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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  78        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  79        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  82        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  83        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  85        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  87        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  91        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  95        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  96        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  97        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  98        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  99        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 100        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 101        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 102        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 103        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 104        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 105        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 106        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 107            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 108        ),
 109        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 110            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 111        ),
 112        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 113        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 114        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 115        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 116        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 117        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 118        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 119        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 120        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 121        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 122        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 127        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 129        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 131        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 132        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 133        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 135        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 136        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 137        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 138        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 139        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 140        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 141        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 142        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 143        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 144        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 145        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 146        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 147        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 148        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 150        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 151        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 152    }
 153
 154    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 155    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 156    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 157
 158    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 159    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 160    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 161
 162    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 163    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 164
 165    # Always do union distinct or union all
 166    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 167
 168    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 169    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 170
 171    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 172    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 173
 174    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 175    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 176
 177    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 178    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 179
 180    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 181    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 182
 183    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 184    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 185
 186    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 187    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 188
 189    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 190    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 191
 192    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 193    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 194
 195    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 196    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 197
 198    # Whether join hints should be generated
 199    JOIN_HINTS = True
 200
 201    # Whether table hints should be generated
 202    TABLE_HINTS = True
 203
 204    # Whether query hints should be generated
 205    QUERY_HINTS = True
 206
 207    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 208    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 209
 210    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 211    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 212
 213    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 214    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 215
 216    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 217    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 218
 219    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 220    RETURNING_END = True
 221
 222    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 223    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 224
 225    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 226    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 227
 228    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 229    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 230
 231    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 232    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 233
 234    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 235    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 236
 237    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 238    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 239    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 240    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 241
 242    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 243    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 244
 245    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 246    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 247
 248    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 249    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 250
 251    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 252    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 253
 254    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 255    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 256
 257    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 258    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 259
 260    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 261    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 262
 263    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 264    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 265
 266    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 267    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 268
 269    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 270    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 271
 272    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 273    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 274
 275    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 276    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 277
 278    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 279    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 280
 281    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 282    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 283
 284    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 285    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 286
 287    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 288    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 289
 290    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 291    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 292
 293    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 294    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 295
 296    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 297    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 298
 299    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 300    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 301
 302    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 303    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 304
 305    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 306    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 307
 308    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 309    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 310
 311    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 312    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 313
 314    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 315    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 316
 317    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 318    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 319    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 320
 321    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 322    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 323
 324    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 325    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 326
 327    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 328    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 329
 330    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 331    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 332
 333    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 334    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 335
 336    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 337    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 338
 339    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
 340    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 341    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
 342    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
 343
 344    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 345    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 346
 347    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 348    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 349
 350    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 351    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 352
 353    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 354    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 355
 356    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 357    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 358
 359    # The HEX function name
 360    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 361
 362    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 363        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 364        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 365        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 366        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 367        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 368        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 369        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 370        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 371        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 372        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 373    }
 374
 375    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 376        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 377        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 378        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 379        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 380        "DAYS": "DAY",
 381        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 382        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 383        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 384        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 385    }
 386
 387    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 388        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 389        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 390        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 391        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 392        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 393            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 394            if e.args.get("windows")
 395            else ""
 396        ),
 397    }
 398
 399    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 400
 401    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 402
 403    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 404    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 405
 406    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 407        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 408        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 409        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 410        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 411        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 412        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 413        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 414        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 415        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 416        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 417        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 418        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 419        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 420        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 421        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 422        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 423        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 424        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 425        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 426        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 427        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 428        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 429        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 430        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 431        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 432        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 433        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 435        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 437        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 438        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 443        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 444        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 445        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 446        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 447        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 449        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 452        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 455        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 463        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 464        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 465        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 466        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 468        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 469        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 472        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 474        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 476        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 478        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 479        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 480        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 481        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 482        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 483        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484    }
 485
 486    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 487    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 488
 489    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 490    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 491        exp.Create,
 492        exp.Delete,
 493        exp.Drop,
 494        exp.From,
 495        exp.Insert,
 496        exp.Join,
 497        exp.Select,
 498        exp.Union,
 499        exp.Update,
 500        exp.Where,
 501        exp.With,
 502    )
 503
 504    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 505    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 506        exp.Binary,
 507        exp.Union,
 508    )
 509
 510    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 511    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 512        exp.Column,
 513        exp.Literal,
 514        exp.Neg,
 515        exp.Paren,
 516    )
 517
 518    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 519        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 520        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 521        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 522        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 523    }
 524
 525    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 526    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 527
 528    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 529
 530    __slots__ = (
 531        "pretty",
 532        "identify",
 533        "normalize",
 534        "pad",
 535        "_indent",
 536        "normalize_functions",
 537        "unsupported_level",
 538        "max_unsupported",
 539        "leading_comma",
 540        "max_text_width",
 541        "comments",
 542        "dialect",
 543        "unsupported_messages",
 544        "_escaped_quote_end",
 545        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 546        "_next_name",
 547    )
 548
 549    def __init__(
 550        self,
 551        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 552        identify: str | bool = False,
 553        normalize: bool = False,
 554        pad: int = 2,
 555        indent: int = 2,
 556        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 557        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 558        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 559        leading_comma: bool = False,
 560        max_text_width: int = 80,
 561        comments: bool = True,
 562        dialect: DialectType = None,
 563    ):
 564        import sqlglot
 565        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 566
 567        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 568        self.identify = identify
 569        self.normalize = normalize
 570        self.pad = pad
 571        self._indent = indent
 572        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 573        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 574        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 575        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 576        self.comments = comments
 577        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 578
 579        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 580        self.normalize_functions = (
 581            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 582        )
 583
 584        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 585        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 586            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 587        )
 588        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 589            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 590        )
 591
 592        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 593
 594    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 595        """
 596        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 597
 598        Args:
 599            expression: The syntax tree.
 600            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 601                it is safer to copy.
 602
 603        Returns:
 604            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 605        """
 606        if copy:
 607            expression = expression.copy()
 608
 609        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 610
 611        self.unsupported_messages = []
 612        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 613
 614        if self.pretty:
 615            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 616
 617        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 618            return sql
 619
 620        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 621            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 622                logger.warning(msg)
 623        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 624            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 625
 626        return sql
 627
 628    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 629        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 630        if (
 631            not expression.parent
 632            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 633            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 634        ):
 635            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 636
 637            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 638
 639        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 640            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 641
 642            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 643
 644        return expression
 645
 646    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 647        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 648            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 649        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 650
 651    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 652        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 653
 654    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 655        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 656
 657    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 658        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 659        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 660        return comment
 661
 662    def maybe_comment(
 663        self,
 664        sql: str,
 665        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 666        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 667        separated: bool = False,
 668    ) -> str:
 669        comments = (
 670            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 671            if self.comments
 672            else None
 673        )
 674
 675        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 676            return sql
 677
 678        comments_sql = " ".join(
 679            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 680        )
 681
 682        if not comments_sql:
 683            return sql
 684
 685        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 686
 687        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 688            return (
 689                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 690                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 691                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 692            )
 693
 694        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 695
 696    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 697        this_sql = (
 698            self.sql(expression)
 699            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 700            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 701        )
 702        if not this_sql:
 703            return "()"
 704
 705        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 706        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 707
 708    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 709        original = self.identify
 710        self.identify = False
 711        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 712        self.identify = original
 713        return result
 714
 715    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 716        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 717            return name.upper()
 718        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 719            return name.lower()
 720        return name
 721
 722    def indent(
 723        self,
 724        sql: str,
 725        level: int = 0,
 726        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 727        skip_first: bool = False,
 728        skip_last: bool = False,
 729    ) -> str:
 730        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 731            return sql
 732
 733        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 734        lines = sql.split("\n")
 735
 736        return "\n".join(
 737            (
 738                line
 739                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 740                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 741            )
 742            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 743        )
 744
 745    def sql(
 746        self,
 747        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 748        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 749        comment: bool = True,
 750    ) -> str:
 751        if not expression:
 752            return ""
 753
 754        if isinstance(expression, str):
 755            return expression
 756
 757        if key:
 758            value = expression.args.get(key)
 759            if value:
 760                return self.sql(value)
 761            return ""
 762
 763        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 764
 765        if callable(transform):
 766            sql = transform(self, expression)
 767        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 768            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 769
 770            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 771                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 772            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 773                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 774            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 775                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 776            else:
 777                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 778        else:
 779            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 780
 781        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 782
 783    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 784        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 785        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 786        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 787
 788    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 789        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 790        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 791        options = expression.args.get("options")
 792        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 793        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 794        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 795        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 796        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 797
 798    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 799        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 800            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 801        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 802        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 803
 804    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 805        return ".".join(
 806            self.sql(part)
 807            for part in (
 808                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 809                expression.args.get("db"),
 810                expression.args.get("table"),
 811                expression.args.get("this"),
 812            )
 813            if part
 814        )
 815
 816    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 817        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 818
 819        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 820            join_mark = ""
 821            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 822
 823        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 824
 825    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 827        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 828        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 829        return f"{position}{this}"
 830
 831    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 832        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 833        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 834        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 835        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 836        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 837        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 838        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 839        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 840
 841        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 842            kind = ""
 843
 844        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 845
 846    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 847        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 848        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 849        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 850
 851    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 852        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 853        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 854            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 855        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 856            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 857        else:
 858            persisted = ""
 859        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 860
 861    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 862        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 863
 864    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 865        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 866            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 867        else:
 868            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 869
 870        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 871
 872    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 873        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 874    ) -> str:
 875        this = ""
 876        if expression.this is not None:
 877            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 878            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 879
 880        start = expression.args.get("start")
 881        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 882        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 883        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 884        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 885        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 886        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 887        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 888        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 889        cycle_sql = ""
