    3509            case = exp.case()
    3510            for arg in expression.expressions:
    3511                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    3512            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    3513
    3514        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3515
    3516        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    3517        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    3518        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
    3519
    3520    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    3521        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
    3522
    3523    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    3524        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
    3525
    3526    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
    3527        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3528        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3529        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
    3530        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
    3531
    3532    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    3533        return self.sql(
    3534            exp.Cast(
    3535                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    3536                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    3537            )
    3538        )
    3539
    3540    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    3541        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3542            return self.func(
    3543                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
    3544            )
    3545        return self.binary(expression, "||")
    3546
    3547    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    3548        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    3549
    3550        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3551            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    3552
    3553        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    3554            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
    3555                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3556
    3557        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    3558            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    3559                return self.sql(
    3560                    exp.cast(
    3561                        l / r,
    3562                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    3563                    )
    3564                )
    3565
    3566        return self.binary(expression, "/")
    3567
    3568    def safedivide_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDivide) -> str:
    3569        n = exp._wrap(expression.this, exp.Binary)
    3570        d = exp._wrap(expression.expression, exp.Binary)
    3571        return self.sql(exp.If(this=d.neq(0), true=n / d, false=exp.Null()))
    3572
    3573    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    3574        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
    3575
    3576    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    3577        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
    3578
    3579    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    3580        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3581
    3582    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    3583        return self.binary(expression, "=")
    3584
    3585    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    3586        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
    3587
    3588    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    3589        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
    3590
    3591    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    3592        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
    3593
    3594    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    3595        return self.binary(expression, ">")
    3596
    3597    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    3598        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
    3599
    3600    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    3601        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
    3602
    3603    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    3604        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
    3605
    3606    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    3607        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    3608            return self.sql(
    3609                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    3610            )
    3611        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
    3612
    3613    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    3614        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
    3615
    3616    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    3617        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
    3618
    3619    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    3620        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
    3621
    3622    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    3623        return self.binary(expression, "<")
    3624
    3625    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    3626        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
    3627
    3628    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    3629        return self.binary(expression, "%")
    3630
    3631    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    3632        return self.binary(expression, "*")
    3633
    3634    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    3635        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
    3636
    3637    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    3638        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
    3639
    3640    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    3641        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
    3642
    3643    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    3644        return self.binary(expression, ":")
    3645
    3646    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    3647        return self.binary(expression, "-")
    3648
    3649    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    3650        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
    3651
    3652    def jsoncast_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONCast) -> str:
    3653        return self.cast_sql(expression)
    3654
    3655    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
    3656        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
    3657            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
    3658            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    3659
    3660        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
    3661
    3662    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    3663        this = expression.this
    3664        expr = expression.expression
    3665
    3666        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
    3667            this, expr = expr, this
    3668        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
    3669            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
    3670                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
    3671
    3672            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
    3673
    3674        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
    3675
    3676    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3677        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3678        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3679        this = self.sql(expression, "this") or self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3680        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3681        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
    3682
    3683    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3684        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3685        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    3686        binary_type = type(expression)
    3687
    3688        while stack:
    3689            node = stack.pop()
    3690
    3691            if type(node) is binary_type:
    3692                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
    3693                if op_func:
    3694                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
    3695
    3696                stack.append(node.right)
    3697                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
    3698                stack.append(node.left)
    3699            else:
    3700                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    3701
    3702        return "".join(sqls)
    3703
    3704    def ceil_floor(self, expression: exp.Ceil | exp.Floor) -> str:
    3705        to_clause = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3706        if to_clause:
    3707            return f"{expression.sql_name()}({self.sql(expression, 'this')} TO {to_clause})"
    3708
    3709        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3710
    3711    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3712        args = []
    3713
    3714        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3715            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3716
    3717            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3718                for value in arg_value:
    3719                    args.append(value)
    3720            elif arg_value is not None:
    3721                args.append(arg_value)
    3722
    3723        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
    3724            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3725        else:
    3726            name = expression.sql_name()
    3727
    3728        return self.func(name, *args)
    3729
    3730    def func(
    3731        self,
    3732        name: str,
    3733        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3734        prefix: str = "(",
    3735        suffix: str = ")",
    3736        normalize: bool = True,
    3737    ) -> str:
    3738        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
    3739        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
    3740
    3741    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
    3742        arg_sqls = tuple(
    3743            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
    3744        )
    3745        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
    3746            return self.indent(
    3747                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
    3748            )
    3749        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
    3750
    3751    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
    3752        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
    3753
    3754    def format_time(
    3755        self,
    3756        expression: exp.Expression,
    3757        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
    3758        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
    3759    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3760        return format_time(
    3761            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3762            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3763            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3764        )
    3765
    3766    def expressions(
    3767        self,
    3768        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3769        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3770        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3771        flat: bool = False,
    3772        indent: bool = True,
    3773        skip_first: bool = False,
    3774        skip_last: bool = False,
    3775        sep: str = ", ",
    3776        prefix: str = "",
    3777        dynamic: bool = False,
    3778        new_line: bool = False,
    3779    ) -> str:
    3780        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3781
    3782        if not expressions:
    3783            return ""
    3784
    3785        if flat:
    3786            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3787
    3788        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3789        result_sqls = []
    3790
    3791        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3792            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3793            if not sql:
    3794                continue
    3795
    3796            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3797
    3798            if self.pretty:
    3799                if self.leading_comma:
    3800                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3801                else:
    3802                    result_sqls.append(
    3803                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3804                    )
    3805            else:
    3806                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3807
    3808        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
    3809            if new_line:
    3810                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
    3811                result_sqls.append("")
    3812            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
    3813        else:
    3814            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
    3815
    3816        return (
    3817            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
    3818            if indent
    3819            else result_sql
    3820        )
    3821
    3822    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3823        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3824        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3825        if flat:
    3826            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3827        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
    3828
    3829    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3830        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3831        if not property_name:
    3832            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3833        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3834
    3835    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3836        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
    3837
    3838    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3839        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
    3840
    3841    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3842        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3843        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3844        expressions = (
    3845            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3846        )
    3847        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
    3848
    3849    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3850        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3851        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3852        return f"{this}({expressions})"
    3853
    3854    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3855        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
    3856
    3857    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3858        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3859        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3860        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3861        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3862
    3863        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3864        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3865            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
    3866            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
    3867            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
    3868            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
    3869        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3870            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3871                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3872            else:
    3873                then = f"UPDATE SET{self.sep()}{self.expressions(then_expression)}"
    3874        else:
    3875            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3876        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
    3877
    3878    def whens_sql(self, expression: exp.Whens) -> str:
    3879        return self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
    3880
    3881    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3882        table = expression.this
    3883        table_alias = ""
    3884
    3885        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3886        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3887            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3888            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3889
    3890        this = self.sql(table)
    3891        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3892        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3893        whens = self.sql(expression, "whens")
    3894
    3895        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    3896        if returning:
    3897            whens = f"{whens}{returning}"
    3898
    3899        sep = self.sep()
    3900
    3901        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3902            expression,
    3903            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{whens}",
    3904        )
    3905
    3906    @unsupported_args("format")
    3907    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3908        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
    3909
    3910    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
    3911        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
    3912            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
    3913            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3914
    3915        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
    3916        if not fmt:
    3917            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
    3918            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3919
    3920        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
    3921
    3922    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3924        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3925        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3926        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3927        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
    3928
    3929    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3930        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3931        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3932        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3933        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
    3934
    3935    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3936        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    3937
    3938    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
    3939        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    3940
    3941    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/table_bucket_part_index/CREATE_TABLE/
    3942    def uniquekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueKeyProperty) -> str:
    3943        return f"UNIQUE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    3944
    3945    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
    3946    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
    3947        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3948        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
    3949        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3950        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3951        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
    3952        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    3953        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
    3954
    3955    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3956        return ""
    3957
    3958    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3959        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3960        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3961        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3962        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3963        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
    3964
    3965    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3966        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3967        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3968
    3969        if having:
    3970            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3971
    3972        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
    3973
    3974    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3975        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3976        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3977        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3978        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3979        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3980        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3981        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3982        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3983        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3984        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3985        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3986        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3987        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
    3988
    3989    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3990        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3991        if key_block_size:
    3992            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3993
    3994        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3995        if using:
    3996            return f"USING {using}"
    3997
    3998        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    3999        if parser:
    4000            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    4001
    4002        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    4003        if comment:
    4004            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    4005
    4006        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    4007        if visible is not None:
    4008            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    4009
    4010        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    4011        if engine_attr:
    4012            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    4013
    4014        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    4015        if secondary_engine_attr:
    4016            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    4017
    4018        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    4019        return ""
    4020
    4021    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
    4022        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
    4023        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
    4024
    4025    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    4026        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4027        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    4028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4029        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4030        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    4031        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    4032        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4033        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    4034        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    4035        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    4036        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
    4037
    4038    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    4039        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    4040            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4041
    4042        case = exp.Case().when(
    4043            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    4044            expression.args["true"],
    4045            copy=False,
    4046        )
    4047        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    4048        if else_cond:
    4049            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    4050
    4051        return self.sql(case)
    4052
    4053    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    4054        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4055        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4056        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    4057        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    4058        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    4059        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
    4060
    4061    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    4062        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    4063
    4064    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    4065        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    4066
    4067    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    4068        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4069        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    4070        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4071        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    4072        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    4073        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
    4074
    4075    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    4076        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4077        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4078        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
    4079
    4080    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    4081        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4082        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    4083        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
    4084
    4085    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    4086        arg = expression.this
    4087        if not arg.type:
    4088            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    4089
    4090            arg = annotate_types(arg, dialect=self.dialect)
    4091
    4092        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    4093            return self.sql(arg)
    4094
    4095        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    4096        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
    4097
    4098    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    4099        this = expression.this
    4100        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    4101
    4102        if time_format:
    4103            return self.sql(
    4104                exp.cast(
    4105                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    4106                    exp.DataType.Type.TIME,
    4107                )
    4108            )
    4109
    4110        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    4111            return self.sql(this)
    4112
    4113        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
    4114
    4115    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
    4116        this = expression.this
    4117        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
    4118            return self.sql(this)
    4119
    4120        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
    4121
    4122    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
    4123        this = expression.this
    4124        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
    4125            return self.sql(this)
    4126
    4127        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
    4128
    4129    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    4130        this = expression.this
    4131        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    4132
    4133        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    4134            return self.sql(
    4135                exp.cast(
    4136                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    4137                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
    4138                )
    4139            )
    4140
    4141        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    4142            return self.sql(this)
    4143
    4144        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
    4145
    4146    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    4147        return self.sql(
    4148            exp.func(
    4149                "DATEDIFF",
    4150                expression.this,
    4151                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
    4152                "day",
    4153            )
    4154        )
    4155
    4156    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    4157        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    4158            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4159
    4160        unit = expression.text("unit")
    4161        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    4162            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    4163
    4164        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
    4165
    4166    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
    4167        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
    4168
    4169        return self.func(
    4170            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
    4171        )
    4172
    4173    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
    4174        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
    4175            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
    4176            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
    4177            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
    4178            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
    4179
    4180        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    4181
    4182        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
    4183        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
    4184            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
    4185
    4186        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4187
    4188    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
    4189        expression.set(
    4190            "expressions",
    4191            [
    4192                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
    4193                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
    4194                else e
    4195                for e in expression.expressions
    4196            ],
    4197        )
    4198
    4199        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4200
    4201    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
    4202        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4203        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4204
    4205        return f"{low} TO {high}"
    4206
    4207    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
    4208        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
    4209        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
    4210
    4211        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    4212
    4213        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    4214        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    4215
    4216        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
    4217        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
    4218
    4219        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    4220        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    4221
    4222        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    4223        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    4224
    4225        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
    4226
    4227    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
    4228    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
    4229    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
    4230        to = expression.this
    4231        value = expression.expression
    4232        style = expression.args.get("style")
    4233        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
    4234        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
    4235
    4236        if not to or not value:
    4237            return ""
    4238
    4239        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
    4240        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    4241            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
    4242
    4243        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
    4244        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
    4245
    4246        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
    4247        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
    4248            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
    4249
    4250            style_value = style.name
    4251            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
    4252            if not converted_style:
    4253                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
    4254
    4255            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
    4256
    4257            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
    4258                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
    4259            elif to.this in (exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2):
    4260                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
    4261            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    4262                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
    4263            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
    4264                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
    4265
    4266        if not transformed:
    4267            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
    4268
    4269        return self.sql(transformed)
    4270
    4271    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
    4272        this = expression.this
    4273        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
    4274            this = self.json_path_part(this)
    4275            return f".{this}" if this else ""
    4276
    4277        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
    4278            return f".{this}"
    4279
    4280        this = self.json_path_part(this)
    4281        return (
    4282            f"[{this}]"
    4283            if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED
    4284            else f".{this}"
    4285        )
    4286
    4287    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
    4288        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
    4289        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
    4290
    4291    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
    4292        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
    4293            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
    4294
    4295            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
    4296
    4297        return expression
    4298
    4299    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
    4300        this = expression.this
    4301        if isinstance(this, self.RESPECT_IGNORE_NULLS_UNSUPPORTED_EXPRESSIONS):
    4302            self.unsupported(
    4303                f"RESPECT/IGNORE NULLS is not supported for {type(this).key} in {self.dialect.__class__.__name__}"
    4304            )
    4305            return self.sql(this)
    4306
    4307        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
    4308            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
    4309            mods = sorted(
    4310                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
    4311                key=lambda x: 0
    4312                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
    4313                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
    4314            )
    4315
    4316            if mods:
    4317                mod = mods[0]
    4318                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
    4319                this.meta["inline"] = True
    4320                mod.this.replace(this)
    4321                return self.sql(expression.this)
    4322
    4323            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
    4324
    4325            if agg_func:
    4326                agg_func_sql = self.sql(agg_func, comment=False)[:-1] + f" {text})"
    4327                return self.maybe_comment(agg_func_sql, comments=agg_func.comments)
    4328
    4329        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
    4330
    4331    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
    4332        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
    4333        if self.pretty:
    4334            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
    4335        return string
    4336
    4337    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
    4338        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4339
    4340        if expression.expressions:
    4341            upper = option.upper()
    4342
    4343            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
    4344            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
    4345
    4346            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
    4347            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
    4348            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
    4349            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
    4350
    4351        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4352
    4353        if not value:
    4354            return option
    4355
    4356        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
    4357
    4358        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
    4359
    4360    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
    4361        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
    4362        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
    4363            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
    4364            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4365            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
    4366        else:
    4367            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
    4368            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4369            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
    4370
    4371        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
    4372        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
    4373
    4374        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4375        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
    4376
    4377        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
    4378        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
    4379
    4380        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
    4381        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
    4382
    4383        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
    4384
    4385    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
    4386        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4387        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
    4388
    4389        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4390        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
    4391        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
    4392        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
    4393
    4394        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
    4395        params = self.expressions(
    4396            expression,
    4397            key="params",
    4398            sep=sep,
    4399            new_line=True,
    4400            skip_last=True,
    4401            skip_first=True,
    4402            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
    4403        )
    4404
    4405        if params:
    4406            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
    4407                params = f" WITH ({params})"
    4408            elif not self.pretty:
    4409                params = f" {params}"
    4410
    4411        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
    4412
    4413    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
    4414        return ""
    4415
    4416    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
    4417        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    4418        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
    4419        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
    4420        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    4421        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    4422
    4423        if filter_col or retention_period:
    4424            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
    4425
    4426        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
    4427
    4428    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
    4429        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
    4430    ) -> str:
    4431        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4432        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4433        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    4434        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
    4435
    4436    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
    4437        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4438        this = f"TABLE {this}"
    4439        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
    4440
    4441    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
    4442        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
    4443
    4444    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
    4445        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4446        expr = expression.expression
    4447
    4448        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
    4449            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
    4450            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
    4451        else:
    4452            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4453
    4454        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
    4455
    4456    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
    4457        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
    4458            return self.sql(expression.this)
    4459
    4460        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
    4461
    4462    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
    4463        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
    4464        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
    4465
    4466        if lower and upper:
    4467            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
    4468        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
    4469
    4470    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
    4471        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
    4472        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
    4473        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
    4474        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
    4475        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
    4476        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
    4477
    4478        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
    4479
    4480    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
    4481        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
    4482
    4483        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
    4484        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
    4485            fill_pattern = "' '"
    4486
    4487        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
    4488
    4489    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
    4490        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
    4491        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
    4492
    4493    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
    4494        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
    4495
    4496        parent = expression.parent
    4497        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
    4498            parent = parent.parent
    4499
    4500        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
    4501            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
    4502
    4503        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
    4504            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
    4505
    4506        return self.sql(generate_series)
    4507
    4508    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
    4509        exprs = expression.expressions
    4510        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
    4511            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
    4512        else:
    4513            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
    4514
    4515        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
    4516
    4517    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
    4518        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
    4519            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4520
    4521        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
    4522        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
    4523        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
    4524
    4525        if source_tz and timestamp:
    4526            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
    4527                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
    4528            )
    4529
    4530        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
    4531
    4532        return self.sql(expr)
    4533
    4534    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
    4535        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4536        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4537
    4538        _with = expression.args.get("with")
    4539
    4540        if _with is None:
    4541            with_sql = ""
    4542        elif not _with:
    4543            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
    4544        else:
    4545            with_sql = " WITH"
    4546
    4547        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    4548
    4549        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
    4550
    4551    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
    4552        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
    4553            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
    4554
    4555        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4556        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    4557        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
    4558
    4559        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4560        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4561
    4562        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
    4563
    4564    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
    4565        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
    4566        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4567        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
    4568        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
    4569        return f"{condition}{insert}"
    4570
    4571    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
    4572        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4573        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
    4574        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
    4575        return res
    4576
    4577    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
    4578        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
    4579        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
    4580        empty = (
    4581            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
    4582            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
    4583            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
    4584        )
    4585
    4586        error = expression.args.get("error")
    4587        error = (
    4588            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
    4589            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
    4590            else self.sql(expression, "error")
    4591        )
    4592
    4593        if error and empty:
    4594            error = (
    4595                f"{empty} {error}"
    4596                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
    4597                else f"{error} {empty}"
    4598            )
    4599            empty = ""
    4600
    4601        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    4602
    4603        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
    4604
    4605    def jsonextractquote_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExtractQuote) -> str:
    4606        scalar = " ON SCALAR STRING" if expression.args.get("scalar") else ""
    4607        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'option')} QUOTES{scalar}"
    4608
    4609    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
    4610        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4611        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4612
    4613        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
    4614        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
    4615
    4616        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4617        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4618
    4619        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
    4620
    4621        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
    4622
    4623    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
    4624        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4625
    4626        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
    4627        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
    4628        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
    4629            parent = expression.parent
    4630            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
    4631                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
    4632                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
    4633            else:
    4634                this = expression.this
    4635                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
    4636                if this.find(exp.Column):
    4637                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
    4638                    this_sql = (
    4639                        self.expressions(this)
    4640                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
    4641                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
    4642                    )
    4643
    4644                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
    4645
    4646        return array_agg
    4647
    4648    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
    4649        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4650        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4651
    4652        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
    4653
    4654    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
    4655        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
    4656
    4657        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4658        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    4659
    4660        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
    4661        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
    4662
    4663        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
    4664
    4665        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
    4666
    4667        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
    4668
    4669    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
    4670        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4671        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4672        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    4673
    4674        return f"{this}{columns}"
    4675
    4676    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
    4677        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4678
    4679        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4680        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    4681
    4682        return f"{kind}{this}"
    4683
    4684    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
    4685        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4686        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
    4687            func = f"*{func}"
    4688
    4689        return func
    4690
    4691    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
    4692        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4693        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4694        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    4695        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
    4696        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
    4697
    4698        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
    4699
    4700    @unsupported_args("format")
    4701    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
    4702        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    4703
    4704    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
    4705        this = expression.this
    4706        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
    4707
    4708        if zone:
    4709            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
    4710            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
    4711            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
    4712            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
    4713                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
    4714            )
    4715
    4716        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
    4717
    4718    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
    4719        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
    4720            return self.sql(
    4721                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
    4722            )
    4723
    4724        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4725
    4726    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
    4727        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4728        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
    4729        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
    4730        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
    4731
    4732    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
    4733        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
    4734            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4735
    4736        start_ts = exp.cast(
    4737            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
    4738        )
    4739
    4740        return self.sql(
    4741            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
    4742        )
    4743
    4744    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
    4745        dim = expression.expression
    4746
    4747        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
    4748        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
    4749            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
    4750                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
    4751            dim = None
    4752
    4753        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
    4754        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
    4755            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
    4756
    4757        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)
    4758
    4759    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
    4760        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4761        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    4762        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    4763        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    4764
    4765        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"
    4766
    4767    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
    4768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4769        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    4770
    4771        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"
    4772
    4773    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
    4774        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4775        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4776        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
    4777        return f"{this}{value}"
    4778
    4779    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
    4780        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4781        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
    4782            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"
    4783
    4784        return self.func(
    4785            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
    4786            this_sql,
    4787            expression.args.get("time"),
    4788            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
    4789            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
    4790        )
    4791
    4792    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
    4793        return (
    4794            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    4795        )
    4796
    4797    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
    4798        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
    4799        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    4800
    4801        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
    4802        if properties:
    4803            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"
    4804
    4805        return encode
    4806
    4807    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
    4808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4809        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"
    4810
    4811        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
    4812        if column_def:
    4813            include = f"{include} {column_def}"
    4814
    4815        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    4816        if alias:
    4817            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"
    4818
    4819        return include
    4820
    4821    def xmlelement_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLElement) -> str:
    4822        name = f"NAME {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    4823        return self.func("XMLELEMENT", name, *expression.expressions)
    4824
    4825    def xmlkeyvalueoption_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLKeyValueOption) -> str:
    4826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4827        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4828        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else ""
    4829        return f"{this}{expr}"
    4830
    4831    def partitionbyrangeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangeProperty) -> str:
    4832        partitions = self.expressions(expression, "partition_expressions")
    4833        create = self.expressions(expression, "create_expressions")
    4834        return f"PARTITION BY RANGE {self.wrap(partitions)} {self.wrap(create)}"
    4835
    4836    def partitionbyrangepropertydynamic_sql(
    4837        self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangePropertyDynamic
    4838    ) -> str:
    4839        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    4840        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
    4841
    4842        every = expression.args["every"]
    4843        if isinstance(every, exp.Interval) and every.this.is_string:
    4844            every.this.replace(exp.Literal.number(every.name))
    4845
    4846        return f"START {self.wrap(start)} END {self.wrap(end)} EVERY {self.wrap(self.sql(every))}"
    4847
    4848    def unpivotcolumns_sql(self, expression: exp.UnpivotColumns) -> str:
    4849        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4850        values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4851
    4852        return f"NAME {name} VALUE {values}"
    4853
    4854    def analyzesample_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeSample) -> str:
    4855        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4856        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    4857        return f"SAMPLE {sample} {kind}"
    4858
    4859    def analyzestatistics_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeStatistics) -> str:
    4860        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4861        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    4862        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    4863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4864        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4865        columns = self.expressions(expression)
    4866        columns = f" {columns}" if columns else ""
    4867        return f"{kind}{option} STATISTICS{this}{columns}"
    4868
    4869    def analyzehistogram_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeHistogram) -> str:
    4870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4871        columns = self.expressions(expression)
    4872        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4873        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
    4874        update_options = self.sql(expression, "update_options")
    4875        update_options = f" {update_options} UPDATE" if update_options else ""
    4876        return f"{this} HISTOGRAM ON {columns}{inner_expression}{update_options}"
    4877
    4878    def analyzedelete_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeDelete) -> str:
    4879        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4880        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    4881        return f"DELETE{kind} STATISTICS"
    4882
    4883    def analyzelistchainedrows_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeListChainedRows) -> str:
    4884        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4885        return f"LIST CHAINED ROWS{inner_expression}"
    4886
    4887    def analyzevalidate_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeValidate) -> str:
    4888        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4889        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4890        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4891        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4892        return f"VALIDATE {kind}{this}{inner_expression}"
    4893
    4894    def analyze_sql(self, expression: exp.Analyze) -> str:
    4895        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    4896        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    4897        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4898        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    4899        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4900        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4901        mode = self.sql(expression, "mode")
    4902        mode = f" {mode}" if mode else ""
    4903        properties = self.sql(expression, "properties")
    4904        properties = f" {properties}" if properties else ""
    4905        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    4906        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    4907        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4908        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
    4909        return f"ANALYZE{options}{kind}{this}{partition}{mode}{inner_expression}{properties}"
    4910
    4911    def xmltable_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLTable) -> str:
    4912        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4913        namespaces = self.expressions(expression, key="namespaces")
    4914        namespaces = f"XMLNAMESPACES({namespaces}), " if namespaces else ""
    4915        passing = self.expressions(expression, key="passing")
    4916        passing = f"{self.sep()}PASSING{self.seg(passing)}" if passing else ""
    4917        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns")
    4918        columns = f"{self.sep()}COLUMNS{self.seg(columns)}" if columns else ""
    4919        by_ref = f"{self.sep()}RETURNING SEQUENCE BY REF" if expression.args.get("by_ref") else ""
    4920        return f"XMLTABLE({self.sep('')}{self.indent(namespaces + this + passing + by_ref + columns)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    4921
    4922    def xmlnamespace_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLNamespace) -> str:
    4923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4924        return this if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Alias) else f"DEFAULT {this}"
    4925
    4926    def export_sql(self, expression: exp.Export) -> str:
    4927        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4928        connection = self.sql(expression, "connection")
    4929        connection = f"WITH CONNECTION {connection} " if connection else ""
    4930        options = self.sql(expression, "options")
    4931        return f"EXPORT DATA {connection}{options} AS {this}"
    4932
    4933    def declare_sql(self, expression: exp.Declare) -> str:
    4934        return f"DECLARE {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    4935
    4936    def declareitem_sql(self, expression: exp.DeclareItem) -> str:
    4937        variable = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4938        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    4939        default = f" = {default}" if default else ""
    4940
    4941        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4942        if isinstance(expression.args.get("kind"), exp.Schema):
    4943            kind = f"TABLE {kind}"
    4944
    4945        return f"{variable} AS {kind}{default}"
    4946
    4947    def recursivewithsearch_sql(self, expression: exp.RecursiveWithSearch) -> str:
    4948        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4949        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4950        set = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4951        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    4952        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    4953
    4954        kind_sql = kind if kind == "CYCLE" else f"SEARCH {kind} FIRST BY"
    4955
    4956        return f"{kind_sql} {this} SET {set}{using}"
    4957
    4958    def parameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ParameterizedAgg) -> str:
    4959        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True)
    4960        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions) + f"({params})"
    4961
    4962    def anonymousaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.AnonymousAggFunc) -> str:
    4963        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
    4964
    4965    def combinedaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedAggFunc) -> str:
    4966        return self.anonymousaggfunc_sql(expression)
    4967
    4968    def combinedparameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedParameterizedAgg) -> str:
    4969        return self.parameterizedagg_sql(expression)
    4970
    4971    def show_sql(self, expression: exp.Show) -> str:
    4972        self.unsupported("Unsupported SHOW statement")
    4973        return ""
    4974
    4975    def get_put_sql(self, expression: exp.Put | exp.Get) -> str:
    4976        # Snowflake GET/PUT statements:
    4977        #   PUT <file> <internalStage> <properties>
    4978        #   GET <internalStage> <file> <properties>
    4979        props = expression.args.get("properties")
    4980        props_sql = self.properties(props, prefix=" ", sep=" ", wrapped=False) if props else ""
    4981        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4982        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    4983
    4984        if isinstance(expression, exp.Put):
    4985            return f"PUT {this} {target}{props_sql}"
    4986        else:
    4987            return f"GET {target} {this}{props_sql}"
    4988
    4989    def translatecharacters_sql(self, expression: exp.TranslateCharacters):
    4990        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4991        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4992        with_error = " WITH ERROR" if expression.args.get("with_error") else ""
    4993        return f"TRANSLATE({this} USING {expr}{with_error})"

logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
def unsupported_args( *args: Union[str, Tuple[str, str]]) -> Callable[[Callable[[~G, ~E], str]], Callable[[~G, ~E], str]]: View Source

    30def unsupported_args(
    31    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
    32) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
    33    """
    34    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
    35    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
    36    """
    37    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
    38    for arg in args:
    39        if isinstance(arg, str):
    40            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
    41        else:
    42            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
    43
    44    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
    45        @wraps(func)
    46        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
    47            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
    48            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
    49
    50            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
    51                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
    52                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
    53                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
    54                    )
    55                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
    56
    57            return func(generator, expression)
    58
    59        return _func
    60
    61    return decorator

Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported. It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).

class Generator: View Source

      75class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
      76    """
      77    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
      78
      79    Args:
      80        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
      81            Default: False.
      82        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
      83            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
      84            True or 'always': Always quote.
      85            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
      86        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
      87            Default: False.
      88        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
      89            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
      90            Default: 2.
      91        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
      92            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
      93            Default: 2.
      94        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
      95            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
      96            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
      97            False: Disables function name normalization.
      98        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
      99            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
     100        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
     101            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
     102            Default: 3
     103        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
     104            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
     105            Default: False
     106        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
     107            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
     108            line length.
     109            Default: 80
     110        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
     111            Default: True
     112    """
     113
     114    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
     115        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
     116        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
     117        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
     118        exp.AnalyzeColumns: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
     119        exp.AnalyzeWith: lambda self, e: self.expressions(e, prefix="WITH ", sep=" "),
     120        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
     121        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
     122        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     123        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     124        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
     125        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
     126        exp.Ceil: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
     127        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     128        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
     129        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     130        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     131        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     132        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     133        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     134        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     135        exp.ConvertToCharset: lambda self, e: self.func(
     136            "CONVERT", e.this, e.args["dest"], e.args.get("source")
     137        ),
     138        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
     139        exp.CredentialsProperty: lambda self,
     140        e: f"CREDENTIALS=({self.expressions(e, 'expressions', sep=' ')})",
     141        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     142        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     143        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
     144        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
     145        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     146        exp.EnviromentProperty: lambda self, e: f"ENVIRONMENT ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     147        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     148        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
     149        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
     150        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     151        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     152        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
     153        exp.Floor: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
     154        exp.Get: lambda self, e: self.get_put_sql(e),
     155        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
     156        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
     157        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
     158        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     159        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     160        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     161        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     162        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
     163        exp.Int64: lambda self, e: self.sql(exp.cast(e.this, exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT)),
     164        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     165        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     166        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
     167        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
     168        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     169        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     170        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
     171        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
     172        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
     173        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
     174        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     175        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     176        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
     177        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     178        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     179        exp.PartitionedByBucket: lambda self, e: self.func("BUCKET", e.this, e.expression),
     180        exp.PartitionByTruncate: lambda self, e: self.func("TRUNCATE", e.this, e.expression),
     181        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     182        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     183        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     184        exp.Put: lambda self, e: self.get_put_sql(e),
     185        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
     186        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     187        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
     188            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
     189        ),
     190        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     191        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
     192        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     193        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
     194        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
     195        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
     196        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     197        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     198        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
     199        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
     200        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     201        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     202        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
     203        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
     204        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     205        exp.Tags: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     206        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
     207        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     208        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     209        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
     210        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
     211        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
     212        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     213        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
     214        exp.UsingTemplateProperty: lambda self, e: f"USING TEMPLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     215        exp.UsingData: lambda self, e: f"USING DATA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     216        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
     217        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
     218        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
     219        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     220        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
     221        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     222        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
     223        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     224        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
     225        exp.ForceProperty: lambda *_: "FORCE",
     226    }
     227
     228    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
     229    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
     230    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
     231    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
     232
     233    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
     234    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
     235    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
     236
     237    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
     238    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
     239
     240    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
     241    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
     242
     243    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
     244    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
     245
     246    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
     247    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
     248
     249    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
     250    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
     251
     252    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
     253    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
     254
     255    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
     256    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
     257
     258    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
     259    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
     260
     261    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
     262    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
     263
     264    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
     265    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
     266
     267    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
     268    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
     269
     270    # The string used for creating an index on a table
     271    INDEX_ON = "ON"
     272
     273    # Whether join hints should be generated
     274    JOIN_HINTS = True
     275
     276    # Whether table hints should be generated
     277    TABLE_HINTS = True
     278
     279    # Whether query hints should be generated
     280    QUERY_HINTS = True
     281
     282    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
     283    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
     284
     285    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
     286    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
     287
     288    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
     289    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
     290
     291    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
     292    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
     293
     294    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
     295    RETURNING_END = True
     296
     297    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
     298    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
     299
     300    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
     301    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
     302
     303    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
     304    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
     305
     306    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
     307    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
     308
     309    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
     310    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
     311    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
     312    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
     313
     314    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
     315    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
     316
     317    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
     318    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
     319
     320    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
     321    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
     322
     323    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
     324    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
     325
     326    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
     327    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
     328
     329    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
     330    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
     331
     332    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
     333    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
     334
     335    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
     336    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
     337
     338    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
     339    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
     340
     341    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
     342    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
     343
     344    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
     345    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
     346
     347    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
     348    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
     349
     350    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
     351    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
     352
     353    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
     354    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
     355
     356    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
     357    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
     358
     359    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
     360    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
     361
     362    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
     363    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
     364
     365    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
     366    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
     367
     368    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
     369    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
     370
     371    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
     372    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
     373
     374    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
     375    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
     376
     377    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
     378    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
     379
     380    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
     381    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
     382
     383    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
     384    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
     385
     386    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
     387    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
     388
     389    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
     390    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
     391    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
     392
     393    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
     394    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
     395
     396    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
     397    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
     398
     399    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
     400    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
     401
     402    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
     403    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
     404
     405    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
     406    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
     407
     408    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
     409    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
     410
     411    # Whether EXCLUDE in window specification is supported
     412    SUPPORTS_WINDOW_EXCLUDE = False
     413
     414    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
     415    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
     416    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
     417    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
     418
     419    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
     420    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
     421
     422    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
     423    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
     424
     425    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
     426    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
     427
     428    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
     429    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
     430
     431    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
     432    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
     433
     434    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
     435    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
     436
     437    # The HEX function name
     438    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
     439
     440    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
     441    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
     442
     443    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
     444    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
     445
     446    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
     447    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
     448
     449    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
     450    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
     451
     452    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
     453    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
     454
     455    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
     456    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
     457
     458    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
     459    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
     460
     461    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
     462    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
     463
     464    # Whether to wrap <props> in `AlterSet`, e.g., ALTER ... SET (<props>)
     465    ALTER_SET_WRAPPED = False
     466
     467    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
     468    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
     469
     470    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
     471    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
     472
     473    # The syntax to use when altering the type of a column
     474    ALTER_SET_TYPE = "SET DATA TYPE"
     475
     476    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
     477    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
     478    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
     479    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
     480    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
     481
     482    TYPE_MAPPING = {
     483        exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2: "TIMESTAMP",
     484        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
     485        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
     486        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
     487        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
     488        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
     489        exp.DataType.Type.BLOB: "VARBINARY",
     490        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
     491        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
     492        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
     493        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
     494        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
     495        exp.DataType.Type.SMALLDATETIME: "TIMESTAMP",
     496    }
     497
     498    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
     499        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
     500        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
     501        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
     502        "HOURS": "HOUR",
     503        "DAYS": "DAY",
     504        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
     505        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
     506        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
     507        "YEARS": "YEAR",
     508    }
     509
     510    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
     511        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
     512        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
     513        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
     514        "windows": lambda self, e: (
     515            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
     516            if e.args.get("windows")
     517            else ""
     518        ),
     519        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
     520    }
     521
     522    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
     523
     524    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
     525
     526    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
     527    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
     528
     529    EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: t.Set[str] = set()
     530
     531    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
     532        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     533        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     534        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     535        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     536        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     537        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     538        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     539        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     540        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     541        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     542        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     543        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     544        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     545        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     546        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     547        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     548        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     549        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     550        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     551        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     552        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     553        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     554        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     555        exp.EncodeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     556        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     557        exp.EnviromentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     558        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     559        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     560        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     561        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     562        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     563        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     564        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     565        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     566        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     567        exp.IncludeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     568        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     569        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     570        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     571        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     572        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     573        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     574        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     575        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
     576        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     577        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     578        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     579        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     580        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     581        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     582        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     583        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     584        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     585        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     586        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     587        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     588        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     589        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     590        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     591        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     592        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     593        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     594        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     595        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     596        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     597        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     598        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     599        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     600        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     601        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     602        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     603        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     604        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     605        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     606        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     607        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     608        exp.StorageHandlerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     609        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     610        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     611        exp.Tags: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     612        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     613        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     614        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     615        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     616        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     617        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     618        exp.UsingTemplateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     619        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     620        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     621        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     622        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     623        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     624        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     625        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     626        exp.ForceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     627    }
     628
     629    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
     630    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
     631
     632    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
     633    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     634        exp.Command,
     635        exp.Create,
     636        exp.Describe,
     637        exp.Delete,
     638        exp.Drop,
     639        exp.From,
     640        exp.Insert,
     641        exp.Join,
     642        exp.MultitableInserts,
     643        exp.Select,
     644        exp.SetOperation,
     645        exp.Update,
     646        exp.Where,
     647        exp.With,
     648    )
     649
     650    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
     651    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     652        exp.Binary,
     653        exp.SetOperation,
     654    )
     655
     656    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
     657    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     658        exp.Column,
     659        exp.Literal,
     660        exp.Neg,
     661        exp.Paren,
     662    )
     663
     664    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
     665        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
     666        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
     667        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
     668        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
     669    }
     670
     671    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
     672    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
     673
     674    RESPECT_IGNORE_NULLS_UNSUPPORTED_EXPRESSIONS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = ()
     675
     676    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
     677
     678    __slots__ = (
     679        "pretty",
     680        "identify",
     681        "normalize",
     682        "pad",
     683        "_indent",
     684        "normalize_functions",
     685        "unsupported_level",
     686        "max_unsupported",
     687        "leading_comma",
     688        "max_text_width",
     689        "comments",
     690        "dialect",
     691        "unsupported_messages",
     692        "_escaped_quote_end",
     693        "_escaped_identifier_end",
     694        "_next_name",
     695        "_identifier_start",
     696        "_identifier_end",
     697        "_quote_json_path_key_using_brackets",
     698    )
     699
     700    def __init__(
     701        self,
     702        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
     703        identify: str | bool = False,
     704        normalize: bool = False,
     705        pad: int = 2,
     706        indent: int = 2,
     707        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
     708        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
     709        max_unsupported: int = 3,
     710        leading_comma: bool = False,
     711        max_text_width: int = 80,
     712        comments: bool = True,
     713        dialect: DialectType = None,
     714    ):
     715        import sqlglot
     716        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
     717
     718        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
     719        self.identify = identify
     720        self.normalize = normalize
     721        self.pad = pad
     722        self._indent = indent
     723        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
     724        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
     725        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
     726        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
     727        self.comments = comments
     728        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
     729
     730        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
     731        self.normalize_functions = (
     732            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
     733        )
     734
     735        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
     736        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
     737            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
     738        )
     739        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
     740
     741        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
     742
     743        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
     744        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
     745
     746        self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets = True
     747
     748    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
     749        """
     750        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
     751
     752        Args:
     753            expression: The syntax tree.
     754            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
     755                it is safer to copy.
     756
     757        Returns:
     758            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
     759        """
     760        if copy:
     761            expression = expression.copy()
     762
     763        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
     764
     765        self.unsupported_messages = []
     766        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
     767
     768        if self.pretty:
     769            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
     770
     771        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
     772            return sql
     773
     774        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
     775            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
     776                logger.warning(msg)
     777        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
     778            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
     779
     780        return sql
     781
     782    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
     783        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
     784        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     785
     786        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
     787            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
     788
     789            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
     790
     791        return expression
     792
     793    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
     794        if (
     795            not expression.parent
     796            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
     797            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
     798        ):
     799            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
     800
     801            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     802        return expression
     803
     804    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
     805        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
     806            raise UnsupportedError(message)
     807        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
     808
     809    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     810        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
     811
     812    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     813        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
     814
     815    def sanitize_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
     816        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
     817        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
     818
     819        if not self.dialect.tokenizer_class.NESTED_COMMENTS:
     820            # Necessary workaround to avoid syntax errors due to nesting: /* ... */ ... */
     821            comment = comment.replace("*/", "* /")
     822
     823        return comment
     824
     825    def maybe_comment(
     826        self,
     827        sql: str,
     828        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
     829        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
     830        separated: bool = False,
     831    ) -> str:
     832        comments = (
     833            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
     834            if self.comments
     835            else None
     836        )
     837
     838        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
     839            return sql
     840
     841        comments_sql = " ".join(
     842            f"/*{self.sanitize_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
     843        )
     844
     845        if not comments_sql:
     846            return sql
     847
     848        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
     849
     850        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
     851            return (
     852                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
     853                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
     854                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
     855            )
     856
     857        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
     858
     859    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
     860        this_sql = (
     861            self.sql(expression)
     862            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
     863            else self.sql(expression, "this")
     864        )
     865        if not this_sql:
     866            return "()"
     867
     868        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
     869        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
     870
     871    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
     872        original = self.identify
     873        self.identify = False
     874        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
     875        self.identify = original
     876        return result
     877
     878    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
     879        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
     880            return name.upper()
     881        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
     882            return name.lower()
     883        return name
     884
     885    def indent(
     886        self,
     887        sql: str,
     888        level: int = 0,
     889        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
     890        skip_first: bool = False,
     891        skip_last: bool = False,
     892    ) -> str:
     893        if not self.pretty or not sql:
     894            return sql
     895
     896        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
     897        lines = sql.split("\n")
     898
     899        return "\n".join(
     900            (
     901                line
     902                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
     903                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
     904            )
     905            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
     906        )
     907
     908    def sql(
     909        self,
     910        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
     911        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
     912        comment: bool = True,
     913    ) -> str:
     914        if not expression:
     915            return ""
     916
     917        if isinstance(expression, str):
     918            return expression
     919
     920        if key:
     921            value = expression.args.get(key)
     922            if value:
     923                return self.sql(value)
     924            return ""
     925
     926        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
     927
     928        if callable(transform):
     929            sql = transform(self, expression)
     930        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
     931            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
     932
     933            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
     934                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
     935            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
     936                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
     937            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
     938                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
     939            else:
     940                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
     941        else:
     942            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
     943
     944        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
     945
     946    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
     947        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     948        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     949        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
     950
     951    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
     952        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
     953        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     954        options = expression.args.get("options")
     955        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
     956        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     957        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
     958        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
     959        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
     960
     961    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
     962        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
     963            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     964        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
     965        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     966
     967    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     968        return ".".join(
     969            self.sql(part)
     970            for part in (
     971                expression.args.get("catalog"),
     972                expression.args.get("db"),
     973                expression.args.get("table"),
     974                expression.args.get("this"),
     975            )
     976            if part
     977        )
     978
     979    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     980        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
     981
     982        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
     983            join_mark = ""
     984            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
     985
     986        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
     987
     988    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
     989        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     990        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     991        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     992        return f"{position}{this}"
     993
     994    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     995        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
     996        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     997        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
     998        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     999        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
    1000        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
    1001        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
    1002        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
    1003
    1004        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
    1005            kind = ""
    1006
    1007        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
    1008
    1009    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1011        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
    1012        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
    1013
    1014    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1015        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1016        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
    1017            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
    1018        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
    1019            persisted = " PERSISTED"
    1020        else:
    1021            persisted = ""
    1022
    1023        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
    1024
    1025    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
    1026        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
    1027
    1028    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1029        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1030            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
    1031        else:
    1032            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1033
    1034        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
    1035
    1036    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
    1037        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
    1038    ) -> str:
    1039        this = ""
    1040        if expression.this is not None:
    1041            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
    1042            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
    1043
    1044        start = expression.args.get("start")
    1045        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1046        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
    1047        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1048        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
    1049        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1050        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
    1051        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1052        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
    1053        cycle_sql = ""
    1054
    1055        if cycle is not None:
    1056            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
    1057            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
    1058
    1059        sequence_opts = ""
    1060        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
    1061            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
    1062            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
    1063
    1064        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1065        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
    1066
    1067        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
    1068
    1069    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
    1070        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
    1071    ) -> str:
    1072        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
    1073        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
    1074        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
    1075
    1076    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
    1077        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
    1078    ) -> str:
    1079        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    1080
    1081    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1082        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
    1083
    1084    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1085        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    1086        if desc is not None:
    1087            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
    1088        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1089        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1090        return f"PRIMARY KEY{options}"
    1091
    1092    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1093        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1094        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1095        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
    1096        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    1097        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
    1098        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1099        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
    1100        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1101        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1102        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}{options}"
    1103
    1104    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
    1105        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1106
    1107    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
    1108        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1109        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1110        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
    1111        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
    1112
    1113        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
    1114
    1115        properties_sql = ""
    1116        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
    1117            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
    1118        ):
    1119            properties_sql = self.sql(
    1120                exp.Properties(
    1121                    expressions=[
    1122                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
    1123                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
    1124                    ]
    1125                )
    1126            )
    1127
    1128            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
    1129                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
    1130            elif not self.pretty:
    1131                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
    1132                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
    1133
    1134        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
    1135        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
    1136
    1137        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1138        if expression_sql:
    1139            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
    1140
    1141            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
    1142                postalias_props_sql = ""
    1143                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
    1144                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
    1145                        exp.Properties(
    1146                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
    1147                        ),
    1148                        wrapped=False,
    1149                    )
    1150                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
    1151                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
    1152
    1153        postindex_props_sql = ""
    1154        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
    1155            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
    1156                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
    1157                wrapped=False,
    1158                prefix=" ",
    1159            )
    1160
    1161        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
    1162        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
    1163        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
    1164
    1165        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
    1166        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
    1167        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1168
    1169        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
    1170        if clustered is None:
    1171            clustered_sql = ""
    1172        elif clustered:
    1173            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1174        else:
    1175            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1176
    1177        postcreate_props_sql = ""
    1178        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
    1179            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
    1180                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
    1181                sep=" ",
    1182                prefix=" ",
    1183                wrapped=False,
    1184            )
    1185
    1186        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
    1187
    1188        postexpression_props_sql = ""
    1189        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
    1190            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
    1191                exp.Properties(
    1192                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
    1193                ),
    1194                sep=" ",
    1195                prefix=" ",
    1196                wrapped=False,
    1197            )
    1198
    1199        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1200        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1201        no_schema_binding = (
    1202            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
    1203        )
    1204
    1205        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
    1206        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
    1207
    1208        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
    1209            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
    1210        else:
    1211            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"
    1212
    1213        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
    1214        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
    1215
    1216    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
    1217        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1218        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1219        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
    1220        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1221        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
    1222        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1223        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
    1224        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1225        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
    1226        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
    1227
    1228        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
    1229        if cache is None:
    1230            cache_str = ""
    1231        elif cache is True:
    1232            cache_str = " CACHE"
    1233        else:
    1234            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
    1235
    1236        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1237        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1238
    1239        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
    1240
    1241    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
    1242        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1243        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
    1244        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
    1245        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
    1246
    1247    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
    1248        style = expression.args.get("style")
    1249        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
    1250        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1251        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1252        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1253        format = f" {format}" if format else ""
    1254
    1255        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
    1256
    1257    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
    1258        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
    1259        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
    1260
    1261    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
    1262        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
    1263        if with_:
    1264            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    1265        return sql
    1266
    1267    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
    1268        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1269        recursive = (
    1270            "RECURSIVE "
    1271            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
    1272            else ""
    1273        )
    1274        search = self.sql(expression, "search")
    1275        search = f" {search}" if search else ""
    1276
    1277        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}{search}"
    1278
    1279    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
    1280        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    1281        if alias:
    1282            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
    1283
    1284        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1285
    1286        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
    1287        if materialized is False:
    1288            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
    1289        elif materialized:
    1290            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
    1291
    1292        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
    1293
    1294    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
    1295        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1296        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1297        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1298
    1299        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
    1300            columns = ""
    1301            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
    1302
    1303        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    1304            alias = self._next_name()
    1305
    1306        return f"{alias}{columns}"
    1307
    1308    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
    1309        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1310        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
    1311            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1312        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
    1313
    1314    def hexstring_sql(
    1315        self, expression: exp.HexString, binary_function_repr: t.Optional[str] = None
    1316    ) -> str:
    1317        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1318        is_integer_type = expression.args.get("is_integer")
    1319
    1320        if (is_integer_type and not self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE) or (
    1321            not self.dialect.HEX_START and not binary_function_repr
    1322        ):
    1323            # Integer representation will be returned if:
    1324            # - The read dialect treats the hex value as integer literal but not the write
    1325            # - The transpilation is not supported (write dialect hasn't set HEX_START or the param flag)
    1326            return f"{int(this, 16)}"
    1327
    1328        if not is_integer_type:
    1329            # Read dialect treats the hex value as BINARY/BLOB
    1330            if binary_function_repr:
    1331                # The write dialect supports the transpilation to its equivalent BINARY/BLOB
    1332                return self.func(binary_function_repr, exp.Literal.string(this))
    1333            if self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE:
    1334                # The write dialect does not support the transpilation, it'll treat the hex value as INTEGER
    1335                self.unsupported("Unsupported transpilation from BINARY/BLOB hex string")
    1336
    1337        return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
    1338
    1339    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1340        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1341        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1342            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1343        return this
    1344
    1345    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1346        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1347        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1348
    1349        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1350            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
    1351            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
    1352        else:
    1353            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
    1354            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
    1355
    1356        if escape:
    1357            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1358            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
    1359        else:
    1360            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1361            escape_sql = ""
    1362
    1363        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
    1364            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
    1365
    1366        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
    1367
    1368    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1369        string = expression.this
    1370        if "\\" in self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES:
    1371            string = string.replace("\\", "\\\\")
    1372
    1373        string = self.escape_str(string, escape_backslash=False)
    1374        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1375
    1376    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1377        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1378        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1379        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1380        return f"{this}{specifier}"
    1381
    1382    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1383        nested = ""
    1384        values = ""
    1385        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1386
    1387        type_value = expression.this
    1388        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1389            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1390        else:
    1391            type_sql = (
    1392                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1393                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1394                else type_value
    1395            )
    1396
    1397        if interior:
    1398            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1399                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1400                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1401                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1402                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1403                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1404            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1405                nested = f" {interior}"
    1406            else:
    1407                nested = f"({interior})"
    1408
    1409        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1410        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1411            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1412            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1413        ):
    1414            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1415
    1416        return type_sql
    1417
    1418    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1419        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1420        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1421        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1422        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
    1423
    1424    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1425        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1426        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1427        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1428        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1429        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1430        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
    1431        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1432        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1433        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1434        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1435        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1436        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1437            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1438        else:
    1439            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
    1440        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
    1441
    1442    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1444        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1445        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    1446        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1447        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1448        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1449        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1450        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1451        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    1452        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1453        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1454        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1455        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1456        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1457        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
    1458
    1459    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1460        op_type = type(expression)
    1461        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
    1462
    1463        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
    1464        if (
    1465            distinct is False
    1466            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
    1467            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
    1468        ):
    1469            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
    1470
    1471        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
    1472
    1473        if distinct is None:
    1474            distinct = default_distinct
    1475            if distinct is None:
    1476                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
    1477
    1478        if distinct is default_distinct:
    1479            distinct_or_all = ""
    1480        else:
    1481            distinct_or_all = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
    1482
    1483        side_kind = " ".join(filter(None, [expression.side, expression.kind]))
    1484        side_kind = f"{side_kind} " if side_kind else ""
    1485
    1486        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1487        on = self.expressions(expression, key="on", flat=True)
    1488        on = f" ON ({on})" if on else ""
    1489
    1490        return f"{side_kind}{op_name}{distinct_or_all}{by_name}{on}"
    1491
    1492    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1493        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
    1494            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    1495            order = expression.args.get("order")
    1496
    1497            if limit or order:
    1498                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
    1499                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
    1500                )
    1501
    1502                if limit:
    1503                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
    1504                if order:
    1505                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
    1506                return self.sql(select)
    1507
    1508        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    1509        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    1510
    1511        while stack:
    1512            node = stack.pop()
    1513
    1514            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
    1515                stack.append(node.expression)
    1516                stack.append(
    1517                    self.maybe_comment(
    1518                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
    1519                    )
    1520                )
    1521                stack.append(node.this)
    1522            else:
    1523                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    1524
    1525        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
    1526        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
    1527        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
    1528
    1529    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1530        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1531        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1532        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
    1533        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1534        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
    1535        limit_options = f"{limit_options}" if limit_options else " ROWS ONLY"
    1536        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count}{limit_options}"
    1537
    1538    def limitoptions_sql(self, expression: exp.LimitOptions) -> str:
    1539        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1540        rows = " ROWS" if expression.args.get("rows") else ""
    1541        with_ties = " WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else ""
    1542        if not with_ties and rows:
    1543            with_ties = " ONLY"
    1544        return f"{percent}{rows}{with_ties}"
    1545
    1546    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1547        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1548            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1549            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1550            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1551
    1552        agg = expression.this
    1553        agg_arg = agg.this
    1554        cond = expression.expression.this
    1555        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1556        return self.sql(agg)
    1557
    1558    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1559        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1560            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1561            return ""
    1562
    1563        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
    1564
    1565    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
    1566        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1567        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1568        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1569        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1570        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1571        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1572        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1573        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1574        if include:
    1575            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1576        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
    1577        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
    1578        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
    1579        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
    1580        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1581        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    1582
    1583        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
    1584
    1585    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1586        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1587        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1588        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1589        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1590        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1591        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1592        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1593
    1594        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1595
    1596        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
    1597        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
    1598
    1599    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1600        text = expression.name
    1601        lower = text.lower()
    1602        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1603        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1604        if (
    1605            expression.quoted
    1606            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1607            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1608            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1609        ):
    1610            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
    1611        return text
    1612
    1613    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
    1614        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1615        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1616            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1617
    1618        return text
    1619
    1620    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
    1621        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1622        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1623            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1624        return text
    1625
    1626    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1627        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1628        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1629        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1630        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1631        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
    1632
    1633    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1634        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1635        return f"{prefix}{string}"
    1636
    1637    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1638        partition_keyword = "SUBPARTITION" if expression.args.get("subpartition") else "PARTITION"
    1639        return f"{partition_keyword}({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1640
    1641    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1642        root_properties = []
    1643        with_properties = []
    1644
    1645        for p in expression.expressions:
    1646            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1647            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1648                with_properties.append(p)
    1649            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1650                root_properties.append(p)
    1651
    1652        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
    1653        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
    1654
    1655        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
    1656            with_props = " " + with_props
    1657
    1658        return root_props + with_props
    1659
    1660    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1661        if properties.expressions:
    1662            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1663        return ""
    1664