 890
 891        if cycle is not None:
 892            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 893            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 894
 895        sequence_opts = ""
 896        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 897            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 898            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 899
 900        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 901        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 902
 903        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 904
 905    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 906        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 907    ) -> str:
 908        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 909        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 910        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 911
 912    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 913        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 914    ) -> str:
 915        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 916
 917    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 918        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 919
 920    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 921        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 922
 923    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 924        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 925        if desc is not None:
 926            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 927        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 928
 929    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 930        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 931        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 932        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 933        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 934        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 935        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 936        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 937
 938    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 939        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 940
 941    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 942        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 943        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 944        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 945
 946        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 947
 948        properties_sql = ""
 949        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 950            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 951        ):
 952            properties_sql = self.sql(
 953                exp.Properties(
 954                    expressions=[
 955                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 956                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 957                    ]
 958                )
 959            )
 960
 961        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 962        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 963
 964        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 965        if expression_sql:
 966            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 967
 968            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 969                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 970                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 971                        exp.Properties(
 972                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 973                        ),
 974                        wrapped=False,
 975                    )
 976                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 977                else:
 978                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 979
 980        postindex_props_sql = ""
 981        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 982            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 983                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 984                wrapped=False,
 985                prefix=" ",
 986            )
 987
 988        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 989        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 990        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 991
 992        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 993        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 994
 995        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 996        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 997            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 998                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 999                sep=" ",
1000                prefix=" ",
1001                wrapped=False,
1002            )
1003
1004        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1005
1006        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1007        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1008            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1009                exp.Properties(
1010                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1011                ),
1012                sep=" ",
1013                prefix=" ",
1014                wrapped=False,
1015            )
1016
1017        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1018        no_schema_binding = (
1019            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1020        )
1021
1022        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1023        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1024
1025        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1026        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1027
1028    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1029        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1030        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1031        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1032        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1033        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1034        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1035        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1036        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1037        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1038        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1039
1040        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1041        if cache is None:
1042            cache_str = ""
1043        elif cache is True:
1044            cache_str = " CACHE"
1045        else:
1046            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1047
1048        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1049        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1050
1051        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1052
1053    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1054        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1055        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1056        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1057        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1058
1059    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1060        style = expression.args.get("style")
1061        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1062        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1063
1064    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1065        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1066        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1067
1068    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1069        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1070        if with_:
1071            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1072        return sql
1073
1074    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1075        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1076        recursive = (
1077            "RECURSIVE "
1078            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1079            else ""
1080        )
1081
1082        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1083
1084    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1085        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1086
1087        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1088        if materialized is False:
1089            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1090        elif materialized:
1091            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1092
1093        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1094
1095    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1096        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1097        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1098        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1099
1100        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1101            columns = ""
1102            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1103
1104        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1105            alias = self._next_name()
1106
1107        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1108
1109    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1110        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1111        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1112            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1113        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1114
1115    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1116        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1117        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1118            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1119        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1120
1121    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1122        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1123        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1124            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1125        return this
1126
1127    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1128        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1129        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1130
1131        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1132            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1133            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1134
1135        if escape:
1136            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1137        else:
1138            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1139
1140        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1141        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1142
1143    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1144        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1145        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1146
1147    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1148        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1149        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1150        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1151        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1152
1153    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1154        type_value = expression.this
1155
1156        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1157            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1158        else:
1159            type_sql = (
1160                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1161                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1162                else type_value
1163            )
1164
1165        nested = ""
1166        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1167        values = ""
1168
1169        if interior:
1170            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1171                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1172                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1173                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1174                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1175                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1176            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1177                nested = f" {interior}"
1178            else:
1179                nested = f"({interior})"
1180
1181        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1182        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1183            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1184            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1185        ):
1186            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1187
1188        return type_sql
1189
1190    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1191        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1192        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1193        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1194        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1195
1196    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1197        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1198        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1199        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1200        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1201        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1202        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1203        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1204        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1205        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1206        if self.RETURNING_END:
1207            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1208        else:
1209            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1210        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1211
1212    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1213        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1214        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1215        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1216        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1217        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1218        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1219        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1220        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1221        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1222        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1223        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1224        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1225        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1226
1227    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1228        return self.set_operations(expression)
1229
1230    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1231        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1232
1233    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1234        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1235        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1236        count = expression.args.get("count")
1237        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1238        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1239            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1240        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1241        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1242
1243    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1244        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1245            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1246            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1247            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1248
1249        agg = expression.this
1250        agg_arg = agg.this
1251        cond = expression.expression.this
1252        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1253        return self.sql(agg)
1254
1255    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1256        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1257            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1258            return ""
1259
1260        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1261
1262    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1263        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1264        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1265        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1266        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1267        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1268        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1269        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1270        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1271        if include:
1272            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1273        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1274        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1275        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1276        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1277
1278        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1279
1280    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1281        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1282        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1283        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1284        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1285        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1286        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1287        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1288
1289        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1290
1291        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1292        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1293
1294    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1295        text = expression.name
1296        lower = text.lower()
1297        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1298        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1299        if (
1300            expression.quoted
1301            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1302            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1303            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1304        ):
1305            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1306        return text
1307
1308    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1309        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1310        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1311            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1312
1313        return text
1314
1315    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1316        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1317        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1318            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1319        return text
1320
1321    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1322        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1323        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1324        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1325        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1326        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1327
1328    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1329        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1330        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1331
1332    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1333        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1334
1335    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1336        root_properties = []
1337        with_properties = []
1338
1339        for p in expression.expressions:
1340            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1341            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1342                with_properties.append(p)
1343            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1344                root_properties.append(p)
1345
1346        return self.root_properties(
1347            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1348        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1349
1350    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1351        if properties.expressions:
1352            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1353        return ""
1354
1355    def properties(
1356        self,
1357        properties: exp.Properties,
1358        prefix: str = "",
1359        sep: str = ", ",
1360        suffix: str = "",
1361        wrapped: bool = True,
1362    ) -> str:
1363        if properties.expressions:
1364            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1365            if expressions:
1366                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1367                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1368        return ""
1369
1370    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1371        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1372
1373    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1374        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1375        for p in properties.expressions:
1376            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1377            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1378                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1379            else:
1380                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1381
1382        return properties_locs
1383
1384    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1385        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1386            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1387        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1388
1389    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1390        property_cls = expression.__class__
1391        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1392            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1393
1394        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1395        if not property_name:
1396            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1397
1398        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1399
1400    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1401        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1402            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1403            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1404
1405            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1406            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1407                like = f"({like})"
1408
1409            return like
1410
1411        if expression.expressions:
1412            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1413
1414        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1415        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1416
1417    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1418        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1419        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1420        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1421
1422    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1423        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1424        local = expression.args.get("local")
1425        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1426        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1427        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1428        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1429        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1430
1431    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1432        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1433        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1434        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1435
1436    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1437        if expression.args.get("default"):
1438            property = "DEFAULT"
1439        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1440            property = "ON"
1441        else:
1442            property = "OFF"
1443        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1444
1445    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1446        if expression.args.get("no"):
1447            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1448        if expression.args.get("default"):
1449            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1450
1451        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1452        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1453
1454    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1455        default = expression.args.get("default")
1456        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1457        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1458        if default or minimum or maximum:
1459            if default:
1460                prop = "DEFAULT"
1461            elif minimum:
1462                prop = "MINIMUM"
1463            else:
1464                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1465            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1466        units = expression.args.get("units")
1467        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1468        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1469
1470    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1471        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1472        always = expression.args.get("always")
1473        default = expression.args.get("default")
1474        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1475        never = expression.args.get("never")
1476
1477        if autotemp is not None:
1478            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1479        elif always:
1480            prop = "ALWAYS"
1481        elif default:
1482            prop = "DEFAULT"
1483        elif manual:
1484            prop = "MANUAL"
1485        elif never:
1486            prop = "NEVER"
1487        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1488
1489    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1490        no = expression.args.get("no")
1491        no = " NO" if no else ""
1492        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1493        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1494        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1495        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1496        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1497
1498    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1499        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1500            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1501        if expression.this:
1502            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1503            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1504            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1505
1506        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1507        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1508        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1509
1510    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1511        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1512
1513        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1514        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1515            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1516        else:
1517            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1518
1519        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1520
1521    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1522        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1523        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1524        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1525        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1526        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1527        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1528        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1529
1530    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1531        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1532        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1533        statistics_sql = ""
1534        if statistics is not None:
1535            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1536        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1537
1538    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1539        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1540
1541        if expression.this:
1542            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1543            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1544
1545            if expression.expression:
1546                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1547                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1548
1549            sql = f"{sql})"
1550
1551        return f"{sql})"
1552
1553    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1554        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1555        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1556
1557        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1558            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1559        else:
1560            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1561
1562        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1563        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1564        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1565        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1566        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1567        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1568        if is_function:
1569            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1570        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1571
1572        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1573        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1574        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1575        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1576        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1577        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1578        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1579        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1580
1581        if self.RETURNING_END:
1582            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1583        else:
1584            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1585
1586        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1587        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1588
1589    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1590        return self.set_operations(expression)
1591
1592    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1593        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1594
1595    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1596        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1597
1598    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1599        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1600        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1601        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1602        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1603        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1604
1605    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1606        return expression.name
1607
1608    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1609        return expression.name
1610
1611    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1612        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1613