    1665    def properties(
    1666        self,
    1667        properties: exp.Properties,
    1668        prefix: str = "",
    1669        sep: str = ", ",
    1670        suffix: str = "",
    1671        wrapped: bool = True,
    1672    ) -> str:
    1673        if properties.expressions:
    1674            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1675            if expressions:
    1676                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1677                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1678        return ""
    1679
    1680    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1681        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
    1682
    1683    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1684        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1685        for p in properties.expressions:
    1686            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1687            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1688                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1689            else:
    1690                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1691
    1692        return properties_locs
    1693
    1694    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1695        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1696            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1697        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
    1698
    1699    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1700        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1701        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1702            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1703
    1704        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1705        if not property_name:
    1706            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1707
    1708        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1709
    1710    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1711        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1712            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1713            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1714
    1715            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1716            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1717                like = f"({like})"
    1718
    1719            return like
    1720
    1721        if expression.expressions:
    1722            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1723
    1724        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1725        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
    1726
    1727    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1728        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1729        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1730        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
    1731
    1732    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1733        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1734        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1735        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1736        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1737        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1738        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1739        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
    1740
    1741    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1742        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1743        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1744        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
    1745
    1746    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1747        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1748            property = "DEFAULT"
    1749        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1750            property = "ON"
    1751        else:
    1752            property = "OFF"
    1753        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
    1754
    1755    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1756        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1757            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1758        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1759            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1760
    1761        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1762        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
    1763
    1764    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1765        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1766        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1767        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1768        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1769            if default:
    1770                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1771            elif minimum:
    1772                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1773            else:
    1774                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1775            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1776        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1777        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1778        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
    1779
    1780    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1781        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1782        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1783        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1784        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1785        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1786
    1787        if autotemp is not None:
    1788            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1789        elif always:
    1790            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1791        elif default:
    1792            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1793        elif manual:
    1794            prop = "MANUAL"
    1795        elif never:
    1796            prop = "NEVER"
    1797        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
    1798
    1799    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1800        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1801        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1802        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1803        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1804        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1805        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
    1806        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
    1807
    1808    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1809        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1810            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1811        if expression.this:
    1812            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1813            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1814            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1815
    1816        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1817        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1818        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
    1819
    1820    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1821        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1822
    1823        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1824        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1825            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1826        else:
    1827            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1828
    1829        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
    1830
    1831    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1832        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1833        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1834        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1835        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1836        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1837        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1838        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
    1839
    1840    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1841        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1842        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1843        statistics_sql = ""
    1844        if statistics is not None:
    1845            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1846        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
    1847
    1848    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1850        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
    1851        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
    1852        data_consistency = (
    1853            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
    1854        )
    1855        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    1856        retention_period = (
    1857            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    1858        )
    1859
    1860        if this:
    1861            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
    1862        else:
    1863            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    1864
    1865        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
    1866
    1867        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
    1868
    1869    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1870        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    1871        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1872
    1873        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1874            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1875        else:
    1876            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1877
    1878        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
    1879        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
    1880        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1881        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1882        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1883        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
    1884        if is_function:
    1885            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
    1886        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1887
    1888        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1889        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1890        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1891        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1892        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1893        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1894        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1895        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1896
    1897        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1898            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
    1899        else:
    1900            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
    1901
    1902        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1903        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1904        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
    1905        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
    1906
    1907        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
    1908        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
    1909
    1910        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
    1911        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1912
    1913    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1914        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1915
    1916    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1917        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1918        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1920        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1921        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
    1922
    1923    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1924        return expression.name
    1925
    1926    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1927        return expression.name
    1928
    1929    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1930        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1931
    1932        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1933        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
    1934
    1935        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
    1936        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
    1937        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    1938
    1939        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1940        if expressions:
    1941            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1942            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1943
    1944        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1945        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}{where}"
    1946
    1947    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1948        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    1949
    1950    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1951        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
    1952        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1953        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
    1954        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1955        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
    1956        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1957        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
    1958        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1959        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
    1960        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1961        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    1962        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1963        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
    1964
    1965    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1966        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1967
    1968    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1969        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1970        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1971        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1972        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1973
    1974    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1975        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1976        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1977        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1978        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
    1979
    1980    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
    1981        return ".".join(
    1982            self.sql(part)
    1983            for part in (
    1984                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1985                expression.args.get("db"),
    1986                expression.args.get("this"),
    1987            )
    1988            if part is not None
    1989        )
    1990
    1991    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1992        table = self.table_parts(expression)
    1993        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    1994        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1995        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1996        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1997        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1998        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1999        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2000
    2001        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    2002        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
    2003            sample_pre_alias = sample
    2004            sample_post_alias = ""
    2005        else:
    2006            sample_pre_alias = ""
    2007            sample_post_alias = sample
    2008
    2009        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    2010        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    2011        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    2012        joins = self.indent(
    2013            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    2014        )
    2015        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    2016
    2017        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    2018        if file_format:
    2019            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2020            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    2021            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    2022
    2023        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    2024        if ordinality:
    2025            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    2026            alias = ""
    2027
    2028        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    2029        if when:
    2030            table = f"{table} {when}"
    2031
    2032        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
    2033        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
    2034
    2035        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
    2036        if rows_from:
    2037            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
    2038
    2039        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
    2040
    2041    def tablefromrows_sql(self, expression: exp.TableFromRows) -> str:
    2042        table = self.func("TABLE", expression.this)
    2043        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2044        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2045        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    2046        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    2047        joins = self.indent(
    2048            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    2049        )
    2050        return f"{table}{alias}{pivots}{sample}{joins}"
    2051
    2052    def tablesample_sql(
    2053        self,
    2054        expression: exp.TableSample,
    2055        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    2056    ) -> str:
    2057        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    2058        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    2059        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    2060        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    2061        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    2062        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    2063        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    2064        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    2065        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    2066
    2067        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    2068        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    2069            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    2070
    2071        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    2072        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    2073            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    2074
    2075        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    2076        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    2077            expr = f"({expr})"
    2078
    2079        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
    2080
    2081    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    2082        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2083        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
    2084
    2085        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    2086
    2087        if expression.this:
    2088            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2089            if not expressions:
    2090                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    2091
    2092            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    2093            into = self.sql(expression, "into")
    2094            into = f"{self.seg('INTO')} {into}" if into else ""
    2095            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    2096            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    2097            return f"{direction} {this}{on}{into}{using}{group}"
    2098
    2099        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2100        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2101
    2102        fields = self.expressions(
    2103            expression,
    2104            "fields",
    2105            sep=" ",
    2106            dynamic=True,
    2107            new_line=True,
    2108            skip_first=True,
    2109            skip_last=True,
    2110        )
    2111
    2112        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    2113        if include_nulls is not None:
    2114            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    2115        else:
    2116            nulls = ""
    2117
    2118        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
    2119        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
    2120        return f"{self.seg(direction)}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {fields}{default_on_null}{group}){alias}"
    2121
    2122    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    2123        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    2124        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2125        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2126        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
    2127
    2128    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    2129        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
    2130
    2131    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    2132        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2133        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2134        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2135        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    2136        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    2137        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2138        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    2139        if self.RETURNING_END:
    2140            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    2141        else:
    2142            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    2143        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    2144        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2145
    2146    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
    2147        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
    2148
    2149        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    2150        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    2151            args = self.expressions(expression)
    2152            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2153            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    2154            values = (
    2155                f"({values})"
    2156                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
    2157                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
    2158                else values
    2159            )
    2160            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    2161
    2162        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    2163        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    2164        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    2165
    2166        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
    2167
    2168        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    2169            row = tup.expressions
    2170
    2171            if i == 0 and column_names:
    2172                row = [
    2173                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    2174                ]
    2175
    2176            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    2177
    2178        if self.pretty:
    2179            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    2180            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    2181            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    2182            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    2183            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
    2184
    2185        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    2186        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    2187        return f"({unions}){alias}"
    2188
    2189    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    2190        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    2191
    2192    @unsupported_args("expressions")
    2193    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    2194        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    2195        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    2196        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2197
    2198    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    2199        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2200
    2201    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
    2202        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2203        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
    2204
    2205    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
    2206        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2207        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
    2208
    2209    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
    2210        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2211        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
    2212
    2213    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    2214        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
    2215        if group_by_all is True:
    2216            modifier = " ALL"
    2217        elif group_by_all is False:
    2218            modifier = " DISTINCT"
    2219        else:
    2220            modifier = ""
    2221
    2222        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
    2223
    2224        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
    2225        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
    2226        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
    2227
    2228        groupings = csv(
    2229            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
    2230            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
    2231            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
    2232            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    2233            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    2234        )
    2235
    2236        if (
    2237            expression.expressions
    2238            and groupings
    2239            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
    2240        ):
    2241            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    2242
    2243        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
    2244
    2245    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    2246        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2247        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2248
    2249    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    2250        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    2251        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    2252        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
    2253        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    2254        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
    2255        return start + connect
    2256
    2257    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    2258        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2259
    2260    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    2261        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    2262            side = None
    2263        else:
    2264            side = expression.side
    2265
    2266        op_sql = " ".join(
    2267            op
    2268            for op in (
    2269                expression.method,
    2270                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    2271                side,
    2272                expression.kind,
    2273                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    2274            )
    2275            if op
    2276        )
    2277        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
    2278        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
    2279        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    2280        using = expression.args.get("using")
    2281
    2282        if not on_sql and using:
    2283            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    2284
    2285        this = expression.this
    2286        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    2287
    2288        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
    2289        if exprs:
    2290            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
    2291
    2292        if on_sql:
    2293            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    2294            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    2295            if using:
    2296                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    2297            else:
    2298                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    2299        elif not op_sql:
    2300            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    2301                return f" {this_sql}"
    2302
    2303            return f", {this_sql}"
    2304
    2305        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
    2306            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    2307
    2308        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    2309        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}{pivots}"
    2310
    2311    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    2312        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2313        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    2314        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2315
    2316    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2317        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    2318
    2319        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    2320        if cross_apply is True:
    2321            op = "INNER JOIN "
    2322        elif cross_apply is False:
    2323            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    2324        else:
    2325            op = ""
    2326
    2327        return f"{op}LATERAL"
    2328
    2329    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2330        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2331
    2332        if expression.args.get("view"):
    2333            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2334            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    2335            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    2336            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    2337            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    2338            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    2339
    2340        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2341        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2342
    2343        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    2344        if ordinality:
    2345            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    2346            alias = ""
    2347
    2348        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}{ordinality}"
    2349
    2350    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    2351        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2352
    2353        args = [
    2354            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    2355            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    2356            if e
    2357        ]
    2358
    2359        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    2360        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    2361        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2362        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
    2363        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2364
    2365        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{limit_options}{expressions}"
    2366
    2367    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    2368        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2369        value = expression.expression
    2370        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    2371        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2372        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2373        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
    2374
    2375    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    2376        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2377        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    2378        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2379        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2380        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2381        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2382        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    2383        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
    2384
    2385    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    2386        expressions = f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    2387        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    2388        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
    2389
    2390    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    2391        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2392
    2393    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    2394        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    2395            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    2396            return ""
    2397
    2398        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    2399        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2400        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2401        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    2402
    2403        if wait is not None:
    2404            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    2405                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    2406            else:
    2407                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    2408
    2409        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
    2410
    2411    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    2412        text = expression.this or ""
    2413        if expression.is_string:
    2414            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2415        return text
    2416
    2417    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
    2418        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
    2419            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
    2420            text = "".join(
    2421                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
    2422            )
    2423
    2424        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
    2425            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
    2426        )
    2427
    2428    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    2429        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    2430        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    2431        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    2432        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2433        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    2434        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    2435        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    2436        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    2437        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    2438        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    2439        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
    2440
    2441    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    2442        return "NULL"
    2443
    2444    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    2445        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
    2446
    2447    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    2448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2449        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    2450        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    2451        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
    2452
    2453    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    2454        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2455        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    2456        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2457        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2458        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    2459        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    2460        interpolated_values = [
    2461            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
    2462            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2463            else self.sql(e, "this")
    2464            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    2465        ]
    2466        interpolate = (
    2467            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    2468        )
    2469        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
    2470
    2471    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    2472        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
    2473
    2474    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    2475        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
    2476
    2477    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    2478        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
    2479
    2480    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    2481        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    2482        asc = not desc
    2483
    2484        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    2485        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    2486        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    2487        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    2488        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    2489
    2490        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2491
    2492        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    2493        nulls_sort_change = ""
    2494        if nulls_first and (
    2495            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    2496        ):
    2497            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    2498        elif (
    2499            nulls_last
    2500            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    2501            and not nulls_are_last
    2502        ):
    2503            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    2504
    2505        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    2506        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    2507            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2508            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    2509                self.unsupported(
    2510                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    2511                )
    2512                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2513            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False and (
    2514                (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
    2515                or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
    2516            ):
    2517                # BigQuery does not allow these ordering/nulls combinations when used under
    2518                # an aggregation func or under a window containing one
    2519                ancestor = expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2520
    2521                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.Window):
    2522                    ancestor = ancestor.this
    2523                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.AggFunc):
    2524                    self.unsupported(
    2525                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
    2526                    )
    2527                    nulls_sort_change = ""
    2528            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    2529                if expression.this.is_int:
    2530                    self.unsupported(
    2531                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2532                    )
    2533                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
    2534                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2535                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2536                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2537
    2538        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2539        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2540
    2541        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
    2542
    2543    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
    2544        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
    2545        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
    2546
    2547        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2548
    2549        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
    2550
    2551    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2552        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2553        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2554        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2555        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2556        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2557        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2558        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2559        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2560        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2561        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2562        definition_sqls = [
    2563            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2564            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2565        ]
    2566        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2567        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2568        body = "".join(
    2569            (
    2570                partition,
    2571                order,
    2572                measures,
    2573                rows,
    2574                after,
    2575                pattern,
    2576                define,
    2577            )
    2578        )
    2579        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2580        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2581        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
    2582
    2583    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2584        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2585
    2586        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2587            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2588        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2589            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2590
    2591        return csv(
    2592            *sqls,
    2593            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2594            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2595            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2596            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
    2597            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2598            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2599            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2600            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2601            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
    2602            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2603            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
    2604            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2605            self.options_modifier(expression),
    2606            self.for_modifiers(expression),
    2607            sep="",
    2608        )
    2609
    2610    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
    2611        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2612        return f" {options}" if options else ""
    2613
    2614    def for_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
    2615        for_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="for")
    2616        return f"{self.sep()}FOR XML{self.seg(for_modifiers)}" if for_modifiers else ""
    2617
    2618    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
    2619        self.unsupported("Unsupported query option.")
    2620        return ""
    2621
    2622    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2623        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2624    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2625        return [
    2626            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2627            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2628        ]
    2629
    2630    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2631        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2632        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2633        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
    2634
    2635    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2636        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2637        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2638            into.pop()
    2639
    2640        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2641        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2642        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2643        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2644
    2645        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2646        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
    2647            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2648            limit.pop()
    2649        else:
    2650            top = ""
    2651
    2652        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2653
    2654        if kind:
    2655            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2656                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2657            else:
    2658                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2659                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2660                        sqls=[
    2661                            self.sql(
    2662                                exp.Struct(
    2663                                    expressions=[
    2664                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
    2665                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2666                                        else e
    2667                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2668                                    ]
    2669                                )
    2670                            )
    2671                        ]
    2672                    )
    2673                kind = ""
    2674
    2675        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
    2676        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
    2677
    2678        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2679        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2680        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2681        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2682        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2683            expression,
    2684            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
    2685            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2686            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2687        )
    2688
    2689        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
    2690        if expression.args.get("with"):
    2691            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
    2692            expression.pop_comments()
    2693
    2694        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2695
    2696        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2697            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2698                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2699            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2700                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2701            else:
    2702                table_kind = ""
    2703            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2704
    2705        return sql
    2706
    2707    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2708        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2709        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2710        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
    2711
    2712    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2713        if expression.expressions:
    2714            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2715        return ""
    2716
    2717    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2718        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2719        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2720        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2721        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2722        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
    2723        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
    2724        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
    2725
    2726    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2727        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2728        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
    2729
    2730    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2731        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2732        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2733        if kind:
    2734            kind = f"{kind}."
    2735        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
    2736
    2737    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2738        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
    2739
    2740    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2741        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2742        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2743        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    2744        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
    2745            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
    2746
    2747            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
    2748            expression.set("sample", None)
    2749
    2750        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    2751        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2752        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2753
    2754    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2755        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2756        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2757
    2758    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2759        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2760
    2761        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2762        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2763
    2764        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2765            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2766                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2767
    2768        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2769            columns = alias.columns
    2770            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2771        else:
    2772            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2773
    2774        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2775        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2776            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2777        else:
    2778            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2779                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2780            elif offset:
    2781                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2782            else:
    2783                suffix = alias
    2784
    2785        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
    2786
    2787    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
    2788        return ""
    2789
    2790    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2791        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2792        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2793
    2794    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2795        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2796        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2797        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2798        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2799        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2800        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2801        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2802
    2803        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2804
    2805        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2806        if first is None:
    2807            first = ""
    2808        else:
    2809            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2810
    2811        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2812            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2813
    2814        args = self.format_args(
    2815            *[arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg], sep=" "
    2816        )
    2817        return f"{this} ({args})"
    2818
    2819    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2820        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2821        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
    2822
    2823    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2824        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2825        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2826        end = (
    2827            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2828            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2829        )
    2830
    2831        window_spec = f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
    2832
    2833        exclude = self.sql(expression, "exclude")
    2834        if exclude:
    2835            if self.SUPPORTS_WINDOW_EXCLUDE:
    2836                window_spec += f" EXCLUDE {exclude}"
    2837            else:
    2838                self.unsupported("EXCLUDE clause is not supported in the WINDOW clause")
    2839
    2840        return window_spec
    2841
    2842    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2844        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2845        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
    2846
    2847    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2849        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2850        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2851        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
    2852
    2853    def bracket_offset_expressions(
    2854        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
    2855    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2856        return apply_index_offset(
    2857            expression.this,
    2858            expression.expressions,
    2859            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2860            dialect=self.dialect,
    2861        )
    2862
    2863    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2864        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
    2865        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2866        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
    2867
    2868    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2869        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
    2870
    2871    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2872        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2873        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
    2874            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
    2875                this = self.wrap(this)
    2876            return f"ANY{this}"
    2877        return f"ANY {this}"
    2878
    2879    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2880        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
    2881
    2882    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2883        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2884        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2885
    2886        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2887            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2888            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2889
    2890        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2891
    2892        if default:
    2893            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2894
    2895        statements.append("END")
    2896
    2897        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
    2898            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2899
    2900        return " ".join(statements)
    2901
    2902    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2903        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2904        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2905        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
    2906
    2907    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2908        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2909        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2910        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
    2911
    2912    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2913        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2914        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2915        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
    2916
    2917    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2918        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2919
    2920        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2921            func_name = "LTRIM"
    2922        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2923            func_name = "RTRIM"
    2924        else:
    2925            func_name = "TRIM"
    2926
    2927        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
    2928
    2929    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2930        args = expression.expressions
    2931        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2932            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2933
    2934        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2935            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
    2936
    2937        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2938            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2939
    2940        return args
    2941
    2942    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2943        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2944
    2945        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2946        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2947            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2948
    2949        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
    2950
    2951    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2952        return self.func(
    2953            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2954        )
    2955
    2956    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2957        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2958        return f"CHECK ({this})"
    2959
    2960    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2961        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2962        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    2963        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2964        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2965        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2966        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2967        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2968        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2969        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2970        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2971        return f"FOREIGN KEY{expressions}{reference}{delete}{update}{options}"
    2972
    2973    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2974        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2975        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2976        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2977        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
    2978
    2979    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2980        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
    2981
    2982    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2983        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2984        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2985        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
    2986
    2987    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2988        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    2989
    2990    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2991        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2992
    2993        if expression.args.get("escape"):
    2994            path = self.escape_str(path)
    2995
    2996        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
    2997            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2998
    2999        return path
    3000
    3001    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    3002        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    3003            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    3004            if not callable(transform):
    3005                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3006                return ""
    3007
    3008            return transform(self, expression)
    3009
    3010        if isinstance(expression, int):
    3011            return str(expression)
    3012
    3013        if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    3014            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    3015            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    3016        else:
    3017            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    3018            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    3019
    3020        return escaped
    3021
    3022    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    3023        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
    3024
    3025    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    3026        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    3027        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    3028
    3029        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    3030        if unique_keys is not None:
    3031            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    3032        else:
    3033            unique_keys = ""
    3034
    3035        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    3036        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    3037        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    3038        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    3039
    3040        return self.func(
    3041            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    3042            *expression.expressions,
    3043            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    3044        )
    3045
    3046    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    3047        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
    3048
    3049    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    3050        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    3051        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    3052        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    3053        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    3054        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    3055        return self.func(
    3056            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    3057        )
    3058
    3059    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    3060        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3061        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    3062        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    3063        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    3064        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    3065        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    3066        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    3067        return self.func(
    3068            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    3069            this,
    3070            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    3071        )
    3072
    3073    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    3074        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    3075        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    3076        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    3077
    3078        if nested_schema:
    3079            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    3080
    3081        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3082        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3083        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3084        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
    3085
    3086    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    3087        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
    3088
    3089    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    3090        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3091        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    3092        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    3093        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    3094        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    3095        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    3096        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    3097        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3098        return self.func(
    3099            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    3100        )
    3101
    3102    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    3103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3104        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3105        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    3106        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    3107        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    3108        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
    3109
    3110    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    3111        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3112        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    3113        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    3114        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3115        with_ = (
    3116            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    3117            if expressions
    3118            else ""
    3119        )
    3120        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
    3121
    3122    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    3123        query = expression.args.get("query")
    3124        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    3125        field = expression.args.get("field")
    3126        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    3127
    3128        if query:
    3129            in_sql = self.sql(query)
    3130        elif unnest:
    3131            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    3132        elif field:
    3133            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    3134        else:
    3135            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
    3136
    3137        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
    3138
    3139    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    3140        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
    3141
    3142    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    3143        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    3144        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    3145            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    3146        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    3147
    3148        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    3149            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    3150            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    3151
    3152        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3153        if this:
    3154            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    3155            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    3156
    3157        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
    3158
    3159    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    3160        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3161
    3162    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    3163        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3164        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3165        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3166        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    3167        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3168        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
    3169
    3170    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    3171        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
    3172        parent = expression.parent
    3173        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
    3174        return self.func(
    3175            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
    3176        )
    3177
    3178    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    3179        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    3180        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    3181
    3182    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    3183        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    3184        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3185        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    3186        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
    3187
    3188    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    3189        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3190
    3191    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    3192        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    3193        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    3194        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
    3195
    3196    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    3197        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    3198
    3199        parent = expression.parent
    3200        pivot = parent and parent.parent
    3201
    3202        if isinstance(pivot, exp.Pivot) and pivot.unpivot:
    3203            identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    3204            literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
    3205
    3206            if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3207                alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    3208            elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3209                alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    3210
    3211        return self.alias_sql(expression)
    3212
    3213    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    3214        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    3215
    3216    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3217        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3218        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3219        return f"{this} AT {index}"
    3220
    3221    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3222        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3223        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3224        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
    3225
    3226    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    3227        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3228        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3229        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
    3230
    3231    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    3232        return self.binary(expression, "+")
    3233
    3234    def and_sql(
    3235        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3236    ) -> str:
    3237        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
    3238
    3239    def or_sql(
    3240        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3241    ) -> str:
    3242        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
    3243
    3244    def xor_sql(
    3245        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3246    ) -> str:
    3247        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
    3248
    3249    def connector_sql(
    3250        self,
    3251        expression: exp.Connector,
    3252        op: str,
    3253        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3254    ) -> str:
    3255        if stack is not None:
    3256            if expression.expressions:
    3257                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
    3258            else:
    3259                stack.append(expression.right)
    3260                if expression.comments and self.comments:
    3261                    for comment in expression.comments:
    3262                        if comment:
    3263                            op += f" /*{self.sanitize_comment(comment)}*/"
    3264                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
    3265            return op
    3266
    3267        stack = [expression]
    3268        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3269        ops = set()
    3270
    3271        while stack:
    3272            node = stack.pop()
    3273            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
    3274                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
    3275            else:
    3276                sql = self.sql(node)
    3277                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
    3278                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
    3279                else:
    3280                    sqls.append(sql)
    3281
    3282        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
    3283        return sep.join(sqls)
    3284
    3285    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    3286        return self.binary(expression, "&")
    3287
    3288    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    3289        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
    3290
    3291    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    3292        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3293
    3294    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    3295        return self.binary(expression, "|")
    3296
    3297    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    3298        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
    3299
    3300    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    3301        return self.binary(expression, "^")
    3302
    3303    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    3304        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    3305        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    3306        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3307        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    3308        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    3309        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
    3310        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    3311        default = f" DEFAULT {default} ON CONVERSION ERROR" if default else ""
    3312        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{default}{format_sql}{action})"
    3313
    3314    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    3315        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3316        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
    3317
    3318    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    3319        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    3320            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3321        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
    3322
    3323    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    3324        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
    3325
    3326    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    3327        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3328        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    3329        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    3330        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3331        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3332        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
    3333
    3334    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    3335        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3336        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    3337        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    3338        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    3339        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    3340        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    3341        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    3342        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    3343        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
    3344
    3345    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    3346        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    3347        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    3348        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    3349        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    3350
    3351        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    3352            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    3353
    3354        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
    3355
    3356    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    3357        return "BEGIN"
    3358
    3359    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    3360        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    3361        if chain is not None:
    3362            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    3363
    3364        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
    3365
    3366    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    3367        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    3368        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    3369        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
    3370
    3371    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    3372        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3373
    3374        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    3375        if dtype:
    3376            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    3377            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    3378            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3379            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    3380            alter_set_type = self.ALTER_SET_TYPE + " " if self.ALTER_SET_TYPE else ""
    3381            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {alter_set_type}{dtype}{collate}{using}"
    3382
    3383        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    3384        if default:
    3385            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    3386
    3387        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3388        if comment:
    3389            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    3390
    3391        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3392        if visible:
    3393            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET {visible}"
    3394
    3395        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
    3396        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
    3397
    3398        if not drop and not allow_null:
    3399            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    3400
    3401        if allow_null is not None:
    3402            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
    3403            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
    3404
    3405        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
    3406
    3407    def alterindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterIndex) -> str:
    3408        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3409
    3410        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3411        visible_sql = "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3412
    3413        return f"ALTER INDEX {this} {visible_sql}"
    3414
    3415    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
    3416        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3417        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
    3418            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
    3419        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
    3420
    3421    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
    3422        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
    3423        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3424        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3425        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3426        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
    3427
    3428    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
    3429        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    3430            # Remove db from tables
    3431            expression = expression.transform(
    3432                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    3433            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
    3434        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3435        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
    3436
    3437    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    3438        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3439        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3440        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3441        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
    3442
    3443    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
    3444        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3445        if self.ALTER_SET_WRAPPED:
    3446            exprs = f"({exprs})"
    3447
    3448        return f"SET {exprs}"
    3449
    3450    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
    3451        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    3452
    3453        if not self.dialect.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_REQUIRED_FOR_EACH_COLUMN and isinstance(
    3454            actions[0], exp.ColumnDef
    3455        ):
    3456            actions_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3457            actions_sql = f"ADD {actions_sql}"
    3458        else:
    3459            actions_list = []
    3460            for action in actions:
    3461                if isinstance(action, (exp.ColumnDef, exp.Schema)):
    3462                    action_sql = self.add_column_sql(action)
    3463                else:
    3464                    action_sql = self.sql(action)
    3465                    if isinstance(action, exp.Query):
    3466                        action_sql = f"AS {action_sql}"
    3467
    3468                actions_list.append(action_sql)
    3469
    3470            actions_sql = self.format_args(*actions_list)
    3471
    3472        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3473        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3474        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3475        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    3476        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    3477        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
    3478        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3479        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
    3480
    3481        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions_sql}{not_valid}{options}"
    3482
    3483    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
    3484        sql = self.sql(expression)
    3485        if isinstance(expression, exp.Schema):
    3486            column_text = " COLUMNS"
    3487        elif isinstance(expression, exp.ColumnDef) and self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    3488            column_text = " COLUMN"
    3489        else:
    3490            column_text = ""
    3491
    3492        return f"ADD{column_text} {sql}"
    3493
    3494    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    3495        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3496        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3497        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
    3498
    3499    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    3500        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3501
    3502    def addpartition_sql(self, expression: exp.AddPartition) -> str:
    3503        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3504        return f"ADD {exists}{self.sql(expression.this)}"
    3505
    3506    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    3507        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3508
    3509        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    3510            case = exp.case()
    3511            for arg in expression.expressions:
    3512                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    3513            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    3514
    3515        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3516
    3517        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    3518        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    3519        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
    3520
    3521    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    3522        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
    3523
    3524    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    3525        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
    3526
    3527    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
    3528        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3529        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3530        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
    3531        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
    3532
    3533    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    3534        return self.sql(
    3535            exp.Cast(
    3536                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    3537                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    3538            )
    3539        )
    3540
    3541    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    3542        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3543            return self.func(
    3544                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
    3545            )
    3546        return self.binary(expression, "||")
    3547
    3548    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    3549        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    3550
    3551        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3552            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    3553
    3554        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    3555            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
    3556                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3557
    3558        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    3559            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    3560                return self.sql(
    3561                    exp.cast(
    3562                        l / r,
    3563                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    3564                    )
    3565                )
    3566
    3567        return self.binary(expression, "/")
    3568
    3569    def safedivide_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDivide) -> str:
    3570        n = exp._wrap(expression.this, exp.Binary)
    3571        d = exp._wrap(expression.expression, exp.Binary)
    3572        return self.sql(exp.If(this=d.neq(0), true=n / d, false=exp.Null()))
    3573
    3574    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    3575        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
    3576
    3577    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    3578        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
    3579
    3580    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    3581        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3582
    3583    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    3584        return self.binary(expression, "=")
    3585
    3586    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    3587        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
    3588
    3589    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    3590        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
    3591
    3592    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    3593        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
    3594
    3595    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    3596        return self.binary(expression, ">")
    3597
    3598    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    3599        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
    3600
    3601    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    3602        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
    3603
    3604    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    3605        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
    3606
    3607    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    3608        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    3609            return self.sql(
    3610                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    3611            )
    3612        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
    3613
    3614    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    3615        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
    3616
    3617    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    3618        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
    3619
    3620    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    3621        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
    3622
    3623    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    3624        return self.binary(expression, "<")
    3625
    3626    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    3627        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
    3628
    3629    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    3630        return self.binary(expression, "%")
    3631
    3632    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    3633        return self.binary(expression, "*")
    3634
    3635    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    3636        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
    3637
    3638    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    3639        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
    3640
    3641    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    3642        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
    3643
    3644    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    3645        return self.binary(expression, ":")
    3646
    3647    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    3648        return self.binary(expression, "-")
    3649
    3650    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    3651        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
    3652
    3653    def jsoncast_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONCast) -> str:
    3654        return self.cast_sql(expression)
    3655
    3656    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
    3657        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
    3658            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
    3659            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    3660
    3661        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
    3662
    3663    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    3664        this = expression.this
    3665        expr = expression.expression
    3666
    3667        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
    3668            this, expr = expr, this
    3669        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
    3670            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
    3671                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
    3672
    3673            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
    3674
    3675        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
    3676
    3677    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3678        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3679        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3680        this = self.sql(expression, "this") or self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3681        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3682        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
    3683
    3684    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3685        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3686        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    3687        binary_type = type(expression)
    3688
    3689        while stack:
    3690            node = stack.pop()
    3691
    3692            if type(node) is binary_type:
    3693                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
    3694                if op_func:
    3695                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
    3696
    3697                stack.append(node.right)
    3698                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
    3699                stack.append(node.left)
    3700            else:
    3701                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    3702
    3703        return "".join(sqls)
    3704
    3705    def ceil_floor(self, expression: exp.Ceil | exp.Floor) -> str:
    3706        to_clause = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3707        if to_clause:
    3708            return f"{expression.sql_name()}({self.sql(expression, 'this')} TO {to_clause})"
    3709
    3710        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3711
    3712    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3713        args = []
    3714
    3715        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3716            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3717
    3718            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3719                for value in arg_value:
    3720                    args.append(value)
    3721            elif arg_value is not None:
    3722                args.append(arg_value)
    3723
    3724        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
    3725            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3726        else:
    3727            name = expression.sql_name()
    3728
    3729        return self.func(name, *args)
    3730
    3731    def func(
    3732        self,
    3733        name: str,
    3734        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3735        prefix: str = "(",
    3736        suffix: str = ")",
    3737        normalize: bool = True,
    3738    ) -> str:
    3739        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
    3740        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
    3741
    3742    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
    3743        arg_sqls = tuple(
    3744            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
    3745        )
    3746        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
    3747            return self.indent(
    3748                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
    3749            )
    3750        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
    3751
    3752    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
    3753        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
    3754
    3755    def format_time(
    3756        self,
    3757        expression: exp.Expression,
    3758        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
    3759        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
    3760    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3761        return format_time(
    3762            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3763            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3764            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3765        )
    3766
    3767    def expressions(
    3768        self,
    3769        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3770        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3771        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3772        flat: bool = False,
    3773        indent: bool = True,
    3774        skip_first: bool = False,
    3775        skip_last: bool = False,
    3776        sep: str = ", ",
    3777        prefix: str = "",
    3778        dynamic: bool = False,
    3779        new_line: bool = False,
    3780    ) -> str:
    3781        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3782
    3783        if not expressions:
    3784            return ""
    3785
    3786        if flat:
    3787            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3788
    3789        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3790        result_sqls = []
    3791
    3792        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3793            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3794            if not sql:
    3795                continue
    3796
    3797            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3798
    3799            if self.pretty:
    3800                if self.leading_comma:
    3801                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3802                else:
    3803                    result_sqls.append(
    3804                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3805                    )
    3806            else:
    3807                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3808
    3809        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
    3810            if new_line:
    3811                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
    3812                result_sqls.append("")
    3813            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
    3814        else:
    3815            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
    3816
    3817        return (
    3818            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
    3819            if indent
    3820            else result_sql
    3821        )
    3822
    3823    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3824        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3825        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3826        if flat:
    3827            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3828        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
    3829
    3830    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3831        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3832        if not property_name:
    3833            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3834        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3835
    3836    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3837        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
    3838
    3839    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3840        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
    3841
    3842    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3844        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3845        expressions = (
    3846            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3847        )
    3848        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
    3849
    3850    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3851        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3852        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3853        return f"{this}({expressions})"
    3854
    3855    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3856        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
    3857
    3858    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3859        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3860        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3861        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3862        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3863
    3864        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3865        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3866            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
    3867            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
    3868            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
    3869            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
    3870        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3871            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3872                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3873            else:
    3874                then = f"UPDATE SET{self.sep()}{self.expressions(then_expression)}"
    3875        else:
    3876            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3877        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
    3878
    3879    def whens_sql(self, expression: exp.Whens) -> str:
    3880        return self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
    3881
    3882    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3883        table = expression.this
    3884        table_alias = ""
    3885
    3886        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3887        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3888            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3889            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3890
    3891        this = self.sql(table)
    3892        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3893        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3894        whens = self.sql(expression, "whens")
    3895
    3896        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    3897        if returning:
    3898            whens = f"{whens}{returning}"
    3899
    3900        sep = self.sep()
    3901
    3902        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3903            expression,
    3904            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{whens}",
    3905        )
    3906
    3907    @unsupported_args("format")
    3908    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3909        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
    3910
    3911    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
    3912        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
    3913            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
    3914            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3915
    3916        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
    3917        if not fmt:
    3918            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
    3919            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3920
    3921        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
    3922
    3923    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3925        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3926        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3927        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3928        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
    3929
    3930    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3931        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3932        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3933        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3934        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
    3935
    3936    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3937        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    3938
    3939    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
    3940        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    3941
    3942    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/table_bucket_part_index/CREATE_TABLE/
    3943    def uniquekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueKeyProperty) -> str:
    3944        return f"UNIQUE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    3945
    3946    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
    3947    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
    3948        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3949        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
    3950        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3951        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3952        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
    3953        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    3954        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
    3955
    3956    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3957        return ""
    3958
    3959    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3960        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3961        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3962        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3963        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3964        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
    3965
    3966    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3967        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3968        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3969
    3970        if having:
    3971            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3972
    3973        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
    3974
    3975    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3976        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3977        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3978        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3979        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3980        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3981        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3982        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3983        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3984        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3985        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3986        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3987        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3988        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
    3989
    3990    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3991        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3992        if key_block_size:
    3993            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3994
    3995        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3996        if using:
    3997            return f"USING {using}"
    3998
    3999        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    4000        if parser:
    4001            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    4002
    4003        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    4004        if comment:
    4005            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    4006
    4007        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    4008        if visible is not None:
    4009            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    4010
    4011        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    4012        if engine_attr:
    4013            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    4014
    4015        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    4016        if secondary_engine_attr:
    4017            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    4018
    4019        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    4020        return ""
    4021
    4022    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
    4023        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
    4024        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
    4025
    4026    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    4027        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4028        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    4029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4030        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4031        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    4032        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    4033        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4034        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    4035        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    4036        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    4037        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
    4038
    4039    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    4040        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    4041            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4042
    4043        case = exp.Case().when(
    4044            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    4045            expression.args["true"],
    4046            copy=False,
    4047        )
    4048        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    4049        if else_cond:
    4050            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    4051
    4052        return self.sql(case)
    4053
    4054    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    4055        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4056        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4057        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    4058        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    4059        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    4060        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
    4061
    4062    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    4063        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    4064
    4065    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    4066        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    4067
    4068    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    4069        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4070        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    4071        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4072        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    4073        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    4074        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
    4075
    4076    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    4077        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4078        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4079        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
    4080
    4081    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    4082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4083        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    4084        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
    4085
    4086    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    4087        arg = expression.this
    4088        if not arg.type:
    4089            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    4090
    4091            arg = annotate_types(arg, dialect=self.dialect)
    4092
    4093        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    4094            return self.sql(arg)
    4095
    4096        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    4097        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
    4098
    4099    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    4100        this = expression.this
    4101        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    4102
    4103        if time_format:
    4104            return self.sql(
    4105                exp.cast(
    4106                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    4107                    exp.DataType.Type.TIME,
    4108                )
    4109            )
    4110
    4111        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    4112            return self.sql(this)
    4113
    4114        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
    4115
    4116    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
    4117        this = expression.this
    4118        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
    4119            return self.sql(this)
    4120
    4121        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
    4122
    4123    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
    4124        this = expression.this
    4125        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
    4126            return self.sql(this)
    4127
    4128        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
    4129
    4130    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    4131        this = expression.this
    4132        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    4133
    4134        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    4135            return self.sql(
    4136                exp.cast(
    4137                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    4138                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
    4139                )
    4140            )
    4141
    4142        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    4143            return self.sql(this)
    4144
    4145        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
    4146
    4147    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    4148        return self.sql(
    4149            exp.func(
    4150                "DATEDIFF",
    4151                expression.this,
    4152                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
    4153                "day",
    4154            )
    4155        )
    4156
    4157    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    4158        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    4159            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4160
    4161        unit = expression.text("unit")
    4162        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    4163            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    4164
    4165        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
    4166
    4167    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
    4168        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
    4169
    4170        return self.func(
    4171            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
    4172        )
    4173
    4174    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
    4175        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
    4176            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
    4177            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
    4178            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
    4179            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
    4180
    4181        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    4182
    4183        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
    4184        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
    4185            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
    4186
    4187        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4188
    4189    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
    4190        expression.set(
    4191            "expressions",
    4192            [
    4193                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
    4194                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
    4195                else e
    4196                for e in expression.expressions
    4197            ],
    4198        )
    4199
    4200        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4201
    4202    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
    4203        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4204        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4205
    4206        return f"{low} TO {high}"
    4207
    4208    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
    4209        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
    4210        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
    4211
    4212        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    4213
    4214        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    4215        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    4216
    4217        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
    4218        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
    4219
    4220        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    4221        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    4222
    4223        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    4224        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    4225
    4226        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
    4227
    4228    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
    4229    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
    4230    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
    4231        to = expression.this
    4232        value = expression.expression
    4233        style = expression.args.get("style")
    4234        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
    4235        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
    4236
    4237        if not to or not value:
    4238            return ""
    4239
    4240        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
    4241        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    4242            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
    4243
    4244        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
    4245        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
    4246
    4247        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
    4248        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
    4249            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
    4250
    4251            style_value = style.name
    4252            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
    4253            if not converted_style:
    4254                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
    4255
    4256            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
    4257
    4258            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
    4259                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
    4260            elif to.this in (exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2):
    4261                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
    4262            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    4263                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
    4264            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
    4265                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
    4266
    4267        if not transformed:
    4268            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
    4269
    4270        return self.sql(transformed)
    4271
    4272    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
    4273        this = expression.this
    4274        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
    4275            this = self.json_path_part(this)
    4276            return f".{this}" if this else ""
    4277
    4278        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
    4279            return f".{this}"
    4280
    4281        this = self.json_path_part(this)
    4282        return (
    4283            f"[{this}]"
    4284            if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED
    4285            else f".{this}"
    4286        )
    4287
    4288    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
    4289        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
    4290        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
    4291
    4292    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
    4293        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
    4294            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
    4295
    4296            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
    4297
    4298        return expression
    4299
    4300    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
    4301        this = expression.this
    4302        if isinstance(this, self.RESPECT_IGNORE_NULLS_UNSUPPORTED_EXPRESSIONS):
    4303            self.unsupported(
    4304                f"RESPECT/IGNORE NULLS is not supported for {type(this).key} in {self.dialect.__class__.__name__}"
    4305            )
    4306            return self.sql(this)
    4307
    4308        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
    4309            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
    4310            mods = sorted(
    4311                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
    4312                key=lambda x: 0
    4313                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
    4314                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
    4315            )
    4316
    4317            if mods:
    4318                mod = mods[0]
    4319                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
    4320                this.meta["inline"] = True
    4321                mod.this.replace(this)
    4322                return self.sql(expression.this)
    4323
    4324            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
    4325
    4326            if agg_func:
    4327                agg_func_sql = self.sql(agg_func, comment=False)[:-1] + f" {text})"
    4328                return self.maybe_comment(agg_func_sql, comments=agg_func.comments)
    4329
    4330        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
    4331
    4332    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
    4333        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
    4334        if self.pretty:
    4335            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
    4336        return string
    4337
    4338    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
    4339        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4340
    4341        if expression.expressions:
    4342            upper = option.upper()
    4343
    4344            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
    4345            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
    4346
    4347            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
    4348            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
    4349            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
    4350            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
    4351
    4352        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4353
    4354        if not value:
    4355            return option
    4356
    4357        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
    4358
    4359        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
    4360
    4361    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
    4362        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
    4363        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
    4364            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
    4365            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4366            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
    4367        else:
    4368            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
    4369            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4370            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
    4371
    4372        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
    4373        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
    4374
    4375        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4376        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
    4377
    4378        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
    4379        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
    4380
    4381        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
    4382        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
    4383
    4384        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
    4385
    4386    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
    4387        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4388        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
    4389
    4390        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4391        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
    4392        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
    4393        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
    4394
    4395        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
    4396        params = self.expressions(
    4397            expression,
    4398            key="params",
    4399            sep=sep,
    4400            new_line=True,
    4401            skip_last=True,
    4402            skip_first=True,
    4403            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
    4404        )
    4405
    4406        if params:
    4407            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
    4408                params = f" WITH ({params})"
    4409            elif not self.pretty:
    4410                params = f" {params}"
    4411
    4412        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
    4413
    4414    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
    4415        return ""
    4416
    4417    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
    4418        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    4419        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
    4420        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
    4421        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    4422        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    4423
    4424        if filter_col or retention_period:
    4425            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
    4426
    4427        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
    4428
    4429    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
    4430        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
    4431    ) -> str:
    4432        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4433        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4434        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    4435        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
    4436
    4437    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
    4438        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4439        this = f"TABLE {this}"
    4440        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
    4441
    4442    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
    4443        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
    4444
    4445    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
    4446        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4447        expr = expression.expression
    4448
    4449        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
    4450            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
    4451            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
    4452        else:
    4453            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4454
    4455        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
    4456
    4457    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
    4458        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
    4459            return self.sql(expression.this)
    4460
    4461        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
    4462
    4463    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
    4464        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
    4465        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
    4466
    4467        if lower and upper:
    4468            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
    4469        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
    4470
    4471    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
    4472        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
    4473        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
    4474        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
    4475        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
    4476        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
    4477        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
    4478
    4479        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
    4480
    4481    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
    4482        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
    4483
    4484        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
    4485        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
    4486            fill_pattern = "' '"
    4487
    4488        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
    4489
    4490    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
    4491        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
    4492        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
    4493
    4494    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
    4495        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
    4496
    4497        parent = expression.parent
    4498        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
    4499            parent = parent.parent
    4500
    4501        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
    4502            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
    4503
    4504        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
    4505            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
    4506
    4507        return self.sql(generate_series)
    4508
    4509    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
    4510        exprs = expression.expressions
    4511        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
    4512            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
    4513        else:
    4514            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
    4515
    4516        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
    4517
    4518    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
    4519        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
    4520            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4521
    4522        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
    4523        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
    4524        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
    4525
    4526        if source_tz and timestamp:
    4527            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
    4528                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
    4529            )
    4530
    4531        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
    4532
    4533        return self.sql(expr)
    4534
    4535    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
    4536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4537        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4538
    4539        _with = expression.args.get("with")
    4540
    4541        if _with is None:
    4542            with_sql = ""
    4543        elif not _with:
    4544            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
    4545        else:
    4546            with_sql = " WITH"
    4547
    4548        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    4549
    4550        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
    4551
    4552    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
    4553        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
    4554            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
    4555
    4556        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4557        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    4558        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
    4559
    4560        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4561        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4562
    4563        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
    4564
    4565    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
    4566        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
    4567        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4568        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
    4569        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
    4570        return f"{condition}{insert}"
    4571
    4572    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
    4573        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4574        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
    4575        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
    4576        return res
    4577
    4578    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
    4579        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
    4580        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
    4581        empty = (
    4582            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
    4583            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
    4584            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
    4585        )
    4586
    4587        error = expression.args.get("error")
    4588        error = (
    4589            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
    4590            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
    4591            else self.sql(expression, "error")
    4592        )
    4593
    4594        if error and empty:
    4595            error = (
    4596                f"{empty} {error}"
    4597                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
    4598                else f"{error} {empty}"
    4599            )
    4600            empty = ""
    4601
    4602        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    4603
    4604        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
    4605
    4606    def jsonextractquote_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExtractQuote) -> str:
    4607        scalar = " ON SCALAR STRING" if expression.args.get("scalar") else ""
    4608        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'option')} QUOTES{scalar}"
    4609
    4610    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
    4611        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4612        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4613
    4614        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
    4615        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
    4616
    4617        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4618        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4619
    4620        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
    4621
    4622        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
    4623
    4624    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
    4625        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4626
    4627        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
    4628        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
    4629        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
    4630            parent = expression.parent
    4631            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
    4632                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
    4633                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
    4634            else:
    4635                this = expression.this
    4636                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
    4637                if this.find(exp.Column):
    4638                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
    4639                    this_sql = (
    4640                        self.expressions(this)
    4641                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
    4642                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
    4643                    )
    4644
    4645                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
    4646
    4647        return array_agg
    4648
    4649    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
    4650        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4651        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4652
    4653        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
    4654
    4655    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
    4656        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
    4657
    4658        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4659        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    4660
    4661        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
    4662        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
    4663
    4664        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
    4665
    4666        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
    4667
    4668        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
    4669
    4670    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
    4671        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4672        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4673        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    4674
    4675        return f"{this}{columns}"
    4676
    4677    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
    4678        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4679
    4680        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4681        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    4682
    4683        return f"{kind}{this}"
    4684
    4685    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
    4686        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4687        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
    4688            func = f"*{func}"
    4689
    4690        return func
    4691
    4692    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
    4693        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4694        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4695        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    4696        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
    4697        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
    4698
    4699        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
    4700
    4701    @unsupported_args("format")
    4702    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
    4703        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    4704
    4705    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
    4706        this = expression.this
    4707        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
    4708
    4709        if zone:
    4710            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
    4711            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
    4712            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
    4713            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
    4714                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
    4715            )
    4716
    4717        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
    4718
    4719    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
    4720        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
    4721            return self.sql(
    4722                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
    4723            )
    4724
    4725        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4726
    4727    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
    4728        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4729        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
    4730        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
    4731        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
    4732
    4733    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
    4734        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
    4735            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4736
    4737        start_ts = exp.cast(
    4738            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
    4739        )
    4740
    4741        return self.sql(
    4742            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
    4743        )
    4744
    4745    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
    4746        dim = expression.expression
    4747
    4748        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
    4749        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
    4750            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
    4751                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
    4752            dim = None
    4753
    4754        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
    4755        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
    4756            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
    4757
    4758        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)
    4759
    4760    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
    4761        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4762        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    4763        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    4764        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    4765
    4766        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"
    4767
    4768    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
    4769        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4770        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    4771
    4772        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"
    4773
    4774    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
    4775        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4776        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4777        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
    4778        return f"{this}{value}"
    4779
    4780    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
    4781        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4782        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
    4783            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"
    4784
    4785        return self.func(
    4786            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
    4787            this_sql,
    4788            expression.args.get("time"),
    4789            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
    4790            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
    4791        )
    4792
    4793    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
    4794        return (
    4795            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    4796        )
    4797
    4798    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
    4799        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
    4800        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    4801
    4802        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
    4803        if properties:
    4804            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"
    4805
    4806        return encode
    4807
    4808    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
    4809        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4810        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"
    4811
    4812        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
    4813        if column_def:
    4814            include = f"{include} {column_def}"
    4815
    4816        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    4817        if alias:
    4818            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"
    4819
    4820        return include
    4821
    4822    def xmlelement_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLElement) -> str:
    4823        name = f"NAME {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    4824        return self.func("XMLELEMENT", name, *expression.expressions)
    4825
    4826    def xmlkeyvalueoption_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLKeyValueOption) -> str:
    4827        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4828        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4829        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else ""
    4830        return f"{this}{expr}"
    4831
    4832    def partitionbyrangeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangeProperty) -> str:
    4833        partitions = self.expressions(expression, "partition_expressions")
    4834        create = self.expressions(expression, "create_expressions")
    4835        return f"PARTITION BY RANGE {self.wrap(partitions)} {self.wrap(create)}"
    4836
    4837    def partitionbyrangepropertydynamic_sql(
    4838        self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangePropertyDynamic
    4839    ) -> str:
    4840        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    4841        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
    4842
    4843        every = expression.args["every"]
    4844        if isinstance(every, exp.Interval) and every.this.is_string:
    4845            every.this.replace(exp.Literal.number(every.name))
    4846
    4847        return f"START {self.wrap(start)} END {self.wrap(end)} EVERY {self.wrap(self.sql(every))}"
    4848
    4849    def unpivotcolumns_sql(self, expression: exp.UnpivotColumns) -> str:
    4850        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4851        values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4852
    4853        return f"NAME {name} VALUE {values}"
    4854
    4855    def analyzesample_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeSample) -> str:
    4856        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4857        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    4858        return f"SAMPLE {sample} {kind}"
    4859
    4860    def analyzestatistics_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeStatistics) -> str:
    4861        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4862        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    4863        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    4864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4865        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4866        columns = self.expressions(expression)
    4867        columns = f" {columns}" if columns else ""
    4868        return f"{kind}{option} STATISTICS{this}{columns}"
    4869
    4870    def analyzehistogram_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeHistogram) -> str:
    4871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4872        columns = self.expressions(expression)
    4873        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4874        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
    4875        update_options = self.sql(expression, "update_options")
    4876        update_options = f" {update_options} UPDATE" if update_options else ""
    4877        return f"{this} HISTOGRAM ON {columns}{inner_expression}{update_options}"
    4878
    4879    def analyzedelete_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeDelete) -> str:
    4880        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4881        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    4882        return f"DELETE{kind} STATISTICS"
    4883
    4884    def analyzelistchainedrows_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeListChainedRows) -> str:
    4885        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4886        return f"LIST CHAINED ROWS{inner_expression}"
    4887
    4888    def analyzevalidate_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeValidate) -> str:
    4889        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4890        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4891        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4892        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4893        return f"VALIDATE {kind}{this}{inner_expression}"
    4894
    4895    def analyze_sql(self, expression: exp.Analyze) -> str:
    4896        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    4897        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    4898        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4899        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    4900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4901        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4902        mode = self.sql(expression, "mode")
    4903        mode = f" {mode}" if mode else ""
    4904        properties = self.sql(expression, "properties")
    4905        properties = f" {properties}" if properties else ""
    4906        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    4907        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    4908        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4909        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
    4910        return f"ANALYZE{options}{kind}{this}{partition}{mode}{inner_expression}{properties}"
    4911
    4912    def xmltable_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLTable) -> str:
    4913        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4914        namespaces = self.expressions(expression, key="namespaces")
    4915        namespaces = f"XMLNAMESPACES({namespaces}), " if namespaces else ""
    4916        passing = self.expressions(expression, key="passing")
    4917        passing = f"{self.sep()}PASSING{self.seg(passing)}" if passing else ""
    4918        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns")
    4919        columns = f"{self.sep()}COLUMNS{self.seg(columns)}" if columns else ""
    4920        by_ref = f"{self.sep()}RETURNING SEQUENCE BY REF" if expression.args.get("by_ref") else ""
    4921        return f"XMLTABLE({self.sep('')}{self.indent(namespaces + this + passing + by_ref + columns)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    4922
    4923    def xmlnamespace_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLNamespace) -> str:
    4924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4925        return this if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Alias) else f"DEFAULT {this}"
    4926
    4927    def export_sql(self, expression: exp.Export) -> str:
    4928        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4929        connection = self.sql(expression, "connection")
    4930        connection = f"WITH CONNECTION {connection} " if connection else ""
    4931        options = self.sql(expression, "options")
    4932        return f"EXPORT DATA {connection}{options} AS {this}"
    4933
    4934    def declare_sql(self, expression: exp.Declare) -> str:
    4935        return f"DECLARE {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    4936
    4937    def declareitem_sql(self, expression: exp.DeclareItem) -> str:
    4938        variable = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4939        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    4940        default = f" = {default}" if default else ""
    4941
    4942        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4943        if isinstance(expression.args.get("kind"), exp.Schema):
    4944            kind = f"TABLE {kind}"
    4945
    4946        return f"{variable} AS {kind}{default}"
    4947
    4948    def recursivewithsearch_sql(self, expression: exp.RecursiveWithSearch) -> str:
    4949        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4951        set = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4952        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    4953        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    4954
    4955        kind_sql = kind if kind == "CYCLE" else f"SEARCH {kind} FIRST BY"
    4956
    4957        return f"{kind_sql} {this} SET {set}{using}"
    4958
    4959    def parameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ParameterizedAgg) -> str:
    4960        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True)
    4961        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions) + f"({params})"
    4962
    4963    def anonymousaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.AnonymousAggFunc) -> str:
    4964        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
    4965
    4966    def combinedaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedAggFunc) -> str:
    4967        return self.anonymousaggfunc_sql(expression)
    4968
    4969    def combinedparameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedParameterizedAgg) -> str:
    4970        return self.parameterizedagg_sql(expression)
    4971
    4972    def show_sql(self, expression: exp.Show) -> str:
    4973        self.unsupported("Unsupported SHOW statement")
    4974        return ""
    4975
    4976    def get_put_sql(self, expression: exp.Put | exp.Get) -> str:
    4977        # Snowflake GET/PUT statements:
    4978        #   PUT <file> <internalStage> <properties>
    4979        #   GET <internalStage> <file> <properties>
    4980        props = expression.args.get("properties")
    4981        props_sql = self.properties(props, prefix=" ", sep=" ", wrapped=False) if props else ""
    4982        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4983        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    4984
    4985        if isinstance(expression, exp.Put):
    4986            return f"PUT {this} {target}{props_sql}"
    4987        else:
    4988            return f"GET {target} {this}{props_sql}"
    4989
    4990    def translatecharacters_sql(self, expression: exp.TranslateCharacters):
    4991        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4992        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4993        with_error = " WITH ERROR" if expression.args.get("with_error") else ""
    4994        return f"TRANSLATE({this} USING {expr}{with_error})"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