1614        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1615        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1616
1617        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1618        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1619        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1620
1621        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1622        if expressions:
1623            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1624            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1625
1626        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1627
1628    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1629        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1630
1631    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1632        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1633        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1634        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1635        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1636        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1637        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1638        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1639        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1640        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1641        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1642        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1643        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1644        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1645
1646    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1647        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1648
1649    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1650        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1651        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1652        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1653        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1654
1655    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1656        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1657        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1658        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1659        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1660
1661    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1662        return ".".join(
1663            self.sql(part)
1664            for part in (
1665                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1666                expression.args.get("db"),
1667                expression.args.get("this"),
1668            )
1669            if part is not None
1670        )
1671
1672    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1673        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1674        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1675        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1676        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1677        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1678        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1679        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1680        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1681        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1682        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1683        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1684        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1685        joins = self.indent(
1686            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1687        )
1688        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1689
1690        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1691        if file_format:
1692            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1693            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1694            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1695
1696        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1697        if ordinality:
1698            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1699            alias = ""
1700
1701        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1702        if when:
1703            table = f"{table} {when}"
1704
1705        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1706
1707    def tablesample_sql(
1708        self,
1709        expression: exp.TableSample,
1710        sep: str = " AS ",
1711        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1712    ) -> str:
1713        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1714            table = expression.this.copy()
1715            table.set("alias", None)
1716            this = self.sql(table)
1717            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1718        else:
1719            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1720            alias = ""
1721
1722        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1723        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1724        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1725        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1726        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1727        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1728        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1729        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1730        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1731
1732        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1733        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1734            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1735
1736        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1737        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1738            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1739
1740        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1741        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1742            expr = f"({expr})"
1743
1744        return (
1745            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1746        )
1747
1748    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1749        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1750
1751        if expression.this:
1752            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1753            if not expressions:
1754                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1755
1756            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1757            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1758            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1759            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1760            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1761
1762        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1763        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1764        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1765        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1766        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1767        if include_nulls is not None:
1768            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1769        else:
1770            nulls = ""
1771        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1772
1773    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1774        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1775        kind = expression.text("kind")
1776        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1777        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1778
1779    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1780        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1781
1782    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1783        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1784        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1785        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1786        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1787        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1788        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1789        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1790        if self.RETURNING_END:
1791            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1792        else:
1793            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1794        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1795        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1796
1797    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1798        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1799
1800        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1801        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1802            args = self.expressions(expression)
1803            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1804            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1805            values = (
1806                f"({values})"
1807                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1808                else values
1809            )
1810            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1811
1812        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1813        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1814        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1815
1816        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1817
1818        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1819            row = tup.expressions
1820
1821            if i == 0 and column_names:
1822                row = [
1823                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1824                ]
1825
1826            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1827
1828        if self.pretty:
1829            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1830            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1831            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1832            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1833            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1834
1835        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1836        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1837        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1838
1839    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1840        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1841
1842    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1843        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1844        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1845        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1846
1847    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1848        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1849
1850    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1851        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1852        if group_by_all is True:
1853            modifier = " ALL"
1854        elif group_by_all is False:
1855            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1856        else:
1857            modifier = ""
1858
1859        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1860
1861        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1862        grouping_sets = (
1863            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1864        )
1865
1866        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1867        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1868            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1869        else:
1870            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1871            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1872
1873        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1874        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1875            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1876        else:
1877            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1878            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1879
1880        groupings = csv(
1881            grouping_sets,
1882            cube_sql,
1883            rollup_sql,
1884            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1885            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1886        )
1887
1888        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1889            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1890
1891        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1892
1893    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1894        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1895        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1896
1897    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1898        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1899        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1900        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1901        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1902        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1903        return start + connect
1904
1905    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1906        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1907
1908    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1909        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1910            side = None
1911        else:
1912            side = expression.side
1913
1914        op_sql = " ".join(
1915            op
1916            for op in (
1917                expression.method,
1918                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1919                side,
1920                expression.kind,
1921                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1922            )
1923            if op
1924        )
1925        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1926        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1927        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1928        using = expression.args.get("using")
1929
1930        if not on_sql and using:
1931            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1932
1933        this = expression.this
1934        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1935
1936        if on_sql:
1937            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1938            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1939            if using:
1940                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1941            else:
1942                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1943        elif not op_sql:
1944            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1945                return f" {this_sql}"
1946
1947            return f", {this_sql}"
1948
1949        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1950        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1951
1952    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1953        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1954        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1955        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1956
1957    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1958        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1959
1960        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1961        if cross_apply is True:
1962            op = "INNER JOIN "
1963        elif cross_apply is False:
1964            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1965        else:
1966            op = ""
1967
1968        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1969
1970    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1971        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1972
1973        if expression.args.get("view"):
1974            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1975            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1976            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1977            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1978            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1979            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1980
1981        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1982        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1983        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1984
1985    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1986        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1987
1988        args = [
1989            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1990            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1991            if e
1992        ]
1993
1994        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1995        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1996        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1997        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1998
1999        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2000
2001    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2002        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2003        value = expression.expression
2004        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2005        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2006        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2007        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2008
2009    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2010        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2011        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2012        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2013        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2014        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2015        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2016        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2017        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2018
2019    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2020        expressions = (
2021            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2022        )
2023        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2024        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2025
2026    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2027        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2028
2029    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2030        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2031            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2032            return ""
2033
2034        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2035        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2036        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2037        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2038
2039        if wait is not None:
2040            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2041                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2042            else:
2043                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2044
2045        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2046
2047    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2048        text = expression.this or ""
2049        if expression.is_string:
2050            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2051        return text
2052
2053    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2054        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2055            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2056            text = "".join(
2057                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2058            )
2059
2060        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2061            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2062        )
2063
2064    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2065        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2066        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2067        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2068        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2069        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2070        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2071        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2072        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2073        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2074        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2075        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2076
2077    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2078        return "NULL"
2079
2080    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2081        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2082
2083    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2084        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2085        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2086        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2087        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2088        interpolated_values = [
2089            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2090            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2091        ]
2092        interpolate = (
2093            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2094        )
2095        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2096
2097    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2098        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2099        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2100        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2101        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2102        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2103        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2104        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2105
2106    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2107        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2108
2109    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2110        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2111
2112    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2113        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2114
2115    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2116        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2117        asc = not desc
2118
2119        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2120        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2121        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2122        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2123        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2124
2125        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2126
2127        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2128        nulls_sort_change = ""
2129        if nulls_first and (
2130            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2131        ):
2132            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2133        elif (
2134            nulls_last
2135            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2136            and not nulls_are_last
2137        ):
2138            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2139
2140        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2141        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2142            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2143            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2144                self.unsupported(
2145                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2146                )
2147                nulls_sort_change = ""
2148            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2149                if expression.this.is_int:
2150                    self.unsupported(
2151                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2152                    )
2153                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2154                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2155                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2156                nulls_sort_change = ""
2157
2158        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2159        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2160
2161        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2162
2163    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2164        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2165        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2166
2167        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2168
2169        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2170
2171    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2172        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2173        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2174        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2175        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2176        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2177        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2178        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2179        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2180        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2181        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2182        definition_sqls = [
2183            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2184            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2185        ]
2186        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2187        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2188        body = "".join(
2189            (
2190                partition,
2191                order,
2192                measures,
2193                rows,
2194                after,
2195                pattern,
2196                define,
2197            )
2198        )
2199        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2200        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2201        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2202
2203    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2204        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2205
2206        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2207            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2208        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2209            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2210
2211        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2212        if options:
2213            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2214
2215        return csv(
2216            *sqls,
2217            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2218            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2219            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2220            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2221            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2222            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2223            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2224            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2225            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2226            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2227            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2228            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2229            options,
2230            sep="",
2231        )
2232
2233    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2234        return ""
2235
2236    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2237        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2238    ) -> t.List[str]:
2239        return [
2240            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2241            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2242        ]
2243
2244    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2245        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2246        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2247        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2248
2249    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2250        into = expression.args.get("into")
2251        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2252            into.pop()
2253
2254        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2255        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2256        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2257        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2258
2259        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2260        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2261            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2262            limit.pop()
2263        else:
2264            top = ""
2265
2266        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2267
2268        if kind:
2269            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2270                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2271            else:
2272                if kind == "STRUCT":
2273                    expressions = self.expressions(
2274                        sqls=[
2275                            self.sql(
2276                                exp.Struct(
2277                                    expressions=[
2278                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2279                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2280                                        else e
2281                                        for e in expression.expressions
2282                                    ]
2283                                )
2284                            )
2285                        ]
2286                    )
2287                kind = ""
2288
2289        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2290        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2291        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2292        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2293        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2294            expression,
2295            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2296            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2297            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2298        )
2299
2300        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2301
2302        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2303            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2304                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2305            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2306                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2307            else:
2308                table_kind = ""
2309            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2310
2311        return sql
2312
2313    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2314        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2315        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2316        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2317
2318    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2319        if expression.expressions:
2320            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2321        return ""
2322
2323    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2324        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2325        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2326        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2327        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2328        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2329        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2330        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2331
2332    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2333        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2334        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2335
2336    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2337        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2338        kind = expression.text("kind")
2339        if kind:
2340            kind = f"{kind}."