###### Arguments:

- pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
- identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
- normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
- pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
- indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause. Default: 2.
- normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
- unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
- max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
- leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
- max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
- comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True

Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.Dialect , Type[ sqlglot.dialects.Dialect ], NoneType] = None) View Source

    700    def __init__(
    701        self,
    702        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
    703        identify: str | bool = False,
    704        normalize: bool = False,
    705        pad: int = 2,
    706        indent: int = 2,
    707        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
    708        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
    709        max_unsupported: int = 3,
    710        leading_comma: bool = False,
    711        max_text_width: int = 80,
    712        comments: bool = True,
    713        dialect: DialectType = None,
    714    ):
    715        import sqlglot
    716        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    717
    718        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
    719        self.identify = identify
    720        self.normalize = normalize
    721        self.pad = pad
    722        self._indent = indent
    723        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
    724        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
    725        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
    726        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
    727        self.comments = comments
    728        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
    729
    730        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
    731        self.normalize_functions = (
    732            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
    733        )
    734
    735        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
    736        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
    737            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
    738        )
    739        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
    740
    741        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
    742
    743        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
    744        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
    745
    746        self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets = True

TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AnalyzeColumns'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AnalyzeWith'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ArrayContainsAll'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ArrayOverlaps'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Ceil'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ConnectByRoot'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ConvertToCharset'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CredentialsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EnviromentProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Except'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Floor'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Get'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Intersect'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Int64'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Operator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByBucket'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionByTruncate'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PivotAny'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Put'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Stream'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SwapTable'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Tags'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UsingTemplateProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UsingData'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Uuid'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithProcedureOptions'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ForceProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>}
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SUPPORTS_WINDOW_EXCLUDE = False
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
ALTER_SET_WRAPPED = False
PARSE_JSON_NAME: Optional[str] = 'PARSE_JSON'
ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = 'ARRAY_LENGTH'
ALTER_SET_TYPE = 'SET DATA TYPE'
ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: Optional[bool] = None
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.DATETIME2: 'DATETIME2'>: 'TIMESTAMP', <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.BLOB: 'BLOB'>: 'VARBINARY', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY', <Type.SMALLDATETIME: 'SMALLDATETIME'>: 'TIMESTAMP'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: Set[str] = set()
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EnviromentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IncludeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StorageHandlerProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Tags'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UsingTemplateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithProcedureOptions'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ForceProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Command'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Create'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Describe'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Delete'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Drop'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.From'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Insert'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Join'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MultitableInserts'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Select'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Update'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Where'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.With'>)
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
RESPECT_IGNORE_NULLS_UNSUPPORTED_EXPRESSIONS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = ()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    748    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
    749        """
    750        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
    751
    752        Args:
    753            expression: The syntax tree.
    754            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
    755                it is safer to copy.
    756
    757        Returns:
    758            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
    759        """
    760        if copy:
    761            expression = expression.copy()
    762
    763        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
    764
    765        self.unsupported_messages = []
    766        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
    767
    768        if self.pretty:
    769            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
    770
    771        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
    772            return sql
    773
    774        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
    775            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
    776                logger.warning(msg)
    777        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
    778            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
    779
    780        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

###### Arguments:

- expression: The syntax tree.
- copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.

###### Returns:

> The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression ) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression: View Source

    782    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
    783        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
    784        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
    785
    786        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
    787            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
    788
    789            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
    790
    791        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None: View Source

    804    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
    805        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
    806            raise UnsupportedError(message)
    807        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)

def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

    809    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
    810        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep

def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

    812    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
    813        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"

def sanitize_comment(self, comment: str) -> str: View Source

    815    def sanitize_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
    816        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
    817        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
    818
    819        if not self.dialect.tokenizer_class.NESTED_COMMENTS:
    820            # Necessary workaround to avoid syntax errors due to nesting: /* ... */ ... */
    821            comment = comment.replace("*/", "* /")
    822
    823        return comment

def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[ sqlglot.expressions.Expression ] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    825    def maybe_comment(
    826        self,
    827        sql: str,
    828        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    829        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
    830        separated: bool = False,
    831    ) -> str:
    832        comments = (
    833            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
    834            if self.comments
    835            else None
    836        )
    837
    838        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
    839            return sql
    840
    841        comments_sql = " ".join(
    842            f"/*{self.sanitize_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
    843        )
    844
    845        if not comments_sql:
    846            return sql
    847
    848        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
    849
    850        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
    851            return (
    852                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
    853                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
    854                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    855            )
    856
    857        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"

def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str: View Source

    859    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
    860        this_sql = (
    861            self.sql(expression)
    862            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
    863            else self.sql(expression, "this")
    864        )
    865        if not this_sql:
    866            return "()"
    867
    868        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
    869        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"

def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str: View Source

    871    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
    872        original = self.identify
    873        self.identify = False
    874        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
    875        self.identify = original
    876        return result

def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str: View Source

    878    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
    879        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
    880            return name.upper()
    881        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
    882            return name.lower()
    883        return name

def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    885    def indent(
    886        self,
    887        sql: str,
    888        level: int = 0,
    889        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
    890        skip_first: bool = False,
    891        skip_last: bool = False,
    892    ) -> str:
    893        if not self.pretty or not sql:
    894            return sql
    895
    896        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
    897        lines = sql.split("\n")
    898
    899        return "\n".join(
    900            (
    901                line
    902                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
    903                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
    904            )
    905            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
    906        )

def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression , NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    908    def sql(
    909        self,
    910        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
    911        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    912        comment: bool = True,
    913    ) -> str:
    914        if not expression:
    915            return ""
    916
    917        if isinstance(expression, str):
    918            return expression
    919
    920        if key:
    921            value = expression.args.get(key)
    922            if value:
    923                return self.sql(value)
    924            return ""
    925
    926        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    927
    928        if callable(transform):
    929            sql = transform(self, expression)
    930        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
    931            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
    932
    933            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
    934                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
    935            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
    936                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    937            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
    938                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
    939            else:
    940                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    941        else:
    942            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
    943
    944        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql

def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache ) -> str: View Source

    946    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
    947        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    948        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    949        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"

def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache ) -> str: View Source

    951    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
    952        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
    953        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    954        options = expression.args.get("options")
    955        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
    956        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    957        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
    958        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
    959        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet ) -> str: View Source

    961    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
    962        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
    963            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    964        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
    965        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column ) -> str: View Source

    967    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
    968        return ".".join(
    969            self.sql(part)
    970            for part in (
    971                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    972                expression.args.get("db"),
    973                expression.args.get("table"),
    974                expression.args.get("this"),
    975            )
    976            if part
    977        )

def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column ) -> str: View Source

    979    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
    980        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
    981
    982        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
    983            join_mark = ""
    984            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
    985
    986        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"

def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition ) -> str: View Source

    988    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
    989        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    990        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    991        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
    992        return f"{position}{this}"

def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

     994    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     995        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
     996        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     997        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
     998        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     999        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
    1000        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
    1001        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
    1002        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
    1003
    1004        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
    1005            kind = ""
    1006
    1007        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"

def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    1009    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1011        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
    1012        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql

def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    1014    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1015        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1016        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
    1017            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
    1018        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
    1019            persisted = " PERSISTED"
    1020        else:
    1021            persisted = ""
    1022
    1023        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"

def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str: View Source

    1025    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
    1026        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)

def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    1028    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1029        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1030            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
    1031        else:
    1032            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1033
    1034        return f"COMPRESS {this}"

def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    1036    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
    1037        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
    1038    ) -> str:
    1039        this = ""
    1040        if expression.this is not None:
    1041            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
    1042            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
    1043
    1044        start = expression.args.get("start")
    1045        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1046        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
    1047        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1048        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
    1049        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1050        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
    1051        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1052        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
    1053        cycle_sql = ""
    1054
    1055        if cycle is not None:
    1056            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
    1057            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
    1058
    1059        sequence_opts = ""
    1060        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
    1061            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
    1062            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
    1063
    1064        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1065        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
    1066
    1067        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"

def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    1069    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
    1070        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
    1071    ) -> str:
    1072        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
    1073        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
    1074        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"

def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    1076    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
    1077        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
    1078    ) -> str:
    1079        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"

def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    1081    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1082        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"

def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    1084    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1085        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    1086        if desc is not None:
    1087            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
    1088        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1089        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1090        return f"PRIMARY KEY{options}"

def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    1092    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1093        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1094        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1095        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
    1096        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    1097        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
    1098        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1099        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
    1100        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1101        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1102        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}{options}"

def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str: View Source

    1104    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
    1105        return self.sql(expression, "this")

def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create ) -> str: View Source

    1107    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
    1108        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1109        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1110        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
    1111        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
    1112
    1113        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
    1114
    1115        properties_sql = ""
    1116        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
    1117            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
    1118        ):
    1119            properties_sql = self.sql(
    1120                exp.Properties(
    1121                    expressions=[
    1122                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
    1123                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
    1124                    ]
    1125                )
    1126            )
    1127
    1128            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
    1129                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
    1130            elif not self.pretty:
    1131                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
    1132                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
    1133
    1134        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
    1135        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
    1136
    1137        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1138        if expression_sql:
    1139            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
    1140
    1141            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
    1142                postalias_props_sql = ""
    1143                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
    1144                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
    1145                        exp.Properties(
    1146                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
    1147                        ),
    1148                        wrapped=False,
    1149                    )
    1150                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
    1151                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
    1152
    1153        postindex_props_sql = ""
    1154        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
    1155            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
    1156                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
    1157                wrapped=False,
    1158                prefix=" ",
    1159            )
    1160
    1161        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
    1162        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
    1163        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
    1164
    1165        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
    1166        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
    1167        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1168
    1169        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
    1170        if clustered is None:
    1171            clustered_sql = ""
    1172        elif clustered:
    1173            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1174        else:
    1175            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1176
    1177        postcreate_props_sql = ""
    1178        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
    1179            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
    1180                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
    1181                sep=" ",
    1182                prefix=" ",
    1183                wrapped=False,
    1184            )
    1185
    1186        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
    1187
    1188        postexpression_props_sql = ""
    1189        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
    1190            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
    1191                exp.Properties(
    1192                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
    1193                ),
    1194                sep=" ",
    1195                prefix=" ",
    1196                wrapped=False,
    1197            )
    1198
    1199        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1200        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1201        no_schema_binding = (
    1202            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
    1203        )
    1204
    1205        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
    1206        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
    1207
    1208        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
    1209            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
    1210        else:
    1211            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"
    1212
    1213        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
    1214        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)

def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties ) -> str: View Source

    1216    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
    1217        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1218        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1219        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
    1220        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1221        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
    1222        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1223        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
    1224        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1225        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
    1226        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
    1227
    1228        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
    1229        if cache is None:
    1230            cache_str = ""
    1231        elif cache is True:
    1232            cache_str = " CACHE"
    1233        else:
    1234            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
    1235
    1236        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1237        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1238
    1239        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()

def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone ) -> str: View Source

    1241    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
    1242        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1243        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
    1244        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
    1245        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"

def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe ) -> str: View Source

    1247    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
    1248        style = expression.args.get("style")
    1249        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
    1250        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1251        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1252        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1253        format = f" {format}" if format else ""
    1254
    1255        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"

def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc ) -> str: View Source

    1257    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
    1258        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
    1259        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"

def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str: View Source

    1261    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
    1262        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
    1263        if with_:
    1264            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    1265        return sql

def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With ) -> str: View Source

    1267    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
    1268        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1269        recursive = (
    1270            "RECURSIVE "
    1271            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
    1272            else ""
    1273        )
    1274        search = self.sql(expression, "search")
    1275        search = f" {search}" if search else ""
    1276
    1277        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}{search}"

def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE ) -> str: View Source

    1279    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
    1280        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    1281        if alias:
    1282            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
    1283
    1284        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1285
    1286        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
    1287        if materialized is False:
    1288            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
    1289        elif materialized:
    1290            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
    1291
    1292        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"

def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias ) -> str: View Source

    1294    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
    1295        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1296        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1297        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1298
    1299        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
    1300            columns = ""
    1301            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
    1302
    1303        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    1304            alias = self._next_name()
    1305
    1306        return f"{alias}{columns}"

def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString ) -> str: View Source

    1308    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
    1309        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1310        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
    1311            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1312        return f"{int(this, 2)}"

def hexstring_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString, binary_function_repr: Optional[str] = None) -> str: View Source

    1314    def hexstring_sql(
    1315        self, expression: exp.HexString, binary_function_repr: t.Optional[str] = None
    1316    ) -> str:
    1317        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1318        is_integer_type = expression.args.get("is_integer")
    1319
    1320        if (is_integer_type and not self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE) or (
    1321            not self.dialect.HEX_START and not binary_function_repr
    1322        ):
    1323            # Integer representation will be returned if:
    1324            # - The read dialect treats the hex value as integer literal but not the write
    1325            # - The transpilation is not supported (write dialect hasn't set HEX_START or the param flag)
    1326            return f"{int(this, 16)}"
    1327
    1328        if not is_integer_type:
    1329            # Read dialect treats the hex value as BINARY/BLOB
    1330            if binary_function_repr:
    1331                # The write dialect supports the transpilation to its equivalent BINARY/BLOB
    1332                return self.func(binary_function_repr, exp.Literal.string(this))
    1333            if self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE:
    1334                # The write dialect does not support the transpilation, it'll treat the hex value as INTEGER
    1335                self.unsupported("Unsupported transpilation from BINARY/BLOB hex string")
    1336
    1337        return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"

def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString ) -> str: View Source

    1339    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1340        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1341        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1342            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1343        return this

def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString ) -> str: View Source

    1345    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1346        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1347        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1348
    1349        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1350            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
    1351            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
    1352        else:
    1353            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
    1354            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
    1355
    1356        if escape:
    1357            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1358            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
    1359        else:
    1360            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1361            escape_sql = ""
    1362
    1363        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
    1364            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
    1365
    1366        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"

def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString ) -> str: View Source

    1368    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1369        string = expression.this
    1370        if "\\" in self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES:
    1371            string = string.replace("\\", "\\\\")
    1372
    1373        string = self.escape_str(string, escape_backslash=False)
    1374        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"

def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam ) -> str: View Source

    1376    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1377        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1378        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1379        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1380        return f"{this}{specifier}"

def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType ) -> str: View Source

    1382    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1383        nested = ""
    1384        values = ""
    1385        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1386
    1387        type_value = expression.this
    1388        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1389            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1390        else:
    1391            type_sql = (
    1392                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1393                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1394                else type_value
    1395            )
    1396
    1397        if interior:
    1398            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1399                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1400                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1401                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1402                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1403                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1404            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1405                nested = f" {interior}"
    1406            else:
    1407                nested = f"({interior})"
    1408
    1409        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1410        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1411            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1412            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1413        ):
    1414            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1415
    1416        return type_sql

def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory ) -> str: View Source

    1418    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1419        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1420        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1421        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1422        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"

def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete ) -> str: View Source

    1424    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1425        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1426        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1427        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1428        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1429        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1430        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
    1431        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1432        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1433        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1434        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1435        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1436        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1437            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1438        else:
    1439            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
    1440        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")

def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop ) -> str: View Source

    1442    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1444        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1445        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    1446        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1447        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1448        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1449        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1450        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1451        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    1452        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1453        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1454        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1455        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1456        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1457        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"

def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation ) -> str: View Source

    1459    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1460        op_type = type(expression)
    1461        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
    1462
    1463        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
    1464        if (
    1465            distinct is False
    1466            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
    1467            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
    1468        ):
    1469            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
    1470
    1471        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
    1472
    1473        if distinct is None:
    1474            distinct = default_distinct
    1475            if distinct is None:
    1476                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
    1477
    1478        if distinct is default_distinct:
    1479            distinct_or_all = ""
    1480        else:
    1481            distinct_or_all = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
    1482
    1483        side_kind = " ".join(filter(None, [expression.side, expression.kind]))
    1484        side_kind = f"{side_kind} " if side_kind else ""
    1485
    1486        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1487        on = self.expressions(expression, key="on", flat=True)
    1488        on = f" ON ({on})" if on else ""
    1489
    1490        return f"{side_kind}{op_name}{distinct_or_all}{by_name}{on}"

def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation ) -> str: View Source

    1492    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1493        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
    1494            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    1495            order = expression.args.get("order")
    1496
    1497            if limit or order:
    1498                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
    1499                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
    1500                )
    1501
    1502                if limit:
    1503                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
    1504                if order:
    1505                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
    1506                return self.sql(select)
    1507
    1508        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    1509        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    1510
    1511        while stack:
    1512            node = stack.pop()
    1513
    1514            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
    1515                stack.append(node.expression)
    1516                stack.append(
    1517                    self.maybe_comment(
    1518                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
    1519                    )
    1520                )
    1521                stack.append(node.this)
    1522            else:
    1523                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    1524
    1525        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
    1526        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
    1527        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)

def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch ) -> str: View Source

    1529    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1530        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1531        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1532        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
    1533        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1534        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
    1535        limit_options = f"{limit_options}" if limit_options else " ROWS ONLY"
    1536        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count}{limit_options}"

def limitoptions_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LimitOptions ) -> str: View Source

    1538    def limitoptions_sql(self, expression: exp.LimitOptions) -> str:
    1539        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1540        rows = " ROWS" if expression.args.get("rows") else ""
    1541        with_ties = " WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else ""
    1542        if not with_ties and rows:
    1543            with_ties = " ONLY"
    1544        return f"{percent}{rows}{with_ties}"

def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter ) -> str: View Source

    1546    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1547        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1548            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1549            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1550            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1551
    1552        agg = expression.this
    1553        agg_arg = agg.this
    1554        cond = expression.expression.this
    1555        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1556        return self.sql(agg)

def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint ) -> str: View Source

    1558    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1559        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1560            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1561            return ""
    1562
    1563        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"

def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters ) -> str: View Source

    1565    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
    1566        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1567        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1568        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1569        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1570        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1571        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1572        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1573        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1574        if include:
    1575            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1576        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
    1577        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
    1578        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
    1579        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
    1580        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1581        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    1582
    1583        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"

def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index ) -> str: View Source

    1585    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1586        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1587        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1588        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1589        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1590        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1591        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1592        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1593
    1594        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1595
    1596        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
    1597        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"

def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier ) -> str: View Source

    1599    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1600        text = expression.name
    1601        lower = text.lower()
    1602        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1603        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1604        if (
    1605            expression.quoted
    1606            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1607            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1608            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1609        ):
    1610            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
    1611        return text

def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex ) -> str: View Source

    1613    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
    1614        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1615        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1616            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1617
    1618        return text

def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex ) -> str: View Source

    1620    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
    1621        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1622        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1623            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1624        return text

def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat ) -> str: View Source

    1626    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1627        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1628        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1629        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1630        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1631        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))

def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str: View Source

    1633    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1634        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1635        return f"{prefix}{string}"

def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition ) -> str: View Source

    1637    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1638        partition_keyword = "SUBPARTITION" if expression.args.get("subpartition") else "PARTITION"
    1639        return f"{partition_keyword}({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties ) -> str: View Source

    1641    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1642        root_properties = []
    1643        with_properties = []
    1644
    1645        for p in expression.expressions:
    1646            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1647            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1648                with_properties.append(p)
    1649            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1650                root_properties.append(p)
    1651
    1652        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
    1653        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
    1654
    1655        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
    1656            with_props = " " + with_props
    1657
    1658        return root_props + with_props

def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties ) -> str: View Source

    1660    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1661        if properties.expressions:
    1662            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1663        return ""

def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    1665    def properties(
    1666        self,
    1667        properties: exp.Properties,
    1668        prefix: str = "",
    1669        sep: str = ", ",
    1670        suffix: str = "",
    1671        wrapped: bool = True,
    1672    ) -> str:
    1673        if properties.expressions:
    1674            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1675            if expressions:
    1676                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1677                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1678        return ""

def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties ) -> str: View Source

    1680    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1681        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))

def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties ) -> DefaultDict: View Source

    1683    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1684        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1685        for p in properties.expressions:
    1686            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1687            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1688                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1689            else:
    1690                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1691
    1692        return properties_locs

def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    1694    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1695        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1696            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1697        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name

def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property ) -> str: View Source

    1699    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1700        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1701        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1702            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1703
    1704        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1705        if not property_name:
    1706            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1707
    1708        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1710    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1711        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1712            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1713            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1714
    1715            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1716            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1717                like = f"({like})"
    1718
    1719            return like
    1720
    1721        if expression.expressions:
    1722            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1723
    1724        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1725        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"

def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1727    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1728        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1729        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1730        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"

def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1732    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1733        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1734        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1735        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1736        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1737        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1738        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1739        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"

def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1741    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1742        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1743        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1744        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"

def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1746    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1747        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1748            property = "DEFAULT"
    1749        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1750            property = "ON"
    1751        else:
    1752            property = "OFF"
    1753        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"

def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1755    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1756        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1757            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1758        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1759            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1760
    1761        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1762        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"

def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1764    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1765        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1766        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1767        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1768        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1769            if default:
    1770                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1771            elif minimum:
    1772                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1773            else:
    1774                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1775            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1776        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1777        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1778        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"

def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1780    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1781        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1782        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1783        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1784        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1785        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1786
    1787        if autotemp is not None:
    1788            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1789        elif always:
    1790            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1791        elif default:
    1792            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1793        elif manual:
    1794            prop = "MANUAL"
    1795        elif never:
    1796            prop = "NEVER"
    1797        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"

def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1799    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1800        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1801        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1802        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1803        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1804        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1805        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
    1806        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"

def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec ) -> str: View Source

    1808    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1809        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1810            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1811        if expression.this:
    1812            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1813            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1814            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1815
    1816        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1817        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1818        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"

def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1820    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1821        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1822
    1823        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1824        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1825            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1826        else:
    1827            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1828
    1829        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"

def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1831    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1832        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1833        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1834        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1835        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1836        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1837        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1838        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"

def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1840    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1841        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1842        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1843        statistics_sql = ""
    1844        if statistics is not None:
    1845            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1846        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"

def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1848    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1850        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
    1851        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
    1852        data_consistency = (
    1853            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
    1854        )
    1855        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    1856        retention_period = (
    1857            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    1858        )
    1859
    1860        if this:
    1861            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
    1862        else:
    1863            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    1864
    1865        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
    1866
    1867        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql

def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert ) -> str: View Source

    1869    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1870        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    1871        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1872
    1873        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1874            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1875        else:
    1876            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1877
    1878        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
    1879        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
    1880        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1881        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1882        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1883        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
    1884        if is_function:
    1885            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
    1886        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1887
    1888        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1889        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1890        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1891        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1892        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1893        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1894        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1895        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1896
    1897        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1898            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
    1899        else:
    1900            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
    1901
    1902        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1903        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1904        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
    1905        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
    1906
    1907        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
    1908        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
    1909
    1910        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
    1911        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer ) -> str: View Source

    1913    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1914        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill ) -> str: View Source

    1916    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1917        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1918        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1920        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1921        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"

def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType ) -> str: View Source

    1923    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1924        return expression.name

def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier ) -> str: View Source

    1926    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1927        return expression.name

def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict ) -> str: View Source

    1929    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1930        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1931
    1932        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1933        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
    1934
    1935        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
    1936        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
    1937        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    1938
    1939        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1940        if expressions:
    1941            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1942            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1943
    1944        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1945        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}{where}"

def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning ) -> str: View Source

    1947    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1948        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"

def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty ) -> str: View Source

    1950    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1951        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
    1952        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1953        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
    1954        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1955        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
    1956        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1957        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
    1958        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1959        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
    1960        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1961        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    1962        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1963        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"

def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint ) -> str: View Source

    1965    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1966        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint ) -> str: View Source

    1968    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1969        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1970        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1971        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1972        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData ) -> str: View Source

    1974    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1975        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1976        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1977        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1978        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"

def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table ) -> str: View Source

    1980    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
    1981        return ".".join(
    1982            self.sql(part)
    1983            for part in (
    1984                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1985                expression.args.get("db"),
    1986                expression.args.get("this"),
    1987            )
    1988            if part is not None
    1989        )

def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str: View Source

    1991    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1992        table = self.table_parts(expression)
    1993        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    1994        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1995        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1996        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1997        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1998        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1999        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2000
    2001        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    2002        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
    2003            sample_pre_alias = sample
    2004            sample_post_alias = ""
    2005        else:
    2006            sample_pre_alias = ""
    2007            sample_post_alias = sample
    2008
    2009        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    2010        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    2011        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    2012        joins = self.indent(
    2013            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    2014        )
    2015        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    2016
    2017        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    2018        if file_format:
    2019            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2020            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    2021            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    2022
    2023        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    2024        if ordinality:
    2025            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    2026            alias = ""
    2027
    2028        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    2029        if when:
    2030            table = f"{table} {when}"
    2031
    2032        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
    2033        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
    2034
    2035        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
    2036        if rows_from:
    2037            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
    2038
    2039        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"

def tablefromrows_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableFromRows ) -> str: View Source

    2041    def tablefromrows_sql(self, expression: exp.TableFromRows) -> str:
    2042        table = self.func("TABLE", expression.this)
    2043        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2044        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2045        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    2046        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    2047        joins = self.indent(
    2048            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    2049        )
    2050        return f"{table}{alias}{pivots}{sample}{joins}"

def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str: View Source

    2052    def tablesample_sql(
    2053        self,
    2054        expression: exp.TableSample,
    2055        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    2056    ) -> str:
    2057        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    2058        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    2059        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    2060        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    2061        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    2062        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    2063        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    2064        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    2065        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    2066
    2067        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    2068        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    2069            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    2070
    2071        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    2072        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    2073            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    2074
    2075        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    2076        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    2077            expr = f"({expr})"
    2078
    2079        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"

def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot ) -> str: View Source

    2081    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    2082        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2083        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
    2084
    2085        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    2086
    2087        if expression.this:
    2088            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2089            if not expressions:
    2090                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    2091
    2092            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    2093            into = self.sql(expression, "into")
    2094            into = f"{self.seg('INTO')} {into}" if into else ""
    2095            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    2096            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    2097            return f"{direction} {this}{on}{into}{using}{group}"
    2098
    2099        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2100        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2101
    2102        fields = self.expressions(
    2103            expression,
    2104            "fields",
    2105            sep=" ",
    2106            dynamic=True,
    2107            new_line=True,
    2108            skip_first=True,
    2109            skip_last=True,
    2110        )
    2111
    2112        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    2113        if include_nulls is not None:
    2114            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    2115        else:
    2116            nulls = ""
    2117
    2118        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
    2119        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
    2120        return f"{self.seg(direction)}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {fields}{default_on_null}{group}){alias}"

def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version ) -> str: View Source

    2122    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    2123        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    2124        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2125        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2126        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"

def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple ) -> str: View Source

    2128    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    2129        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"

def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update ) -> str: View Source

    2131    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    2132        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2133        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2134        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2135        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    2136        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    2137        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2138        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    2139        if self.RETURNING_END:
    2140            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    2141        else:
    2142            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    2143        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    2144        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    2146    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
    2147        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
    2148
    2149        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    2150        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    2151            args = self.expressions(expression)
    2152            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2153            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    2154            values = (
    2155                f"({values})"
    2156                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
    2157                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
    2158                else values
    2159            )
    2160            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    2161
    2162        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    2163        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    2164        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    2165
    2166        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
    2167
    2168        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    2169            row = tup.expressions
    2170
    2171            if i == 0 and column_names:
    2172                row = [
    2173                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    2174                ]
    2175
    2176            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    2177
    2178        if self.pretty:
    2179            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    2180            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    2181            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    2182            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    2183            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
    2184
    2185        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    2186        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    2187        return f"({unions}){alias}"

def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var ) -> str: View Source

    2189    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    2190        return self.sql(expression, "this")

@unsupported_args('expressions')
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into ) -> str: View Source

    2192    @unsupported_args("expressions")
    2193    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    2194        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    2195        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    2196        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From ) -> str: View Source

    2198    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    2199        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GroupingSets ) -> str: View Source

    2201    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
    2202        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2203        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"

def rollup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollup ) -> str: View Source

    2205    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
    2206        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2207        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"

def cube_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cube ) -> str: View Source

    2209    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
    2210        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2211        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"

def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group ) -> str: View Source

    2213    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    2214        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
    2215        if group_by_all is True:
    2216            modifier = " ALL"
    2217        elif group_by_all is False:
    2218            modifier = " DISTINCT"
    2219        else:
    2220            modifier = ""
    2221
    2222        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
    2223
    2224        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
    2225        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
    2226        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
    2227
    2228        groupings = csv(
    2229            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
    2230            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
    2231            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
    2232            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    2233            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    2234        )
    2235
    2236        if (
    2237            expression.expressions
    2238            and groupings
    2239            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
    2240        ):
    2241            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    2242
    2243        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"

def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having ) -> str: View Source

    2245    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    2246        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2247        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect ) -> str: View Source

    2249    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    2250        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    2251        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    2252        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
    2253        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    2254        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
    2255        return start + connect

def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior ) -> str: View Source

    2257    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    2258        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join ) -> str: View Source

    2260    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    2261        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    2262            side = None
    2263        else:
    2264            side = expression.side
    2265
    2266        op_sql = " ".join(
    2267            op
    2268            for op in (
    2269                expression.method,
    2270                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    2271                side,
    2272                expression.kind,
    2273                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    2274            )
    2275            if op
    2276        )
    2277        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
    2278        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
    2279        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    2280        using = expression.args.get("using")
    2281
    2282        if not on_sql and using:
    2283            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    2284
    2285        this = expression.this
    2286        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    2287
    2288        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
    2289        if exprs:
    2290            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
    2291
    2292        if on_sql:
    2293            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    2294            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    2295            if using:
    2296                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    2297            else:
    2298                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    2299        elif not op_sql:
    2300            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    2301                return f" {this_sql}"
    2302
    2303            return f", {this_sql}"
    2304
    2305        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
    2306            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    2307
    2308        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    2309        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}{pivots}"

def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str: View Source

    2311    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    2312        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2313        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    2314        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral ) -> str: View Source

    2316    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2317        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    2318
    2319        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    2320        if cross_apply is True:
    2321            op = "INNER JOIN "
    2322        elif cross_apply is False:
    2323            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    2324        else:
    2325            op = ""
    2326
    2327        return f"{op}LATERAL"

def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral ) -> str: View Source

    2329    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2330        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2331
    2332        if expression.args.get("view"):
    2333            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2334            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    2335            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    2336            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    2337            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    2338            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    2339
    2340        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2341        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2342
    2343        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    2344        if ordinality:
    2345            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    2346            alias = ""
    2347
    2348        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}{ordinality}"

def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    2350    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    2351        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2352
    2353        args = [
    2354            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    2355            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    2356            if e
    2357        ]
    2358
    2359        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    2360        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    2361        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2362        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
    2363        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2364
    2365        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{limit_options}{expressions}"

def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset ) -> str: View Source

    2367    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    2368        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2369        value = expression.expression
    2370        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    2371        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2372        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2373        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"

def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem ) -> str: View Source

    2375    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    2376        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2377        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    2378        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2379        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2380        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2381        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2382        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    2383        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"

def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set ) -> str: View Source

    2385    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    2386        expressions = f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    2387        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    2388        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"

def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma ) -> str: View Source

    2390    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    2391        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock ) -> str: View Source

    2393    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    2394        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    2395            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    2396            return ""
    2397
    2398        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    2399        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2400        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2401        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    2402
    2403        if wait is not None:
    2404            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    2405                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    2406            else:
    2407                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    2408
    2409        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"

def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal ) -> str: View Source

    2411    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    2412        text = expression.this or ""
    2413        if expression.is_string:
    2414            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2415        return text

def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    2417    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
    2418        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
    2419            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
    2420            text = "".join(
    2421                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
    2422            )
    2423
    2424        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
    2425            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
    2426        )

def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData ) -> str: View Source

    2428    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    2429        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    2430        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    2431        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    2432        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2433        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    2434        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    2435        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    2436        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    2437        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    2438        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    2439        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"

def null_sql(self, *_) -> str: View Source

    2441    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    2442        return "NULL"

def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean ) -> str: View Source

    2444    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    2445        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"

def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    2447    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    2448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2449        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    2450        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    2451        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore

def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill ) -> str: View Source

    2453    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    2454        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2455        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    2456        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2457        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2458        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    2459        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    2460        interpolated_values = [
    2461            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
    2462            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2463            else self.sql(e, "this")
    2464            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    2465        ]
    2466        interpolate = (
    2467            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    2468        )
    2469        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"

def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster ) -> str: View Source

    2471    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    2472        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)

def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute ) -> str: View Source

    2474    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    2475        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)

def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort ) -> str: View Source

    2477    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    2478        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)

def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered ) -> str: View Source

    2480    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    2481        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    2482        asc = not desc
    2483
    2484        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    2485        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    2486        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    2487        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    2488        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    2489
    2490        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2491
    2492        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    2493        nulls_sort_change = ""
    2494        if nulls_first and (
    2495            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    2496        ):
    2497            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    2498        elif (
    2499            nulls_last
    2500            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    2501            and not nulls_are_last
    2502        ):
    2503            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    2504
    2505        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    2506        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    2507            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2508            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    2509                self.unsupported(
    2510                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    2511                )
    2512                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2513            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False and (
    2514                (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
    2515                or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
    2516            ):
    2517                # BigQuery does not allow these ordering/nulls combinations when used under
    2518                # an aggregation func or under a window containing one
    2519                ancestor = expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2520
    2521                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.Window):
    2522                    ancestor = ancestor.this
    2523                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.AggFunc):
    2524                    self.unsupported(
    2525                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
    2526                    )
    2527                    nulls_sort_change = ""
    2528            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    2529                if expression.this.is_int:
    2530                    self.unsupported(
    2531                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2532                    )
    2533                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
    2534                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2535                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2536                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2537
    2538        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2539        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2540
    2541        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"

def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure ) -> str: View Source

    2543    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
    2544        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
    2545        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
    2546
    2547        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2548
    2549        return f"{window_frame}{this}"

def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize ) -> str: View Source

    2551    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2552        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2553        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2554        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2555        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2556        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2557        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2558        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2559        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2560        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2561        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2562        definition_sqls = [
    2563            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2564            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2565        ]
    2566        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2567        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2568        body = "".join(
    2569            (
    2570                partition,
    2571                order,
    2572                measures,
    2573                rows,
    2574                after,
    2575                pattern,
    2576                define,
    2577            )
    2578        )
    2579        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2580        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2581        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"

def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str: View Source

    2583    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2584        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2585
    2586        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2587            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2588        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2589            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2590
    2591        return csv(
    2592            *sqls,
    2593            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2594            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2595            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2596            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
    2597            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2598            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2599            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2600            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2601            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
    2602            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2603            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
    2604            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2605            self.options_modifier(expression),
    2606            self.for_modifiers(expression),
    2607            sep="",
    2608        )

def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression ) -> str: View Source

    2610    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
    2611        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2612        return f" {options}" if options else ""

def for_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression ) -> str: View Source