2341        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2342
2343    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2344        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2345
2346    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2347        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2348        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2349
2350        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2351        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2352
2353        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2354        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2355
2356    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2357        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2358        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2359
2360    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2361        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2362            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2363            order = expression.args.get("order")
2364
2365            if limit or order:
2366                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2367
2368                if limit:
2369                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2370                if order:
2371                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2372                return self.sql(select)
2373
2374        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2375        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2376
2377        while stack:
2378            node = stack.pop()
2379
2380            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2381                stack.append(node.expression)
2382                stack.append(
2383                    self.maybe_comment(
2384                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2385                        comments=node.comments,
2386                        separated=True,
2387                    )
2388                )
2389                stack.append(node.this)
2390            else:
2391                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2392
2393        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2394        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2395        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2396
2397    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2398        return self.set_operations(expression)
2399
2400    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2401        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2402        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2403        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2404        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2405
2406    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2407        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2408
2409        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2410        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2411
2412        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2413            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2414                alias.append("columns", offset)
2415
2416        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2417            columns = alias.columns
2418            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2419        else:
2420            alias = self.sql(alias)
2421
2422        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2423        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2424            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2425        else:
2426            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2427                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2428            elif offset:
2429                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2430            else:
2431                suffix = alias
2432
2433        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2434
2435    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2436        return ""
2437
2438    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2439        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2440        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2441
2442    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2444        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2445        order = expression.args.get("order")
2446        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2447        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2448        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2449        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2450
2451        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2452
2453        first = expression.args.get("first")
2454        if first is None:
2455            first = ""
2456        else:
2457            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2458
2459        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2460            return f"{this} {alias}"
2461
2462        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2463        return f"{this} ({args})"
2464
2465    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2466        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2467        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2468
2469    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2470        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2471        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2472        end = (
2473            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2474            or "CURRENT ROW"
2475        )
2476        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2477
2478    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2479        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2480        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2481        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2482
2483    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2484        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2485        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2486        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2487        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2488
2489    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2490        return apply_index_offset(
2491            expression.this,
2492            expression.expressions,
2493            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2494        )
2495
2496    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2497        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2498        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2499        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2500
2501    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2502        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2503
2504    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2505        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2506        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2507            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2508                this = self.wrap(this)
2509            return f"ANY{this}"
2510        return f"ANY {this}"
2511
2512    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2513        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2514
2515    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2516        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2517        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2518
2519        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2520            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2521            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2522
2523        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2524
2525        if default:
2526            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2527
2528        statements.append("END")
2529
2530        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2531            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2532
2533        return " ".join(statements)
2534
2535    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2537        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2538        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2539
2540    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2541        order = expression.args.get("order")
2542        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2543        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2544
2545    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2546        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2547        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2548        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2549
2550    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2551        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2552
2553        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2554            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2555        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2556            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2557        else:
2558            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2559
2560    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2561        args = expression.expressions
2562        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2563            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2564
2565        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2566            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2567
2568        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2569            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2570
2571        return args
2572
2573    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2574        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2575
2576        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2577        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2578            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2579
2580        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2581
2582    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2583        return self.func(
2584            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2585        )
2586
2587    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2588        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2589        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2590
2591    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2592        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2593        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2594        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2595        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2596        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2597        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2598        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2599        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2600
2601    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2602        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2603        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2604        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2605        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2606
2607    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2608        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2609
2610    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2611        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2612        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2613        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2614
2615    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2616        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2617
2618    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2619        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2620        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2621
2622    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2623        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2624            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2625            if not callable(transform):
2626                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2627                return ""
2628
2629            return transform(self, expression)
2630
2631        if isinstance(expression, int):
2632            return str(expression)
2633
2634        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2635            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2636            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2637        else:
2638            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2639            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2640
2641        return escaped
2642
2643    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2644        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2645
2646    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2647        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2648        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2649
2650        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2651        if unique_keys is not None:
2652            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2653        else:
2654            unique_keys = ""
2655
2656        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2657        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2658        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2659        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2660
2661        return self.func(
2662            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2663            *expression.expressions,
2664            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2665        )
2666
2667    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2668        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2669
2670    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2671        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2672        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2673        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2674        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2675        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2676        return self.func(
2677            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2678        )
2679
2680    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2681        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2682        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2683        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2684        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2685        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2686        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2687        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2688        return self.func(
2689            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2690            this,
2691            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2692        )
2693
2694    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2695        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2696        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2697        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2698
2699        if nested_schema:
2700            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2701
2702        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2703        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2704        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2705        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2706
2707    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2708        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2709
2710    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2711        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2712        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2713        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2714        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2715        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2716        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2717        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2718        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2719        return self.func(
2720            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2721        )
2722
2723    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2724        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2725        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2726        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2727        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2728        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2729        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2730
2731    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2732        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2733        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2734        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2735        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2736        with_ = (
2737            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2738            if expressions
2739            else ""
2740        )
2741        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2742
2743    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2744        query = expression.args.get("query")
2745        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2746        field = expression.args.get("field")
2747        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2748
2749        if query:
2750            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2751        elif unnest:
2752            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2753        elif field:
2754            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2755        else:
2756            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2757
2758        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2759
2760    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2761        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2762
2763    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2764        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2765        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2766            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2767        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2768
2769        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2770            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2771            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2772
2773        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2774        if this:
2775            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2776            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2777
2778        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2779
2780    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2781        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2782
2783    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2784        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2785        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2786        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2787        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2788        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2789        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2790
2791    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2792        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2793
2794    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2795        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2796        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2797
2798    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2799        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2800        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2801        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2802        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2803
2804    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2805        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2806
2807    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2808        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2809        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2810        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2811
2812    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2813        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2814        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2815
2816        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2817            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2818        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2819            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2820
2821        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2822
2823    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2824        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2825
2826    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2827        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2828        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2829        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2830
2831    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2832        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2833        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2834        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2835
2836    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2838        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2839        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2840
2841    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2842        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2843
2844    def and_sql(
2845        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2846    ) -> str:
2847        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2848
2849    def or_sql(
2850        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2851    ) -> str:
2852        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2853
2854    def xor_sql(
2855        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2856    ) -> str:
2857        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2858
2859    def connector_sql(
2860        self,
2861        expression: exp.Connector,
2862        op: str,
2863        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2864    ) -> str:
2865        if stack is not None:
2866            if expression.expressions:
2867                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2868            else:
2869                stack.append(expression.right)
2870                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2871                    for comment in expression.comments:
2872                        if comment:
2873                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2874                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2875            return op
2876
2877        stack = [expression]
2878        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2879        ops = set()
2880
2881        while stack:
2882            node = stack.pop()
2883            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2884                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2885            else:
2886                sql = self.sql(node)
2887                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2888                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2889                else:
2890                    sqls.append(sql)
2891
2892        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2893        return sep.join(sqls)
2894
2895    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2896        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2897
2898    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2899        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2900
2901    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2902        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2903
2904    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2905        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2906
2907    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2908        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2909
2910    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2911        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2912
2913    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2914        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2915        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2916        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2917        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2918        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2919        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2920        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2921
2922    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2923        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2924        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2925
2926    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2927        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2928
2929    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2930        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2931            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2932        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2933
2934    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2935        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2936
2937    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2939        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2940        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2941        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2942        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2943        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2944
2945    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2947        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2948        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2949        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2950        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2951        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2952        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2953        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2954        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2955
2956    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2957        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2958        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2959        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2960        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2961
2962        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2963            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2964
2965        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2966
2967    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2968        return "BEGIN"
2969
2970    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2971        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2972        if chain is not None:
2973            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2974
2975        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2976
2977    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2978        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2979        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2980        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2981
2982    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2983        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2984
2985        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2986        if dtype:
2987            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2988            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2989            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2990            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2991            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2992
2993        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2994        if default:
2995            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2996
2997        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2998        if comment:
2999            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3000
3001        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
3002            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3003
3004        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3005
3006    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3007        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3008        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3009            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3010        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3011
3012    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3013        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3014        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3015        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3016        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3017        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3018
3019    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3020        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3021            # Remove db from tables
3022            expression = expression.transform(
3023                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3024            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3026        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3027
3028    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3029        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3030        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3031        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3032        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3033
3034    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3035        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3036
3037        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3038            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3039        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3040            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3041        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3042            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3043        else:
3044            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3045
3046        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3047        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3048        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3049        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3050        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3051        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3052        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3053
3054    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3055        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3056            return self.expressions(
3057                expression,
3058                key="actions",
3059                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3060            )
3061        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3062
3063    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3064        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3065        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3066        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3067
3068    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3069        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3070
3071    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3072        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3073
3074        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3075            case = exp.case()
3076            for arg in expression.expressions:
3077                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3078            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3079
3080        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3081
3082        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3083        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3084        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3085
3086    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3087        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3088
3089    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3090        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3091
3092    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3093        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3094        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3095        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3096        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3097
3098    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3099        return self.sql(
3100            exp.Cast(
3101                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3102                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3103            )