    2614    def for_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
    2615        for_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="for")
    2616        return f"{self.sep()}FOR XML{self.seg(for_modifiers)}" if for_modifiers else ""

def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption ) -> str: View Source

    2618    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
    2619        self.unsupported("Unsupported query option.")
    2620        return ""

def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[ sqlglot.expressions.Fetch , sqlglot.expressions.Limit , NoneType]) -> List[str]: View Source

    2622    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2623        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2624    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2625        return [
    2626            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2627            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2628        ]

def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression ) -> List[str]: View Source

    2630    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2631        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2632        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2633        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]

def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select ) -> str: View Source

    2635    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2636        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2637        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2638            into.pop()
    2639
    2640        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2641        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2642        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2643        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2644
    2645        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2646        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
    2647            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2648            limit.pop()
    2649        else:
    2650            top = ""
    2651
    2652        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2653
    2654        if kind:
    2655            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2656                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2657            else:
    2658                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2659                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2660                        sqls=[
    2661                            self.sql(
    2662                                exp.Struct(
    2663                                    expressions=[
    2664                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
    2665                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2666                                        else e
    2667                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2668                                    ]
    2669                                )
    2670                            )
    2671                        ]
    2672                    )
    2673                kind = ""
    2674
    2675        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
    2676        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
    2677
    2678        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2679        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2680        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2681        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2682        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2683            expression,
    2684            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
    2685            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2686            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2687        )
    2688
    2689        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
    2690        if expression.args.get("with"):
    2691            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
    2692            expression.pop_comments()
    2693
    2694        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2695
    2696        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2697            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2698                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2699            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2700                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2701            else:
    2702                table_kind = ""
    2703            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2704
    2705        return sql

def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema ) -> str: View Source

    2707    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2708        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2709        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2710        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql

def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema ) -> str: View Source

    2712    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2713        if expression.expressions:
    2714            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2715        return ""

def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star ) -> str: View Source

    2717    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2718        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2719        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2720        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2721        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2722        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
    2723        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
    2724        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"

def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter ) -> str: View Source

    2726    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2727        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2728        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"

def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter ) -> str: View Source

    2730    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2731        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2732        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2733        if kind:
    2734            kind = f"{kind}."
    2735        return f"@@{kind}{this}"

def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder ) -> str: View Source

    2737    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2738        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"

def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str: View Source

    2740    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2741        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2742        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2743        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    2744        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
    2745            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
    2746
    2747            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
    2748            expression.set("sample", None)
    2749
    2750        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    2751        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2752        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify ) -> str: View Source

    2754    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2755        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2756        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest ) -> str: View Source

    2758    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2759        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2760
    2761        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2762        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2763
    2764        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2765            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2766                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2767
    2768        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2769            columns = alias.columns
    2770            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2771        else:
    2772            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2773
    2774        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2775        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2776            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2777        else:
    2778            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2779                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2780            elif offset:
    2781                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2782            else:
    2783                suffix = alias
    2784
    2785        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"

def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere ) -> str: View Source

    2787    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
    2788        return ""

def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where ) -> str: View Source

    2790    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2791        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2792        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window ) -> str: View Source

    2794    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2795        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2796        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2797        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2798        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2799        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2800        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2801        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2802
    2803        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2804
    2805        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2806        if first is None:
    2807            first = ""
    2808        else:
    2809            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2810
    2811        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2812            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2813
    2814        args = self.format_args(
    2815            *[arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg], sep=" "
    2816        )
    2817        return f"{this} ({args})"

def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize ) -> str: View Source

    2819    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2820        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2821        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""

def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec ) -> str: View Source

    2823    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2824        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2825        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2826        end = (
    2827            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2828            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2829        )
    2830
    2831        window_spec = f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
    2832
    2833        exclude = self.sql(expression, "exclude")
    2834        if exclude:
    2835            if self.SUPPORTS_WINDOW_EXCLUDE:
    2836                window_spec += f" EXCLUDE {exclude}"
    2837            else:
    2838                self.unsupported("EXCLUDE clause is not supported in the WINDOW clause")
    2839
    2840        return window_spec

def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup ) -> str: View Source

    2842    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2844        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2845        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"

def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between ) -> str: View Source

    2847    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2849        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2850        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2851        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"

def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket, index_offset: Optional[int] = None) -> List[ sqlglot.expressions.Expression ]: View Source

    2853    def bracket_offset_expressions(
    2854        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
    2855    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2856        return apply_index_offset(
    2857            expression.this,
    2858            expression.expressions,
    2859            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2860            dialect=self.dialect,
    2861        )

def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket ) -> str: View Source

    2863    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2864        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
    2865        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2866        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"

def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All ) -> str: View Source

    2868    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2869        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"

def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any ) -> str: View Source

    2871    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2872        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2873        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
    2874            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
    2875                this = self.wrap(this)
    2876            return f"ANY{this}"
    2877        return f"ANY {this}"

def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists ) -> str: View Source

    2879    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2880        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"

def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case ) -> str: View Source

    2882    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2883        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2884        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2885
    2886        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2887            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2888            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2889
    2890        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2891
    2892        if default:
    2893            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2894
    2895        statements.append("END")
    2896
    2897        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
    2898            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2899
    2900        return " ".join(statements)

def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint ) -> str: View Source

    2902    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2903        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2904        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2905        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"

def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor ) -> str: View Source

    2907    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2908        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2909        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2910        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"

def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract ) -> str: View Source

    2912    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2913        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2914        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2915        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"

def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim ) -> str: View Source

    2917    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2918        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2919
    2920        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2921            func_name = "LTRIM"
    2922        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2923            func_name = "RTRIM"
    2924        else:
    2925            func_name = "TRIM"
    2926
    2927        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)

def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs ) -> List[ sqlglot.expressions.Expression ]: View Source

    2929    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2930        args = expression.expressions
    2931        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2932            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2933
    2934        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2935            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
    2936
    2937        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2938            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2939
    2940        return args

def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat ) -> str: View Source

    2942    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2943        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2944
    2945        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2946        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2947            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2948
    2949        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)

def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs ) -> str: View Source

    2951    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2952        return self.func(
    2953            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2954        )

def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check ) -> str: View Source

    2956    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2957        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2958        return f"CHECK ({this})"

def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey ) -> str: View Source

    2960    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2961        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2962        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    2963        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2964        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2965        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2966        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2967        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2968        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2969        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2970        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2971        return f"FOREIGN KEY{expressions}{reference}{delete}{update}{options}"

def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey ) -> str: View Source

    2973    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2974        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2975        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2976        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2977        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"

def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If ) -> str: View Source

    2979    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2980        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))

def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst ) -> str: View Source

    2982    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2983        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2984        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2985        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"

def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue ) -> str: View Source

    2987    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2988        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath ) -> str: View Source

    2990    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2991        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2992
    2993        if expression.args.get("escape"):
    2994            path = self.escape_str(path)
    2995
    2996        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
    2997            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2998
    2999        return path

def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart ) -> str: View Source

    3001    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    3002        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    3003            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    3004            if not callable(transform):
    3005                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3006                return ""
    3007
    3008            return transform(self, expression)
    3009
    3010        if isinstance(expression, int):
    3011            return str(expression)
    3012
    3013        if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    3014            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    3015            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    3016        else:
    3017            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    3018            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    3019
    3020        return escaped

def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson ) -> str: View Source

    3022    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    3023        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"

def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg ) -> str: View Source

    3025    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    3026        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    3027        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    3028
    3029        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    3030        if unique_keys is not None:
    3031            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    3032        else:
    3033            unique_keys = ""
    3034
    3035        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    3036        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    3037        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    3038        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    3039
    3040        return self.func(
    3041            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    3042            *expression.expressions,
    3043            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    3044        )

def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg ) -> str: View Source

    3046    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    3047        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)

def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray ) -> str: View Source

    3049    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    3050        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    3051        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    3052        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    3053        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    3054        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    3055        return self.func(
    3056            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    3057        )

def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg ) -> str: View Source

    3059    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    3060        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3061        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    3062        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    3063        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    3064        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    3065        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    3066        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    3067        return self.func(
    3068            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    3069            this,
    3070            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    3071        )

def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef ) -> str: View Source

    3073    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    3074        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    3075        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    3076        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    3077
    3078        if nested_schema:
    3079            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    3080
    3081        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3082        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3083        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3084        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"

def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema ) -> str: View Source

    3086    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    3087        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)

def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable ) -> str: View Source

    3089    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    3090        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3091        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    3092        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    3093        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    3094        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    3095        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    3096        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    3097        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3098        return self.func(
    3099            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    3100        )

def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef ) -> str: View Source

    3102    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    3103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3104        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3105        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    3106        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    3107        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    3108        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"

def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON ) -> str: View Source

    3110    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    3111        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3112        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    3113        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    3114        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3115        with_ = (
    3116            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    3117            if expressions
    3118            else ""
    3119        )
    3120        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"

def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In ) -> str: View Source

    3122    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    3123        query = expression.args.get("query")
    3124        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    3125        field = expression.args.get("field")
    3126        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    3127
    3128        if query:
    3129            in_sql = self.sql(query)
    3130        elif unnest:
    3131            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    3132        elif field:
    3133            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    3134        else:
    3135            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
    3136
    3137        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"

def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest ) -> str: View Source

    3139    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    3140        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"

def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval ) -> str: View Source

    3142    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    3143        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    3144        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    3145            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    3146        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    3147
    3148        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    3149            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    3150            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    3151
    3152        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3153        if this:
    3154            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    3155            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    3156
    3157        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"

def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return ) -> str: View Source

    3159    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    3160        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference ) -> str: View Source

    3162    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    3163        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3164        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3165        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3166        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    3167        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3168        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"

def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous ) -> str: View Source

    3170    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    3171        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
    3172        parent = expression.parent
    3173        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
    3174        return self.func(
    3175            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
    3176        )

def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren ) -> str: View Source

    3178    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    3179        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    3180        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"

def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg ) -> str: View Source

    3182    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    3183        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    3184        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3185        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    3186        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"

def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not ) -> str: View Source

    3188    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    3189        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias ) -> str: View Source

    3191    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    3192        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    3193        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    3194        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"

def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias ) -> str: View Source

    3196    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    3197        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    3198
    3199        parent = expression.parent
    3200        pivot = parent and parent.parent
    3201
    3202        if isinstance(pivot, exp.Pivot) and pivot.unpivot:
    3203            identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    3204            literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
    3205
    3206            if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3207                alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    3208            elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3209                alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    3210
    3211        return self.alias_sql(expression)

def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases ) -> str: View Source

    3213    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    3214        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone ) -> str: View Source

    3216    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3217        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3218        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3219        return f"{this} AT {index}"

def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone ) -> str: View Source

    3221    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3222        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3223        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3224        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"

def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone ) -> str: View Source

    3226    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    3227        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3228        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3229        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"

def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add ) -> str: View Source

    3231    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    3232        return self.binary(expression, "+")

def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression ]] = None) -> str: View Source

    3234    def and_sql(
    3235        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3236    ) -> str:
    3237        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)

def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression ]] = None) -> str: View Source

    3239    def or_sql(
    3240        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3241    ) -> str:
    3242        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)

def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression ]] = None) -> str: View Source

    3244    def xor_sql(
    3245        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3246    ) -> str:
    3247        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)

def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression ]] = None) -> str: View Source

    3249    def connector_sql(
    3250        self,
    3251        expression: exp.Connector,
    3252        op: str,
    3253        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3254    ) -> str:
    3255        if stack is not None:
    3256            if expression.expressions:
    3257                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
    3258            else:
    3259                stack.append(expression.right)
    3260                if expression.comments and self.comments:
    3261                    for comment in expression.comments:
    3262                        if comment:
    3263                            op += f" /*{self.sanitize_comment(comment)}*/"
    3264                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
    3265            return op
    3266
    3267        stack = [expression]
    3268        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3269        ops = set()
    3270
    3271        while stack:
    3272            node = stack.pop()
    3273            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
    3274                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
    3275            else:
    3276                sql = self.sql(node)
    3277                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
    3278                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
    3279                else:
    3280                    sqls.append(sql)
    3281
    3282        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
    3283        return sep.join(sqls)

def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd ) -> str: View Source

    3285    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    3286        return self.binary(expression, "&")

def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift ) -> str: View Source

    3288    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    3289        return self.binary(expression, "<<")

def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot ) -> str: View Source

    3291    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    3292        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr ) -> str: View Source

    3294    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    3295        return self.binary(expression, "|")

def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift ) -> str: View Source

    3297    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    3298        return self.binary(expression, ">>")

def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor ) -> str: View Source

    3300    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    3301        return self.binary(expression, "^")

def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str: View Source

    3303    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    3304        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    3305        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    3306        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3307        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    3308        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    3309        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
    3310        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    3311        default = f" DEFAULT {default} ON CONVERSION ERROR" if default else ""
    3312        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{default}{format_sql}{action})"

def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate ) -> str: View Source

    3314    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    3315        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3316        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"

def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate ) -> str: View Source

    3318    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    3319        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    3320            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3321        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")

def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command ) -> str: View Source

    3323    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    3324        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"

def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment ) -> str: View Source

    3326    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    3327        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3328        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    3329        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    3330        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3331        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3332        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"

def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction ) -> str: View Source

    3334    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    3335        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3336        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    3337        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    3338        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    3339        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    3340        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    3341        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    3342        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    3343        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"

def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL ) -> str: View Source

    3345    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    3346        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    3347        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    3348        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    3349        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    3350
    3351        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    3352            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    3353
    3354        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"

def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction ) -> str: View Source

    3356    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    3357        return "BEGIN"

def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit ) -> str: View Source

    3359    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    3360        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    3361        if chain is not None:
    3362            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    3363
    3364        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"

def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback ) -> str: View Source

    3366    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    3367        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    3368        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    3369        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"

def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn ) -> str: View Source

    3371    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    3372        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3373
    3374        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    3375        if dtype:
    3376            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    3377            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    3378            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3379            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    3380            alter_set_type = self.ALTER_SET_TYPE + " " if self.ALTER_SET_TYPE else ""
    3381            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {alter_set_type}{dtype}{collate}{using}"
    3382
    3383        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    3384        if default:
    3385            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    3386
    3387        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3388        if comment:
    3389            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    3390
    3391        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3392        if visible:
    3393            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET {visible}"
    3394
    3395        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
    3396        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
    3397
    3398        if not drop and not allow_null:
    3399            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    3400
    3401        if allow_null is not None:
    3402            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
    3403            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
    3404
    3405        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"

def alterindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterIndex ) -> str: View Source

    3407    def alterindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterIndex) -> str:
    3408        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3409
    3410        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3411        visible_sql = "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3412
    3413        return f"ALTER INDEX {this} {visible_sql}"

def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle ) -> str: View Source

    3415    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
    3416        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3417        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
    3418            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
    3419        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"

def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey ) -> str: View Source

    3421    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
    3422        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
    3423        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3424        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3425        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3426        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"

def alterrename_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterRename ) -> str: View Source

    3428    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
    3429        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    3430            # Remove db from tables
    3431            expression = expression.transform(
    3432                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    3433            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
    3434        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3435        return f"RENAME TO {this}"

def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn ) -> str: View Source

    3437    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    3438        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3439        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3440        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3441        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"

def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet ) -> str: View Source

    3443    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
    3444        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3445        if self.ALTER_SET_WRAPPED:
    3446            exprs = f"({exprs})"
    3447
    3448        return f"SET {exprs}"

def alter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter ) -> str: View Source

    3450    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
    3451        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    3452
    3453        if not self.dialect.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_REQUIRED_FOR_EACH_COLUMN and isinstance(
    3454            actions[0], exp.ColumnDef
    3455        ):
    3456            actions_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3457            actions_sql = f"ADD {actions_sql}"
    3458        else:
    3459            actions_list = []
    3460            for action in actions:
    3461                if isinstance(action, (exp.ColumnDef, exp.Schema)):
    3462                    action_sql = self.add_column_sql(action)
    3463                else:
    3464                    action_sql = self.sql(action)
    3465                    if isinstance(action, exp.Query):
    3466                        action_sql = f"AS {action_sql}"
    3467
    3468                actions_list.append(action_sql)
    3469
    3470            actions_sql = self.format_args(*actions_list)
    3471
    3472        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3473        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3474        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3475        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    3476        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    3477        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
    3478        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3479        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
    3480
    3481        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions_sql}{not_valid}{options}"

def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression ) -> str: View Source

    3483    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
    3484        sql = self.sql(expression)
    3485        if isinstance(expression, exp.Schema):
    3486            column_text = " COLUMNS"
    3487        elif isinstance(expression, exp.ColumnDef) and self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    3488            column_text = " COLUMN"
    3489        else:
    3490            column_text = ""
    3491
    3492        return f"ADD{column_text} {sql}"

def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition ) -> str: View Source

    3494    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    3495        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3496        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3497        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"

def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    3499    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    3500        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"

def addpartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddPartition ) -> str: View Source

    3502    def addpartition_sql(self, expression: exp.AddPartition) -> str:
    3503        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3504        return f"ADD {exists}{self.sql(expression.this)}"

def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct ) -> str: View Source

    3506    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    3507        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3508
    3509        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    3510            case = exp.case()
    3511            for arg in expression.expressions:
    3512                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    3513            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    3514
    3515        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3516
    3517        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    3518        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    3519        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"

def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls ) -> str: View Source

    3521    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    3522        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")

def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls ) -> str: View Source

    3524    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    3525        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")

def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax ) -> str: View Source

    3527    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
    3528        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3529        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3530        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
    3531        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"

def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv ) -> str: View Source

    3533    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    3534        return self.sql(
    3535            exp.Cast(
    3536                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    3537                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    3538            )
    3539        )

def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe ) -> str: View Source

    3541    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    3542        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3543            return self.func(
    3544                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
    3545            )
    3546        return self.binary(expression, "||")

def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div ) -> str: View Source

    3548    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    3549        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    3550
    3551        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3552            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    3553
    3554        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    3555            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
    3556                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3557
    3558        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    3559            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    3560                return self.sql(
    3561                    exp.cast(
    3562                        l / r,
    3563                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    3564                    )
    3565                )
    3566
    3567        return self.binary(expression, "/")

def safedivide_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDivide ) -> str: View Source

    3569    def safedivide_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDivide) -> str:
    3570        n = exp._wrap(expression.this, exp.Binary)
    3571        d = exp._wrap(expression.expression, exp.Binary)
    3572        return self.sql(exp.If(this=d.neq(0), true=n / d, false=exp.Null()))

def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps ) -> str: View Source

    3574    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    3575        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")

def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance ) -> str: View Source

    3577    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    3578        return self.binary(expression, "<->")

def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot ) -> str: View Source

    3580    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    3581        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ ) -> str: View Source

    3583    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    3584        return self.binary(expression, "=")

def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ ) -> str: View Source

    3586    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    3587        return self.binary(expression, ":=")

def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape ) -> str: View Source

    3589    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    3590        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")

def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob ) -> str: View Source

    3592    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    3593        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")

def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT ) -> str: View Source

    3595    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    3596        return self.binary(expression, ">")

def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE ) -> str: View Source

    3598    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    3599        return self.binary(expression, ">=")

def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike ) -> str: View Source

    3601    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    3602        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")

def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny ) -> str: View Source

    3604    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    3605        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")

def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is ) -> str: View Source

    3607    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    3608        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    3609            return self.sql(
    3610                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    3611            )
    3612        return self.binary(expression, "IS")

def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like ) -> str: View Source

    3614    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    3615        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")

def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny ) -> str: View Source

    3617    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    3618        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")

def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo ) -> str: View Source

    3620    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    3621        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")

def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT ) -> str: View Source

    3623    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    3624        return self.binary(expression, "<")

def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE ) -> str: View Source

    3626    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    3627        return self.binary(expression, "<=")

def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod ) -> str: View Source

    3629    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    3630        return self.binary(expression, "%")

def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul ) -> str: View Source

    3632    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    3633        return self.binary(expression, "*")

def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ ) -> str: View Source

    3635    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    3636        return self.binary(expression, "<>")

def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ ) -> str: View Source

    3638    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    3639        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")

def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ ) -> str: View Source

    3641    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    3642        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")

def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice ) -> str: View Source

    3644    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    3645        return self.binary(expression, ":")

def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub ) -> str: View Source

    3647    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    3648        return self.binary(expression, "-")

def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast ) -> str: View Source

    3650    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    3651        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")

def jsoncast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONCast ) -> str: View Source

    3653    def jsoncast_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONCast) -> str:
    3654        return self.cast_sql(expression)

def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try ) -> str: View Source

    3656    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
    3657        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
    3658            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
    3659            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    3660
    3661        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)

def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log ) -> str: View Source

    3663    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    3664        this = expression.this
    3665        expr = expression.expression
    3666
    3667        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
    3668            this, expr = expr, this
    3669        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
    3670            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
    3671                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
    3672
    3673            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
    3674
    3675        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)

def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use ) -> str: View Source

    3677    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3678        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3679        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3680        this = self.sql(expression, "this") or self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3681        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3682        return f"USE{kind}{this}"

def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str: View Source

    3684    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3685        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3686        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    3687        binary_type = type(expression)
    3688
    3689        while stack:
    3690            node = stack.pop()
    3691
    3692            if type(node) is binary_type:
    3693                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
    3694                if op_func:
    3695                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
    3696
    3697                stack.append(node.right)
    3698                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
    3699                stack.append(node.left)
    3700            else:
    3701                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    3702
    3703        return "".join(sqls)

def ceil_floor( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ceil | sqlglot.expressions.Floor ) -> str: View Source

    3705    def ceil_floor(self, expression: exp.Ceil | exp.Floor) -> str:
    3706        to_clause = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3707        if to_clause:
    3708            return f"{expression.sql_name()}({self.sql(expression, 'this')} TO {to_clause})"
    3709
    3710        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func ) -> str: View Source

    3712    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3713        args = []
    3714
    3715        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3716            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3717
    3718            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3719                for value in arg_value:
    3720                    args.append(value)
    3721            elif arg_value is not None:
    3722                args.append(arg_value)
    3723
    3724        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
    3725            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3726        else:
    3727            name = expression.sql_name()
    3728
    3729        return self.func(name, *args)

def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression , NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')', normalize: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    3731    def func(
    3732        self,
    3733        name: str,
    3734        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3735        prefix: str = "(",
    3736        suffix: str = ")",
    3737        normalize: bool = True,
    3738    ) -> str:
    3739        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
    3740        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"

def format_args( self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression , NoneType], sep: str = ', ') -> str: View Source

    3742    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
    3743        arg_sqls = tuple(
    3744            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
    3745        )
    3746        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
    3747            return self.indent(
    3748                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
    3749            )
    3750        return sep.join(arg_sqls)

def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool: View Source

    3752    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
    3753        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width

def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]: View Source

    3755    def format_time(
    3756        self,
    3757        expression: exp.Expression,
    3758        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
    3759        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
    3760    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3761        return format_time(
    3762            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3763            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3764            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3765        )

def expressions( self, expression: Optional[ sqlglot.expressions.Expression ] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression ]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    3767    def expressions(
    3768        self,
    3769        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3770        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3771        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3772        flat: bool = False,
    3773        indent: bool = True,
    3774        skip_first: bool = False,
    3775        skip_last: bool = False,
    3776        sep: str = ", ",
    3777        prefix: str = "",
    3778        dynamic: bool = False,
    3779        new_line: bool = False,
    3780    ) -> str:
    3781        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3782
    3783        if not expressions:
    3784            return ""
    3785
    3786        if flat:
    3787            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3788
    3789        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3790        result_sqls = []
    3791
    3792        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3793            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3794            if not sql:
    3795                continue
    3796
    3797            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3798
    3799            if self.pretty:
    3800                if self.leading_comma:
    3801                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3802                else:
    3803                    result_sqls.append(
    3804                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3805                    )
    3806            else:
    3807                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3808
    3809        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
    3810            if new_line:
    3811                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
    3812                result_sqls.append("")
    3813            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
    3814        else:
    3815            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
    3816
    3817        return (
    3818            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
    3819            if indent
    3820            else result_sql
    3821        )

def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    3823    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3824        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3825        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3826        if flat:
    3827            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3828        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"

def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property ) -> str: View Source

    3830    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3831        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3832        if not property_name:
    3833            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3834        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag ) -> str: View Source

    3836    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3837        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"

def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType ) -> str: View Source

    3839    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3840        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)

def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction ) -> str: View Source

    3842    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3844        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3845        expressions = (
    3846            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3847        )
    3848        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this

def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint ) -> str: View Source

    3850    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3851        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3852        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3853        return f"{this}({expressions})"

def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg ) -> str: View Source

    3855    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3856        return self.binary(expression, "=>")

def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When ) -> str: View Source

    3858    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3859        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3860        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3861        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3862        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3863
    3864        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3865        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3866            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
    3867            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
    3868            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
    3869            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
    3870        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3871            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3872                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3873            else:
    3874                then = f"UPDATE SET{self.sep()}{self.expressions(then_expression)}"
    3875        else:
    3876            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3877        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"

def whens_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Whens ) -> str: View Source

    3879    def whens_sql(self, expression: exp.Whens) -> str:
    3880        return self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)

def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge ) -> str: View Source

    3882    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3883        table = expression.this
    3884        table_alias = ""
    3885
    3886        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3887        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3888            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3889            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3890
    3891        this = self.sql(table)
    3892        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3893        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3894        whens = self.sql(expression, "whens")
    3895
    3896        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    3897        if returning:
    3898            whens = f"{whens}{returning}"
    3899
    3900        sep = self.sep()
    3901
    3902        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3903            expression,
    3904            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{whens}",
    3905        )

@unsupported_args('format')
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar ) -> str: View Source

    3907    @unsupported_args("format")
    3908    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3909        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))

def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber ) -> str: View Source

    3911    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
    3912        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
    3913            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
    3914            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3915
    3916        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
    3917        if not fmt:
    3918            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
    3919            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3920
    3921        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)

def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty ) -> str: View Source

    3923    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3925        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3926        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3927        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3928        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"

def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange ) -> str: View Source

    3930    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3931        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3932        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3933        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3934        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"

def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty ) -> str: View Source

    3936    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3937        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"

def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty ) -> str: View Source

    3939    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
    3940        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def uniquekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueKeyProperty ) -> str: View Source

    3943    def uniquekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueKeyProperty) -> str:
    3944        return f"UNIQUE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty ) -> str: View Source

    3947    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
    3948        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3949        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
    3950        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3951        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3952        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
    3953        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    3954        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"

def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster ) -> str: View Source

    3956    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3957        return ""

def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty ) -> str: View Source

    3959    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3960        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3961        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3962        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3963        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3964        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"

def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue ) -> str: View Source

    3966    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3967        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3968        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3969
    3970        if having:
    3971            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3972
    3973        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)

def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform ) -> str: View Source

    3975    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3976        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3977        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3978        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3979        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3980        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3981        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3982        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3983        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3984        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3985        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3986        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3987        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3988        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"

def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption ) -> str: View Source

    3990    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3991        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3992        if key_block_size:
    3993            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3994
    3995        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3996        if using:
    3997            return f"USING {using}"
    3998
    3999        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    4000        if parser:
    4001            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    4002
    4003        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    4004        if comment:
    4005            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    4006
    4007        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    4008        if visible is not None:
    4009            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    4010
    4011        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    4012        if engine_attr:
    4013            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    4014
    4015        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    4016        if secondary_engine_attr:
    4017            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    4018
    4019        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    4020        return ""

def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    4022    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
    4023        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
    4024        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"

def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    4026    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    4027        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4028        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    4029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4030        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4031        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    4032        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    4033        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4034        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    4035        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    4036        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    4037        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"

def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2 ) -> str: View Source

    4039    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    4040        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    4041            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4042
    4043        case = exp.Case().when(
    4044            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    4045            expression.args["true"],
    4046            copy=False,
    4047        )
    4048        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    4049        if else_cond:
    4050            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    4051
    4052        return self.sql(case)

def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension ) -> str: View Source

    4054    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    4055        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4056        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4057        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    4058        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    4059        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    4060        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"

def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix ) -> str: View Source

    4062    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    4063        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"

def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass ) -> str: View Source

    4065    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    4066        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict ) -> str: View Source

    4068    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    4069        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4070        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    4071        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4072        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    4073        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    4074        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)

def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn ) -> str: View Source

    4076    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    4077        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4078        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4079        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"

def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh ) -> str: View Source

    4081    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    4082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4083        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    4084        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"

def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray ) -> str: View Source

    4086    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    4087        arg = expression.this
    4088        if not arg.type:
    4089            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    4090
    4091            arg = annotate_types(arg, dialect=self.dialect)
    4092
    4093        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    4094            return self.sql(arg)
    4095
    4096        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    4097        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))

def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime ) -> str: View Source

    4099    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    4100        this = expression.this
    4101        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    4102
    4103        if time_format:
    4104            return self.sql(
    4105                exp.cast(
    4106                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    4107                    exp.DataType.Type.TIME,
    4108                )
    4109            )
    4110
    4111        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    4112            return self.sql(this)
    4113
    4114        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))

def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp ) -> str: View Source

    4116    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
    4117        this = expression.this
    4118        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
    4119            return self.sql(this)
    4120
    4121        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))

def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDatetime ) -> str: View Source

    4123    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
    4124        this = expression.this
    4125        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
    4126            return self.sql(this)
    4127
    4128        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))

def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate ) -> str: View Source

    4130    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    4131        this = expression.this
    4132        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    4133
    4134        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    4135            return self.sql(
    4136                exp.cast(
    4137                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    4138                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
    4139                )
    4140            )
    4141
    4142        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    4143            return self.sql(this)
    4144
    4145        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))

def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate ) -> str: View Source

    4147    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    4148        return self.sql(
    4149            exp.func(
    4150                "DATEDIFF",
    4151                expression.this,
    4152                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
    4153                "day",
    4154            )
    4155        )

def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay ) -> str: View Source

    4157    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    4158        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    4159            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4160
    4161        unit = expression.text("unit")
    4162        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    4163            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    4164
    4165        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)

def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd ) -> str: View Source

    4167    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
    4168        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
    4169
    4170        return self.func(
    4171            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
    4172        )

def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny ) -> str: View Source

    4174    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
    4175        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
    4176            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
    4177            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
    4178            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
    4179            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
    4180
    4181        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    4182
    4183        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
    4184        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
    4185            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
    4186
    4187        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct ) -> str: View Source

    4189    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
    4190        expression.set(
    4191            "expressions",
    4192            [
    4193                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
    4194                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
    4195                else e
    4196                for e in expression.expressions
    4197            ],
    4198        )
    4199
    4200        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange ) -> str: View Source

    4202    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
    4203        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4204        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4205
    4206        return f"{low} TO {high}"

def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable ) -> str: View Source

    4208    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
    4209        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
    4210        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
    4211
    4212        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    4213
    4214        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    4215        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    4216
    4217        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
    4218        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
    4219
    4220        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    4221        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    4222
    4223        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    4224        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    4225
    4226        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"

def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert ) -> str: View Source

    4230    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
    4231        to = expression.this
    4232        value = expression.expression
    4233        style = expression.args.get("style")
    4234        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
    4235        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
    4236
    4237        if not to or not value:
    4238            return ""
    4239
    4240        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
    4241        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    4242            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
    4243
    4244        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
    4245        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
    4246
    4247        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
    4248        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
    4249            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
    4250
    4251            style_value = style.name
    4252            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
    4253            if not converted_style:
    4254                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
    4255
    4256            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
    4257
    4258            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
    4259                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
    4260            elif to.this in (exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2):
    4261                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
    4262            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    4263                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
    4264            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
    4265                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
    4266
    4267        if not transformed:
    4268            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
    4269
    4270        return self.sql(transformed)

def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter ) -> str: View Source

    4338    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
    4339        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4340
    4341        if expression.expressions:
    4342            upper = option.upper()
    4343
    4344            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
    4345            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
    4346
    4347            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
    4348            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
    4349            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
    4350            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
    4351
    4352        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4353
    4354        if not value:
    4355            return option
    4356
    4357        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
    4358
    4359        return f"{option}{op}{value}"

def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials ) -> str: View Source

    4361    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
    4362        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
    4363        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
    4364            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
    4365            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4366            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
    4367        else:
    4368            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
    4369            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4370            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
    4371
    4372        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
    4373        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
    4374
    4375        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4376        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
    4377
    4378        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
    4379        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
    4380
    4381        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
    4382        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
    4383
    4384        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"

def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy ) -> str: View Source

    4386    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
    4387        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4388        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
    4389
    4390        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4391        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
    4392        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
    4393        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
    4394
    4395        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
    4396        params = self.expressions(
    4397            expression,
    4398            key="params",
    4399            sep=sep,
    4400            new_line=True,
    4401            skip_last=True,
    4402            skip_first=True,
    4403            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
    4404        )
    4405
    4406        if params:
    4407            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
    4408                params = f" WITH ({params})"
    4409            elif not self.pretty:
    4410                params = f" {params}"
    4411
    4412        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"

def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon ) -> str: View Source

    4414    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
    4415        return ""

def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty ) -> str: View Source

    4417    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
    4418        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    4419        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
    4420        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
    4421        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    4422        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    4423
    4424        if filter_col or retention_period:
    4425            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
    4426
    4427        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"

def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    4429    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
    4430        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
    4431    ) -> str:
    4432        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4433        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4434        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    4435        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"

def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill ) -> str: View Source

    4437    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
    4438        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4439        this = f"TABLE {this}"
    4440        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])

def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str: View Source

    4442    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
    4443        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)

def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ScopeResolution ) -> str: View Source

    4445    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
    4446        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4447        expr = expression.expression
    4448
    4449        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
    4450            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
    4451            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
    4452        else:
    4453            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4454
    4455        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)

def parsejson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ParseJSON ) -> str: View Source

    4457    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
    4458        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
    4459            return self.sql(expression.this)
    4460
    4461        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)

def rand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rand ) -> str: View Source

    4463    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
    4464        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
    4465        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
    4466
    4467        if lower and upper:
    4468            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
    4469        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)

def changes_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Changes ) -> str: View Source

    4471    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
    4472        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
    4473        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
    4474        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
    4475        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
    4476        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
    4477        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
    4478
    4479        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"

def pad_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pad ) -> str: View Source

    4481    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
    4482        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
    4483
    4484        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
    4485        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
    4486            fill_pattern = "' '"
    4487
    4488        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)

def summarize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Summarize ) -> str: View Source

    4490    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
    4491        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
    4492        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"

def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ExplodingGenerateSeries ) -> str: View Source

    4494    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
    4495        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
    4496
    4497        parent = expression.parent
    4498        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
    4499            parent = parent.parent
    4500
    4501        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
    4502            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
    4503
    4504        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
    4505            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
    4506
    4507        return self.sql(generate_series)

def arrayconcat_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayConcat, name: str = 'ARRAY_CONCAT') -> str: View Source

    4509    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
    4510        exprs = expression.expressions
    4511        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
    4512            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
    4513        else:
    4514            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
    4515
    4516        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)

def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConvertTimezone ) -> str: View Source

    4518    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
    4519        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
    4520            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4521
    4522        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
    4523        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
    4524        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
    4525
    4526        if source_tz and timestamp:
    4527            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
    4528                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
    4529            )
    4530
    4531        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
    4532
    4533        return self.sql(expr)

def json_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSON ) -> str: View Source

    4535    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
    4536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4537        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4538
    4539        _with = expression.args.get("with")
    4540
    4541        if _with is None:
    4542            with_sql = ""
    4543        elif not _with:
    4544            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
    4545        else:
    4546            with_sql = " WITH"
    4547
    4548        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    4549
    4550        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"

def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONValue ) -> str: View Source

    4552    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
    4553        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
    4554            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
    4555
    4556        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4557        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    4558        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
    4559
    4560        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4561        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4562
    4563        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")

def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConditionalInsert ) -> str: View Source

    4565    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
    4566        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
    4567        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4568        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
    4569        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
    4570        return f"{condition}{insert}"

def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MultitableInserts ) -> str: View Source

    4572    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
    4573        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4574        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
    4575        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
    4576        return res

def oncondition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCondition ) -> str: View Source

    4578    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
    4579        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
    4580        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
    4581        empty = (
    4582            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
    4583            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
    4584            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
    4585        )
    4586
    4587        error = expression.args.get("error")
    4588        error = (
    4589            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
    4590            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
    4591            else self.sql(expression, "error")
    4592        )
    4593
    4594        if error and empty:
    4595            error = (
    4596                f"{empty} {error}"
    4597                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
    4598                else f"{error} {empty}"
    4599            )
    4600            empty = ""
    4601
    4602        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    4603
    4604        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"

def jsonextractquote_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtractQuote ) -> str: View Source

    4606    def jsonextractquote_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExtractQuote) -> str:
    4607        scalar = " ON SCALAR STRING" if expression.args.get("scalar") else ""
    4608        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'option')} QUOTES{scalar}"

def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONExists ) -> str: View Source

    4610    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
    4611        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4612        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4613
    4614        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
    4615        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
    4616
    4617        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4618        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4619
    4620        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
    4621
    4622        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)

def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAgg ) -> str: View Source

    4624    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
    4625        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4626
    4627        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
    4628        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
    4629        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
    4630            parent = expression.parent
    4631            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
    4632                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
    4633                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
    4634            else:
    4635                this = expression.this
    4636                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
    4637                if this.find(exp.Column):
    4638                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
    4639                    this_sql = (
    4640                        self.expressions(this)
    4641                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
    4642                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
    4643                    )
    4644
    4645                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
    4646
    4647        return array_agg

def apply_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Apply ) -> str: View Source

    4649    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
    4650        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4651        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4652
    4653        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"

def grant_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Grant ) -> str: View Source

    4655    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
    4656        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
    4657
    4658        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4659        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    4660
    4661        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
    4662        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
    4663
    4664        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
    4665
    4666        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
    4667
    4668        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"

def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GrantPrivilege ): View Source

    4670    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
    4671        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4672        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4673        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    4674
    4675        return f"{this}{columns}"

def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GrantPrincipal ): View Source

    4677    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
    4678        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4679
    4680        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4681        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    4682
    4683        return f"{kind}{this}"

def columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Columns ): View Source

    4685    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
    4686        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4687        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
    4688            func = f"*{func}"
    4689
    4690        return func

def overlay_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlay ): View Source

    4692    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
    4693        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4694        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4695        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    4696        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
    4697        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
    4698
    4699        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"

@unsupported_args('format')
def todouble_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToDouble ) -> str: View Source

    4701    @unsupported_args("format")
    4702    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
    4703        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))

def string_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.String ) -> str: View Source

    4705    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
    4706        this = expression.this
    4707        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
    4708
    4709        if zone:
    4710            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
    4711            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
    4712            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
    4713            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
    4714                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
    4715            )
    4716
    4717        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))

def median_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Median ): View Source

    4719    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
    4720        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
    4721            return self.sql(
    4722                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
    4723            )
    4724
    4725        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OverflowTruncateBehavior ) -> str: View Source

    4727    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
    4728        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4729        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
    4730        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
    4731        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"

def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixSeconds ) -> str: View Source

    4733    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
    4734        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
    4735            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4736
    4737        start_ts = exp.cast(
    4738            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
    4739        )
    4740
    4741        return self.sql(
    4742            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
    4743        )

def arraysize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArraySize ) -> str: View Source

    4745    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
    4746        dim = expression.expression
    4747
    4748        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
    4749        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
    4750            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
    4751                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
    4752            dim = None
    4753
    4754        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
    4755        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
    4756            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
    4757
    4758        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)

def attach_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Attach ) -> str: View Source

    4760    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
    4761        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4762        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    4763        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    4764        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    4765
    4766        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"

def detach_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Detach ) -> str: View Source

    4768    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
    4769        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4770        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    4771
    4772        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"

def attachoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AttachOption ) -> str: View Source

    4774    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
    4775        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4776        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4777        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
    4778        return f"{this}{value}"

def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FeaturesAtTime ) -> str: View Source

    4780    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
    4781        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4782        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
    4783            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"
    4784
    4785        return self.func(
    4786            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
    4787            this_sql,
    4788            expression.args.get("time"),
    4789            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
    4790            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
    4791        )

def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WatermarkColumnConstraint ) -> str: View Source

    4793    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
    4794        return (
    4795            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    4796        )

def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EncodeProperty ) -> str: View Source

    4798    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
    4799        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
    4800        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    4801
    4802        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
    4803        if properties:
    4804            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"
    4805
    4806        return encode

def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IncludeProperty ) -> str: View Source

    4808    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
    4809        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4810        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"
    4811
    4812        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
    4813        if column_def:
    4814            include = f"{include} {column_def}"
    4815
    4816        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    4817        if alias:
    4818            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"
    4819
    4820        return include

def xmlelement_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.XMLElement ) -> str: View Source

    4822    def xmlelement_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLElement) -> str:
    4823        name = f"NAME {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    4824        return self.func("XMLELEMENT", name, *expression.expressions)

def xmlkeyvalueoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.XMLKeyValueOption ) -> str: View Source

    4826    def xmlkeyvalueoption_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLKeyValueOption) -> str:
    4827        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4828        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4829        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else ""
    4830        return f"{this}{expr}"

def partitionbyrangeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionByRangeProperty ) -> str: View Source

    4832    def partitionbyrangeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangeProperty) -> str:
    4833        partitions = self.expressions(expression, "partition_expressions")
    4834        create = self.expressions(expression, "create_expressions")
    4835        return f"PARTITION BY RANGE {self.wrap(partitions)} {self.wrap(create)}"

def partitionbyrangepropertydynamic_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionByRangePropertyDynamic ) -> str: View Source

    4837    def partitionbyrangepropertydynamic_sql(
    4838        self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangePropertyDynamic
    4839    ) -> str:
    4840        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    4841        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
    4842
    4843        every = expression.args["every"]
    4844        if isinstance(every, exp.Interval) and every.this.is_string:
    4845            every.this.replace(exp.Literal.number(every.name))
    4846
    4847        return f"START {self.wrap(start)} END {self.wrap(end)} EVERY {self.wrap(self.sql(every))}"

def unpivotcolumns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnpivotColumns ) -> str: View Source

    4849    def unpivotcolumns_sql(self, expression: exp.UnpivotColumns) -> str:
    4850        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4851        values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4852
    4853        return f"NAME {name} VALUE {values}"

def analyzesample_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnalyzeSample ) -> str: View Source

    4855    def analyzesample_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeSample) -> str:
    4856        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4857        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    4858        return f"SAMPLE {sample} {kind}"

def analyzestatistics_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnalyzeStatistics ) -> str: View Source

    4860    def analyzestatistics_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeStatistics) -> str:
    4861        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4862        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    4863        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    4864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4865        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4866        columns = self.expressions(expression)
    4867        columns = f" {columns}" if columns else ""
    4868        return f"{kind}{option} STATISTICS{this}{columns}"

def analyzehistogram_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnalyzeHistogram ) -> str: View Source

    4870    def analyzehistogram_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeHistogram) -> str:
    4871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4872        columns = self.expressions(expression)
    4873        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4874        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
    4875        update_options = self.sql(expression, "update_options")
    4876        update_options = f" {update_options} UPDATE" if update_options else ""
    4877        return f"{this} HISTOGRAM ON {columns}{inner_expression}{update_options}"

def analyzedelete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnalyzeDelete ) -> str: View Source

    4879    def analyzedelete_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeDelete) -> str:
    4880        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4881        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    4882        return f"DELETE{kind} STATISTICS"

def analyzelistchainedrows_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnalyzeListChainedRows ) -> str: View Source

    4884    def analyzelistchainedrows_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeListChainedRows) -> str:
    4885        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4886        return f"LIST CHAINED ROWS{inner_expression}"

def analyzevalidate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnalyzeValidate ) -> str: View Source

    4888    def analyzevalidate_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeValidate) -> str:
    4889        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4890        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4891        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4892        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4893        return f"VALIDATE {kind}{this}{inner_expression}"

def analyze_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Analyze ) -> str: View Source

    4895    def analyze_sql(self, expression: exp.Analyze) -> str:
    4896        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    4897        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    4898        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4899        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    4900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4901        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4902        mode = self.sql(expression, "mode")
    4903        mode = f" {mode}" if mode else ""
    4904        properties = self.sql(expression, "properties")
    4905        properties = f" {properties}" if properties else ""
    4906        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    4907        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    4908        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4909        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
    4910        return f"ANALYZE{options}{kind}{this}{partition}{mode}{inner_expression}{properties}"

def xmltable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.XMLTable ) -> str: View Source

    4912    def xmltable_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLTable) -> str:
    4913        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4914        namespaces = self.expressions(expression, key="namespaces")
    4915        namespaces = f"XMLNAMESPACES({namespaces}), " if namespaces else ""
    4916        passing = self.expressions(expression, key="passing")
    4917        passing = f"{self.sep()}PASSING{self.seg(passing)}" if passing else ""
    4918        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns")
    4919        columns = f"{self.sep()}COLUMNS{self.seg(columns)}" if columns else ""
    4920        by_ref = f"{self.sep()}RETURNING SEQUENCE BY REF" if expression.args.get("by_ref") else ""
    4921        return f"XMLTABLE({self.sep('')}{self.indent(namespaces + this + passing + by_ref + columns)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"

def xmlnamespace_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.XMLNamespace ) -> str: View Source

    4923    def xmlnamespace_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLNamespace) -> str:
    4924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4925        return this if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Alias) else f"DEFAULT {this}"

def export_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Export ) -> str: View Source

    4927    def export_sql(self, expression: exp.Export) -> str:
    4928        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4929        connection = self.sql(expression, "connection")
    4930        connection = f"WITH CONNECTION {connection} " if connection else ""
    4931        options = self.sql(expression, "options")
    4932        return f"EXPORT DATA {connection}{options} AS {this}"

def declare_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Declare ) -> str: View Source

    4934    def declare_sql(self, expression: exp.Declare) -> str:
    4935        return f"DECLARE {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"

def declareitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DeclareItem ) -> str: View Source

    4937    def declareitem_sql(self, expression: exp.DeclareItem) -> str:
    4938        variable = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4939        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    4940        default = f" = {default}" if default else ""
    4941
    4942        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4943        if isinstance(expression.args.get("kind"), exp.Schema):
    4944            kind = f"TABLE {kind}"
    4945
    4946        return f"{variable} AS {kind}{default}"

def recursivewithsearch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RecursiveWithSearch ) -> str: View Source

    4948    def recursivewithsearch_sql(self, expression: exp.RecursiveWithSearch) -> str:
    4949        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4951        set = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4952        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    4953        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    4954
    4955        kind_sql = kind if kind == "CYCLE" else f"SEARCH {kind} FIRST BY"
    4956
    4957        return f"{kind_sql} {this} SET {set}{using}"

def parameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ParameterizedAgg ) -> str: View Source

    4959    def parameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ParameterizedAgg) -> str:
    4960        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True)
    4961        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions) + f"({params})"

def anonymousaggfunc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnonymousAggFunc ) -> str: View Source

    4963    def anonymousaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.AnonymousAggFunc) -> str:
    4964        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)

def combinedaggfunc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CombinedAggFunc ) -> str: View Source

    4966    def combinedaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedAggFunc) -> str:
    4967        return self.anonymousaggfunc_sql(expression)

def combinedparameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CombinedParameterizedAgg ) -> str: View Source

    4969    def combinedparameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedParameterizedAgg) -> str:
    4970        return self.parameterizedagg_sql(expression)

def show_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Show ) -> str: View Source

    4972    def show_sql(self, expression: exp.Show) -> str:
    4973        self.unsupported("Unsupported SHOW statement")
    4974        return ""

def get_put_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Put | sqlglot.expressions.Get ) -> str: View Source

    4976    def get_put_sql(self, expression: exp.Put | exp.Get) -> str:
    4977        # Snowflake GET/PUT statements:
    4978        #   PUT <file> <internalStage> <properties>
    4979        #   GET <internalStage> <file> <properties>
    4980        props = expression.args.get("properties")
    4981        props_sql = self.properties(props, prefix=" ", sep=" ", wrapped=False) if props else ""
    4982        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4983        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    4984
    4985        if isinstance(expression, exp.Put):
    4986            return f"PUT {this} {target}{props_sql}"
    4987        else:
    4988            return f"GET {target} {this}{props_sql}"

def translatecharacters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TranslateCharacters ): View Source

    4990    def translatecharacters_sql(self, expression: exp.TranslateCharacters):
    4991        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4992        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4993        with_error = " WITH ERROR" if expression.args.get("with_error") else ""
    4994        return f"TRANSLATE({this} USING {expr}{with_error})"