3104        )
3105
3106    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3107        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3108            return self.func(
3109                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3110            )
3111        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3112
3113    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3114        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3115
3116        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3117            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3118
3119        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3120            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3121                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3122
3123        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3124            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3125                return self.sql(
3126                    exp.cast(
3127                        l / r,
3128                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3129                    )
3130                )
3131
3132        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3133
3134    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3135        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3136
3137    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3138        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3139
3140    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3141        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3142
3143    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3144        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3145
3146    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3147        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3148
3149    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3150        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3151
3152    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3153        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3154
3155    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3156        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3157
3158    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3159        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3160
3161    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3162        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3163
3164    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3165        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3166
3167    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3168        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3169            return self.sql(
3170                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3171            )
3172        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3173
3174    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3175        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3176
3177    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3178        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3179
3180    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3181        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3182
3183    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3184        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3185
3186    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3187        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3188
3189    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3190        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3191
3192    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3193        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3194
3195    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3196        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3197
3198    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3199        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3200
3201    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3202        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3203
3204    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3205        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3206
3207    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3208        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3209
3210    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3211        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3212
3213    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3214        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3215            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3216            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3217
3218        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3219
3220    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3221        this = expression.this
3222        expr = expression.expression
3223
3224        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3225            this, expr = expr, this
3226        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3227            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3228                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3229
3230            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3231
3232        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3233
3234    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3235        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3236        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3237        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3238        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3239        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3240
3241    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3242        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3243        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3244
3245    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3246        args = []
3247
3248        for key in expression.arg_types:
3249            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3250
3251            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3252                for value in arg_value:
3253                    args.append(value)
3254            elif arg_value is not None:
3255                args.append(arg_value)
3256
3257        if self.normalize_functions:
3258            name = expression.sql_name()
3259        else:
3260            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3261
3262        return self.func(name, *args)
3263
3264    def func(
3265        self,
3266        name: str,
3267        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3268        prefix: str = "(",
3269        suffix: str = ")",
3270    ) -> str:
3271        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3272
3273    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3274        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3275        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3276            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3277        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3278
3279    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3280        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3281
3282    def format_time(
3283        self,
3284        expression: exp.Expression,
3285        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3286        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3287    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3288        return format_time(
3289            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3290            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3291            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3292        )
3293
3294    def expressions(
3295        self,
3296        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3297        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3298        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3299        flat: bool = False,
3300        indent: bool = True,
3301        skip_first: bool = False,
3302        skip_last: bool = False,
3303        sep: str = ", ",
3304        prefix: str = "",
3305        dynamic: bool = False,
3306        new_line: bool = False,
3307    ) -> str:
3308        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3309
3310        if not expressions:
3311            return ""
3312
3313        if flat:
3314            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3315
3316        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3317
3318        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3319        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3320            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3321
3322        result_sqls = []
3323        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3324            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3325            if not sql:
3326                continue
3327
3328            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3329
3330            if self.pretty:
3331                if self.leading_comma:
3332                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3333                else:
3334                    result_sqls.append(
3335                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3336                    )
3337            else:
3338                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3339
3340        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3341            if new_line:
3342                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3343                result_sqls.append("")
3344            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3345        else:
3346            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3347        return (
3348            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3349            if indent
3350            else result_sql
3351        )
3352
3353    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3354        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3355        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3356        if flat:
3357            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3358        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3359
3360    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3361        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3362        if not property_name:
3363            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3364        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3365
3366    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3367        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3368
3369    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3370        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3371
3372    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3373        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3374        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3375        expressions = (
3376            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3377        )
3378        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3379
3380    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3381        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3382        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3383        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3384
3385    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3386        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3387
3388    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3389        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3390        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3391        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3392        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3393
3394        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3395        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3396            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3397            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3398            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3399            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3400        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3401            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3402                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3403            else:
3404                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3405        else:
3406            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3407        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3408
3409    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3410        table = expression.this
3411        table_alias = ""
3412
3413        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3414        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3415            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3416            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3417
3418        this = self.sql(table)
3419        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3420        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3421        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3422        sep = self.sep()
3423
3424        return self.prepend_ctes(
3425            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3426        )
3427
3428    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3429        if expression.args.get("format"):
3430            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3431
3432        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3433
3434    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3435        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3436            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3437            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3438
3439        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3440        if not fmt:
3441            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3442            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3443
3444        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3445
3446    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3447        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3448        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3449        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3450        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3451        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3452
3453    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3454        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3455        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3456        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3457        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3458
3459    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3460        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3461
3462    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3463        return ""
3464
3465    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3466        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3467        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3468        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3469        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3470        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3471
3472    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3473        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3474        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3475
3476        if having:
3477            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3478
3479        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3480
3481    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3482        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3483        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3484        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3485        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3486        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3487        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3488        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3489        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3490        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3491        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3492        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3493        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3494        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3495
3496    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3497        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3498        if key_block_size:
3499            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3500
3501        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3502        if using:
3503            return f"USING {using}"
3504
3505        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3506        if parser:
3507            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3508
3509        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3510        if comment:
3511            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3512
3513        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3514        if visible is not None:
3515            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3516
3517        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3518        if engine_attr:
3519            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3520
3521        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3522        if secondary_engine_attr:
3523            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3524
3525        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3526        return ""
3527
3528    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3529        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3530        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3531
3532    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3533        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3534        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3535        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3536        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3537        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3538        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3539        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3540        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3541        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3542        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3543        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3544
3545    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3546        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3547            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3548
3549        case = exp.Case().when(
3550            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3551            expression.args["true"],
3552            copy=False,
3553        )
3554        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3555        if else_cond:
3556            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3557
3558        return self.sql(case)
3559
3560    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3561        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3562        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3563        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3564        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3565        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3566        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3567
3568    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3569        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3570
3571    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3572        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3573
3574    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3575        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3576        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3577        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3578        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3579        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3580        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3581
3582    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3583        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3584        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3585        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3586
3587    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3588        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3589        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3590        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3591
3592    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3593        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3594
3595    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3596        arg = expression.this
3597        if not arg.type:
3598            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3599
3600            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3601
3602        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3603            return self.sql(arg)
3604
3605        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3606        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3607
3608    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3609        this = expression.this
3610        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3611            return self.sql(this)
3612
3613        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3614
3615    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3616        this = expression.this
3617        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3618            return self.sql(this)
3619
3620        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3621
3622    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3623        this = expression.this
3624        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3625
3626        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3627            return self.sql(
3628                exp.cast(
3629                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3630                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3631                )
3632            )
3633
3634        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3635            return self.sql(this)
3636
3637        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3638
3639    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3640        return self.sql(
3641            exp.func(
3642                "DATEDIFF",
3643                expression.this,
3644                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3645                "day",
3646            )
3647        )
3648
3649    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3650        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3651            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3652
3653        unit = expression.text("unit")
3654        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3655            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3656
3657        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3658
3659    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3660        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3661
3662        return self.func(
3663            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3664        )
3665
3666    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3667        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3668            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3669            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3670            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3671            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3672
3673        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3674
3675        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3676        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3677            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3678
3679        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3680
3681    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3682        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3683        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3684
3685    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3686        expression.set(
3687            "expressions",
3688            [
3689                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3690                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3691                else e
3692                for e in expression.expressions
3693            ],
3694        )
3695
3696        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3697
3698    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3699        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3700        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3701
3702        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3703
3704    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3705        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3706        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3707
3708        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3709
3710        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3711        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3712
3713        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3714        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3715
3716        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3717        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3718
3719        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3720        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3721
3722        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3723
3724    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3725    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3726    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3727        to = expression.this
3728        value = expression.expression
3729        style = expression.args.get("style")
3730        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3731        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3732
3733        if not to or not value:
3734            return ""
3735
3736        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3737        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3738            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3739
3740        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3741        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3742
3743        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3744        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3745            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3746
3747            style_value = style.name
3748            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3749            if not converted_style:
3750                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3751
3752            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3753
3754            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3755                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3756            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3757                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3758            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3759                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3760            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3761                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3762
3763        if not transformed:
3764            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3765
3766        return self.sql(transformed)
3767
3768    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3769        this = expression.this
3770        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3771            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3772            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3773
3774        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3775            return f".{this}"
3776
3777        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3778        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3779
3780    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3781        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3782        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3783
3784    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3785        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3786            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3787
3788            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3789
3790        return expression
3791
3792    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3793        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3794            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3795            mods = sorted(
3796                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3797                key=lambda x: 0
3798                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3799                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3800            )
3801
3802            if mods:
3803                mod = mods[0]
3804                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3805                this.meta["inline"] = True
3806                mod.this.replace(this)
3807                return self.sql(expression.this)
3808
3809            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3810
3811            if agg_func:
3812                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3813
3814        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3815
3816    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3817        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3818        if self.pretty:
3819            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3820        return string
3821
3822    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3823        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3824
3825        if option.upper() == "FILE_FORMAT":
3826            values = self.expressions(expression, key="expression", flat=True, sep=" ")
3827            return f"{option} = ({values})"
3828
3829        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3830
3831        if not value:
3832            return option
3833
3834        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3835
3836        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3837
3838    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3839        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3840        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3841            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3842            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3843            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3844        else:
3845            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3846            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3847            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if credentials else ""
3848
3849        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3850
3851        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3852        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3853
3854        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3855        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3856
3857        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3858        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3859
3860        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3861
3862    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3864        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3865
3866        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3867        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3868        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3869        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3870
3871        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3872        params = self.expressions(
3873            expression,
3874            key="params",
3875            sep=sep,
3876            new_line=True,
3877            skip_last=True,
3878            skip_first=True,
3879            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3880        )
3881
3882        if params:
3883            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3884                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3885            elif not self.pretty:
3886                params = f" {params}"
3887
3888        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3889
3890    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3891        return ""
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  55            Default: 2.
  56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  59            False: Disables function name normalization.
  60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  64            Default: 3
  65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  67            Default: False
  68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  70            line length.
  71            Default: 80
  72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  73            Default: True
  74    """
  75
  76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  78        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  79        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  80        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  83        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  84        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  86        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  88        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  89        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  96        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  97        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  98        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  99        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 100        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 101        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 102        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 103        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 104        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 105        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 107        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 108            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 109        ),
 110        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 111            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 112        ),
 113        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 114        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 115        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 116        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 117        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 118        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 119        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 120        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 121        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 122        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 123        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 128        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 130        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 132        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 133        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 134        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 135        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 136        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 137        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 138        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 139        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 140        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 141        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 142        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 143        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 144        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 145        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 146        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 147        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 148        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 149        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 150        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 151        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 152        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 153    }
 154
 155    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 156    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 157    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 158
 159    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 160    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 161    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 162
 163    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 164    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 165
 166    # Always do union distinct or union all
 167    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 168
 169    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 170    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 171
 172    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 173    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 174
 175    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 176    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 177
 178    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 179    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 180
 181    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 182    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 183
 184    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 185    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 186
 187    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 188    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 189
 190    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 191    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 192
 193    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 194    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 195
 196    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 197    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 198
 199    # Whether join hints should be generated
 200    JOIN_HINTS = True
 201
 202    # Whether table hints should be generated
 203    TABLE_HINTS = True
 204
 205    # Whether query hints should be generated
 206    QUERY_HINTS = True
 207
 208    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 209    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 210
 211    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 212    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 213
 214    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 215    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 216
 217    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 218    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 219
 220    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 221    RETURNING_END = True
 222
 223    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 224    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 225
 226    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 227    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 228
 229    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 230    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 231
 232    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 233    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 234
 235    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 236    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 237
 238    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 239    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 240    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 241    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 242
 243    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 244    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 245
 246    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 247    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 248
 249    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 250    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 251
 252    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 253    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 254
 255    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 256    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 257
 258    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 259    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 260
 261    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 262    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 263
 264    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 265    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 266
 267    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 268    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 269
 270    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 271    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 272
 273    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 274    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 275
 276    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 277    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 278
 279    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 280    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 281
 282    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 283    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 284
 285    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 286    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 287
 288    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 289    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 290
 291    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 292    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 293
 294    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 295    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 296
 297    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 298    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 299
 300    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 301    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 302
 303    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 304    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 305
 306    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 307    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 308
 309    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 310    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 311
 312    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 313    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 314
 315    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 316    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 317
 318    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 319    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 320    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 321
 322    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 323    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 324
 325    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 326    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 327
 328    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 329    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 330
 331    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 332    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 333
 334    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 335    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 336
 337    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 338    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 339
 340    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
 341    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 342    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
 343    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
 344
 345    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 346    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 347
 348    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 349    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 350
 351    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 352    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 353
 354    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 355    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 356
 357    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 358    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 359
 360    # The HEX function name
 361    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 362
 363    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 364        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 365        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 366        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 367        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 368        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 369        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 370        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 371        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 372        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 373        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 374    }
 375
 376    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 377        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 378        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 379        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 380        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 381        "DAYS": "DAY",
 382        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 383        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 384        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 385        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 386    }
 387
 388    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 389        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 390        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 391        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 392        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 393        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 394            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 395            if e.args.get("windows")
 396            else ""
 397        ),
 398    }
 399
 400    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 401
 402    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 403
 404    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 405    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 406
 407    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 408        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 409        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 410        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 411        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 412        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 413        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 414        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 415        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 416        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 417        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 418        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 419        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 420        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 421        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 422        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 423        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 424        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 425        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 426        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 427        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 428        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 429        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 430        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 431        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 432        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 433        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 434        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 436        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 438        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 439        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 444        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 445        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 446        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 447        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 448        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 450        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 453        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 456        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 463        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 464        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 465        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 466        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 467        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 469        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 470        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 473        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 475        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 476        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 477        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 478        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 479        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 480        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 482        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 483        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 484        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485    }
 486
 487    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 488    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 489
 490    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 491    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 492        exp.Create,
 493        exp.Delete,
 494        exp.Drop,
 495        exp.From,
 496        exp.Insert,
 497        exp.Join,
 498        exp.Select,
 499        exp.Union,
 500        exp.Update,
 501        exp.Where,
 502        exp.With,
 503    )
 504
 505    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 506    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 507        exp.Binary,
 508        exp.Union,
 509    )
 510
 511    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 512    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 513        exp.Column,
 514        exp.Literal,
 515        exp.Neg,
 516        exp.Paren,
 517    )
 518
 519    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 520        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 521        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 522        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 523        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 524    }
 525
 526    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 527    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 528
 529    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 530
 531    __slots__ = (
 532        "pretty",
 533        "identify",
 534        "normalize",
 535        "pad",
 536        "_indent",
 537        "normalize_functions",
 538        "unsupported_level",
 539        "max_unsupported",
 540        "leading_comma",
 541        "max_text_width",
 542        "comments",
 543        "dialect",
 544        "unsupported_messages",
 545        "_escaped_quote_end",
 546        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 547        "_next_name",
 548    )
 549
 550    def __init__(
 551        self,
 552        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 553        identify: str | bool = False,
 554        normalize: bool = False,
 555        pad: int = 2,
 556        indent: int = 2,
 557        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 558        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 559        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 560        leading_comma: bool = False,
 561        max_text_width: int = 80,
 562        comments: bool = True,
 563        dialect: DialectType = None,
 564    ):
 565        import sqlglot
 566        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 567
 568        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 569        self.identify = identify
 570        self.normalize = normalize
 571        self.pad = pad
 572        self._indent = indent
 573        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 574        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 575        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 576        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 577        self.comments = comments
 578        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 579
 580        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 581        self.normalize_functions = (
 582            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 583        )
 584
 585        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 586        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 587            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 588        )
 589        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 590            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 591        )
 592
 593        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 594
 595    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 596        """
 597        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 598
 599        Args:
 600            expression: The syntax tree.
 601            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 602                it is safer to copy.
 603
 604        Returns:
 605            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 606        """
 607        if copy:
 608            expression = expression.copy()
 609
 610        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 611
 612        self.unsupported_messages = []
 613        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 614
 615        if self.pretty:
 616            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 617
 618        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 619            return sql
 620
 621        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 622            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 623                logger.warning(msg)
 624        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 625            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 626
 627        return sql
 628
 629    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 630        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 631        if (
 632            not expression.parent
 633            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 634            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 635        ):
 636            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 637
 638            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 639
 640        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 641            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 642
 643            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 644
 645        return expression
 646
 647    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 648        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 649            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 650        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 651
 652    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 653        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 654
 655    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 656        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 657
 658    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 659        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 660        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 661        return comment
 662
 663    def maybe_comment(
 664        self,
 665        sql: str,
 666        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 667        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 668        separated: bool = False,
 669    ) -> str:
 670        comments = (
 671            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 672            if self.comments
 673            else None
 674        )
 675
 676        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 677            return sql
 678
 679        comments_sql = " ".join(
 680            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 681        )
 682
 683        if not comments_sql:
 684            return sql
 685
 686        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 687
 688        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 689            return (
 690                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 691                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 692                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 693            )
 694
 695        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 696
 697    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 698        this_sql = (
 699            self.sql(expression)
 700            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 701            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 702        )
 703        if not this_sql:
 704            return "()"
 705
 706        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 707        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 708
 709    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 710        original = self.identify
 711        self.identify = False
 712        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 713        self.identify = original
 714        return result
 715
 716    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 717        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 718            return name.upper()
 719        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 720            return name.lower()
 721        return name
 722
 723    def indent(
 724        self,
 725        sql: str,
 726        level: int = 0,
 727        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 728        skip_first: bool = False,
 729        skip_last: bool = False,
 730    ) -> str:
 731        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 732            return sql
 733
 734        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 735        lines = sql.split("\n")
 736
 737        return "\n".join(
 738            (
 739                line
 740                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 741                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 742            )
 743            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 744        )
 745
 746    def sql(
 747        self,
 748        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 749        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 750        comment: bool = True,
 751    ) -> str:
 752        if not expression:
 753            return ""
 754
 755        if isinstance(expression, str):
 756            return expression
 757
 758        if key:
 759            value = expression.args.get(key)
 760            if value:
 761                return self.sql(value)
 762            return ""
 763
 764        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 765
 766        if callable(transform):
 767            sql = transform(self, expression)
 768        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 769            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 770
 771            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 772                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 773            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 774                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 775            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 776                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 777            else:
 778                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 779        else:
 780            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 781
 782        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 783
 784    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 785        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 786        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 787        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 788
 789    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 790        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 791        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 792        options = expression.args.get("options")
 793        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 794        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 795        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 796        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 797        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 798
 799    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 800        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 801            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 802        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 803        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 804
 805    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 806        return ".".join(
 807            self.sql(part)
 808            for part in (
 809                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 810                expression.args.get("db"),
 811                expression.args.get("table"),
 812                expression.args.get("this"),
 813            )
 814            if part
 815        )
 816
 817    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 818        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 819
 820        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 821            join_mark = ""
 822            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 823
 824        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 825
 826    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 827        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 828        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 829        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 830        return f"{position}{this}"
 831
 832    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 833        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 834        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 835        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 836        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 837        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 838        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 839        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 840        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 841
 842        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 843            kind = ""
 844
 845        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 846
 847    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 849        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 850        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 851
 852    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 854        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 855            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 856        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 857            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 858        else:
 859            persisted = ""
 860        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 861
 862    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 863        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 864
 865    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 866        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 867            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 868        else:
 869            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 870
 871        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 872
 873    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 874        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 875    ) -> str:
 876        this = ""
 877        if expression.this is not None:
 878            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 879            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 880
 881        start = expression.args.get("start")
 882        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 883        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 884        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 885        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 886        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 887        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 888        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 889        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 890        cycle_sql = ""
 891
 892        if cycle is not None:
 893            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 894            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 895
 896        sequence_opts = ""
 897        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 898            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 899            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 900
 901        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 902        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 903
 904        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 905
 906    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 907        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 908    ) -> str:
 909        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 910        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 911        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 912
 913    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 914        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 915    ) -> str:
 916        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 917
 918    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 919        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 920
 921    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 922        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 923
 924    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 925        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 926        if desc is not None:
 927            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 928        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 929
 930    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 931        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 932        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 933        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 934        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 935        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 936        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 937        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 938
 939    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 940        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 941
 942    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 943        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 944        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 945        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 946
 947        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 948
 949        properties_sql = ""
 950        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 951            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 952        ):
 953            properties_sql = self.sql(
 954                exp.Properties(
 955                    expressions=[
 956                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 957                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 958                    ]
 959                )
 960            )
 961
 962        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 963        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 964
 965        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 966        if expression_sql:
 967            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 968
 969            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 970                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 971                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 972                        exp.Properties(
 973                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 974                        ),
 975                        wrapped=False,
 976                    )
 977                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 978                else:
 979                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 980
 981        postindex_props_sql = ""
 982        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 983            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 984                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 985                wrapped=False,
 986                prefix=" ",
 987            )
 988
 989        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 990        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 991        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 992
 993        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 994        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 995
 996        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 997        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 998            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 999                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1000                sep=" ",
1001                prefix=" ",
1002                wrapped=False,
1003            )
1004
1005        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1006
1007        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1008        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1009            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1010                exp.Properties(
1011                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1012                ),
1013                sep=" ",
1014                prefix=" ",
1015                wrapped=False,
1016            )
1017
1018        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1019        no_schema_binding = (
1020            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1021        )
1022
1023        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1024        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1025
1026        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1027        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1028
1029    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1030        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1031        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1032        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1033        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1034        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1035        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1036        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1037        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1038        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1039        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1040
1041        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1042        if cache is None:
1043            cache_str = ""
1044        elif cache is True:
1045            cache_str = " CACHE"
1046        else:
1047            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1048
1049        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1050        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1051
1052        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1053
1054    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1055        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1056        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1057        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1058        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1059
1060    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1061        style = expression.args.get("style")
1062        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1063        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1064
1065    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1066        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1067        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1068
1069    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1070        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1071        if with_:
1072            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1073        return sql
1074
1075    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1076        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1077        recursive = (
1078            "RECURSIVE "
1079            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1080            else ""
1081        )
1082
1083        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1084
1085    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1086        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1087
1088        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1089        if materialized is False:
1090            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1091        elif materialized:
1092            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1093
1094        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1095
1096    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1097        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1098        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1099        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1100
1101        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1102            columns = ""
1103            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1104
1105        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1106            alias = self._next_name()
1107
1108        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1109
1110    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1111        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1112        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1113            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1114        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1115
1116    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1117        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1118        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1119            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1120        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1121
1122    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1123        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1124        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1125            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1126        return this
1127
1128    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1130        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1131
1132        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1133            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1134            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1135
1136        if escape:
1137            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1138        else:
1139            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1140
1141        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1142        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1143
1144    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1145        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1146        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1147
1148    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1149        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1150        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1151        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1152        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1153
1154    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1155        type_value = expression.this
1156
1157        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1158            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1159        else:
1160            type_sql = (
1161                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1162                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1163                else type_value
1164            )
1165
1166        nested = ""
1167        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1168        values = ""
1169
1170        if interior:
1171            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1172                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1173                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1174                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1175                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1176                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1177            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1178                nested = f" {interior}"
1179            else:
1180                nested = f"({interior})"
1181
1182        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1183        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1184            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1185            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1186        ):
1187            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1188
1189        return type_sql
1190
1191    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1192        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1193        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1194        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1195        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1196
1197    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1198        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1199        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1200        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1201        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1202        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1203        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1204        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1205        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1206        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1207        if self.RETURNING_END:
1208            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1209        else:
1210            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1211        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1212
1213    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1214        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1215        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1216        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1217        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1218        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1219        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1220        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1221        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1222        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1223        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1224        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1225        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1226        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1227
1228    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1229        return self.set_operations(expression)
1230
1231    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1232        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1233
1234    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1235        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1236        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1237        count = expression.args.get("count")
1238        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1239        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1240            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1241        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1242        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1243
1244    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1245        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1246            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1247            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1248            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1249
1250        agg = expression.this
1251        agg_arg = agg.this
1252        cond = expression.expression.this
1253        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1254        return self.sql(agg)
1255
1256    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1257        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1258            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1259            return ""
1260
1261        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1262
1263    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1264        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1265        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1266        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1267        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1268        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1269        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1270        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1271        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1272        if include:
1273            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1274        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1275        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1276        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1277        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1278
1279        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1280
1281    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1282        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1283        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1284        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1285        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1286        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1287        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1288        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1289
1290        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1291
1292        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1293        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1294
1295    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1296        text = expression.name
1297        lower = text.lower()
1298        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1299        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1300        if (
1301            expression.quoted
1302            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1303            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1304            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1305        ):
1306            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1307        return text
1308
1309    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1310        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1311        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1312            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1313
1314        return text
1315
1316    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1317        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1318        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1319            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1320        return text
1321
1322    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1323        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1324        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1325        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1326        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1327        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1328
1329    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1330        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1331        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1332
1333    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1334        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1335
1336    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1337        root_properties = []
1338        with_properties = []
1339
1340        for p in expression.expressions:
1341            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1342            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1343                with_properties.append(p)
1344            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1345                root_properties.append(p)
1346
1347        return self.root_properties(
1348            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1349        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1350
1351    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1352        if properties.expressions:
1353            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1354        return ""
1355
1356    def properties(
1357        self,
1358        properties: exp.Properties,
1359        prefix: str = "",
1360        sep: str = ", ",
1361        suffix: str = "",
1362        wrapped: bool = True,
1363    ) -> str:
1364        if properties.expressions:
1365            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1366            if expressions:
1367                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1368                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1369        return ""
1370
1371    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1372        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1373
1374    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1375        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1376        for p in properties.expressions:
1377            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1378            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1379                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1380            else:
1381                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1382
1383        return properties_locs
1384
1385    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1386        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1387            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1388        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1389
1390    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1391        property_cls = expression.__class__
1392        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1393            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1394
1395        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1396        if not property_name:
1397            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1398
1399        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1400
1401    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1402        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1403            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1404            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1405
1406            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1407            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1408                like = f"({like})"
1409
1410            return like
1411
1412        if expression.expressions:
1413            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1414
1415        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1416        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1417
1418    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1419        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1420        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1421        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1422
1423    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1424        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1425        local = expression.args.get("local")
1426        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1427        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1428        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1429        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1430        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1431
1432    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1433        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1434        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1435        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1436
1437    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1438        if expression.args.get("default"):
1439            property = "DEFAULT"
1440        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1441            property = "ON"
1442        else:
1443            property = "OFF"
1444        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1445
1446    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1447        if expression.args.get("no"):
1448            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1449        if expression.args.get("default"):
1450            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1451
1452        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1453        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1454
1455    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1456        default = expression.args.get("default")
1457        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1458        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1459        if default or minimum or maximum:
1460            if default:
1461                prop = "DEFAULT"
1462            elif minimum:
1463                prop = "MINIMUM"
1464            else:
1465                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1466            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1467        units = expression.args.get("units")
1468        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1469        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1470
1471    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1472        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1473        always = expression.args.get("always")
1474        default = expression.args.get("default")
1475        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1476        never = expression.args.get("never")
1477
1478        if autotemp is not None:
1479            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1480        elif always:
1481            prop = "ALWAYS"
1482        elif default:
1483            prop = "DEFAULT"
1484        elif manual:
1485            prop = "MANUAL"
1486        elif never:
1487            prop = "NEVER"
1488        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1489
1490    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1491        no = expression.args.get("no")
1492        no = " NO" if no else ""
1493        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1494        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1495        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1496        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1497        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1498
1499    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1500        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1501            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1502        if expression.this:
1503            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1504            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1505            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1506
1507        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1508        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1509        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1510
1511    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1512        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1513
1514        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1515        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1516            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1517        else:
1518            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1519
1520        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1521
1522    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1523        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1524        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1525        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1526        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1527        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1528        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1529        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1530
1531    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1532        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1533        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1534        statistics_sql = ""
1535        if statistics is not None:
1536            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1537        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1538
1539    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1540        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1541
1542        if expression.this:
1543            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1544            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1545
1546            if expression.expression:
1547                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1548                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1549
1550            sql = f"{sql})"
1551
1552        return f"{sql})"
1553
1554    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1555        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1556        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1557
1558        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1559            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1560        else:
1561            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1562
1563        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1564        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1565        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1566        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1567        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1568        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1569        if is_function:
1570            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1571        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1572
1573        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1574        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1575        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1576        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1577        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1578        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1579        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1580        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1581
1582        if self.RETURNING_END:
1583            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1584        else:
1585            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1586
1587        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1588        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1589
1590    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1591        return self.set_operations(expression)
1592
1593    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1594        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1595
1596    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1597        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1598
1599    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1600        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1601        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1602        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1603        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1604        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1605
1606    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1607        return expression.name
1608
1609    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1610        return expression.name
1611
1612    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1613        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1614
1615        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1616        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1617
1618        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1619        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1620        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1621
1622        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1623        if expressions:
1624            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1625            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1626
1627        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1628
1629    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1630        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1631
1632    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1633        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1634        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1635        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1636        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1637        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1638        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1639        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1640        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1641        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1642        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1643        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1644        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1645        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1646
1647    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1648        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1649
1650    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1651        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1652        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1653        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1654        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1655
1656    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1657        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1658        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1659        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1660        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1661
1662    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1663        return ".".join(
1664            self.sql(part)
1665            for part in (
1666                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1667                expression.args.get("db"),
1668                expression.args.get("this"),
1669            )
1670            if part is not None
1671        )
1672
1673    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1674        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1675        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1676        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1677        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1678        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1679        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1680        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1681        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1682        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1683        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1684        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1685        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1686        joins = self.indent(
1687            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1688        )
1689        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1690
1691        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1692        if file_format:
1693            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1694            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1695            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1696
1697        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1698        if ordinality:
1699            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1700            alias = ""
1701
1702        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1703        if when:
1704            table = f"{table} {when}"
1705
1706        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1707
1708    def tablesample_sql(
1709        self,
1710        expression: exp.TableSample,
1711        sep: str = " AS ",
1712        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1713    ) -> str:
1714        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1715            table = expression.this.copy()
1716            table.set("alias", None)
1717            this = self.sql(table)
1718            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1719        else:
1720            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1721            alias = ""
1722
1723        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1724        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1725        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1726        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1727        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1728        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1729        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1730        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1731        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1732
1733        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1734        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1735            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1736
1737        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1738        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1739            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1740
1741        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1742        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1743            expr = f"({expr})"
1744
1745        return (
1746            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1747        )
1748
1749    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1750        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1751
1752        if expression.this:
1753            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1754            if not expressions:
1755                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1756
1757            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1758            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1759            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1760            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1761            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1762
1763        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1764        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1765        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1766        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1767        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1768        if include_nulls is not None:
1769            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1770        else:
1771            nulls = ""
1772        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1773
1774    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1775        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1776        kind = expression.text("kind")
1777        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1778        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1779
1780    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1781        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1782
1783    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1784        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1785        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1786        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1787        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1788        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1789        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1790        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1791        if self.RETURNING_END:
1792            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1793        else:
1794            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1795        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1796        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1797
1798    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1799        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1800
1801        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1802        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1803            args = self.expressions(expression)
1804            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1805            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1806            values = (
1807                f"({values})"
1808                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1809                else values
1810            )
1811            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1812
1813        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1814        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1815        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1816
1817        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1818
1819        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1820            row = tup.expressions
1821
1822            if i == 0 and column_names:
1823                row = [
1824                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1825                ]
1826
1827            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1828
1829        if self.pretty:
1830            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1831            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1832            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1833            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1834            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1835
1836        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1837        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1838        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1839
1840    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1841        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1842
1843    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1844        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1845        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1846        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1847
1848    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1849        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1850
1851    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1852        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1853        if group_by_all is True:
1854            modifier = " ALL"
1855        elif group_by_all is False:
1856            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1857        else:
1858            modifier = ""
1859
1860        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1861
1862        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1863        grouping_sets = (
1864            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1865        )
1866
1867        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1868        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1869            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1870        else:
1871            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1872            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1873
1874        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1875        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1876            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1877        else:
1878            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1879            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1880
1881        groupings = csv(
1882            grouping_sets,
1883            cube_sql,
1884            rollup_sql,
1885            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1886            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1887        )
1888
1889        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1890            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1891
1892        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1893
1894    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1895        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1896        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1897
1898    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1899        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1900        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1901        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1902        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1903        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1904        return start + connect
1905
1906    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1907        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1908
1909    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1910        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1911            side = None
1912        else:
1913            side = expression.side
1914
1915        op_sql = " ".join(
1916            op
1917            for op in (
1918                expression.method,
1919                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1920                side,
1921                expression.kind,
1922                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1923            )
1924            if op
1925        )
1926        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1927        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1928        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1929        using = expression.args.get("using")
1930
1931        if not on_sql and using:
1932            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1933
1934        this = expression.this
1935        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1936
1937        if on_sql:
1938            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1939            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1940            if using:
1941                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1942            else:
1943                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1944        elif not op_sql:
1945            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1946                return f" {this_sql}"
1947
1948            return f", {this_sql}"
1949
1950        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1951        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1952
1953    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1954        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1955        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1956        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1957
1958    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1959        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1960
1961        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1962        if cross_apply is True:
1963            op = "INNER JOIN "
1964        elif cross_apply is False:
1965            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1966        else:
1967            op = ""
1968
1969        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1970
1971    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1972        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1973
1974        if expression.args.get("view"):
1975            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1976            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1977            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1978            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1979            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1980            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1981
1982        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1983        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1984        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1985
1986    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1987        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1988
1989        args = [
1990            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1991            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1992            if e
1993        ]
1994
1995        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1996        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1997        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1998        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1999
2000        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2001
2002    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2003        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2004        value = expression.expression
2005        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2006        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2007        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2008        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2009
2010    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2011        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2012        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2013        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2014        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2015        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2016        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2017        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2018        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2019
2020    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2021        expressions = (
2022            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2023        )
2024        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2025        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2026
2027    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2028        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2029
2030    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2031        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2032            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2033            return ""
2034
2035        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2036        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2037        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2038        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2039
2040        if wait is not None:
2041            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2042                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2043            else:
2044                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2045
2046        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2047
2048    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2049        text = expression.this or ""
2050        if expression.is_string:
2051            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2052        return text
2053
2054    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2055        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2056            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2057            text = "".join(
2058                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2059            )
2060
2061        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2062            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2063        )
2064
2065    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2066        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2067        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2068        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2069        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2070        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2071        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2072        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2073        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2074        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2075        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2076        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2077
2078    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2079        return "NULL"
2080
2081    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2082        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2083
2084    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2085        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2086        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2087        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2088        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2089        interpolated_values = [
2090            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2091            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2092        ]
2093        interpolate = (
2094            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2095        )
2096        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2097
2098    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2099        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2100        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2101        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2102        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2103        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2104        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2105        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2106
2107    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2108        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2109
2110    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2111        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2112
2113    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2114        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2115
2116    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2117        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2118        asc = not desc
2119
2120        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2121        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2122        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2123        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2124        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2125
2126        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2127
2128        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2129        nulls_sort_change = ""
2130        if nulls_first and (
2131            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2132        ):
2133            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2134        elif (
2135            nulls_last
2136            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2137            and not nulls_are_last
2138        ):
2139            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2140
2141        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2142        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2143            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2144            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2145                self.unsupported(
2146                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2147                )
2148                nulls_sort_change = ""
2149            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2150                if expression.this.is_int:
2151                    self.unsupported(
2152                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2153                    )
2154                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2155                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2156                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2157                nulls_sort_change = ""
2158
2159        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2160        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2161
2162        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2163
2164    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2165        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2166        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2167
2168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2169
2170        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2171
2172    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2173        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2174        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2175        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2176        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2177        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2178        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2179        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2180        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2181        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2182        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2183        definition_sqls = [
2184            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2185            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2186        ]
2187        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2188        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2189        body = "".join(
2190            (
2191                partition,
2192                order,
2193                measures,
2194                rows,
2195                after,
2196                pattern,
2197                define,
2198            )
2199        )
2200        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2201        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2202        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2203
2204    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2205        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2206
2207        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2208            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2209        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2210            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2211
2212        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2213        if options:
2214            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2215
2216        return csv(
2217            *sqls,
2218            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2219            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2220            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2221            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2222            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2223            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2224            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2225            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2226            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2227            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2228            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2229            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2230            options,
2231            sep="",
2232        )
2233
2234    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2235        return ""
2236
2237    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2238        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2239    ) -> t.List[str]:
2240        return [
2241            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2242            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2243        ]
2244
2245    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2246        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2247        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2248        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2249
2250    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2251        into = expression.args.get("into")
2252        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2253            into.pop()
2254
2255        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2256        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2257        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2258        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2259
2260        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2261        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2262            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2263            limit.pop()
2264        else:
2265            top = ""
2266
2267        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2268
2269        if kind:
2270            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2271                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2272            else:
2273                if kind == "STRUCT":
2274                    expressions = self.expressions(
2275                        sqls=[
2276                            self.sql(
2277                                exp.Struct(
2278                                    expressions=[
2279                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2280                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2281                                        else e
2282                                        for e in expression.expressions
2283                                    ]
2284                                )
2285                            )
2286                        ]
2287                    )
2288                kind = ""
2289
2290        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2291        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2292        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2293        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2294        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2295            expression,
2296            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2297            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2298            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2299        )
2300
2301        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2302
2303        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2304            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2305                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2306            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2307                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2308            else:
2309                table_kind = ""
2310            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2311
2312        return sql
2313
2314    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2315        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2316        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2317        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2318
2319    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2320        if expression.expressions:
2321            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2322        return ""
2323
2324    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2325        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2326        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2327        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2328        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2329        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2330        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2331        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2332
2333    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2334        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2335        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2336
2337    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2338        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2339        kind = expression.text("kind")
2340        if kind:
2341            kind = f"{kind}."
2342        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2343
2344    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2345        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2346
2347    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2348        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2349        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2350
2351        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2352        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2353
2354        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2355        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2356
2357    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2358        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2359        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2360
2361    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2362        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2363            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2364            order = expression.args.get("order")
2365
2366            if limit or order:
2367                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2368
2369                if limit:
2370                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2371                if order:
2372                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2373                return self.sql(select)
2374
2375        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2376        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2377
2378        while stack:
2379            node = stack.pop()
2380
2381            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2382                stack.append(node.expression)
2383                stack.append(
2384                    self.maybe_comment(
2385                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2386                        comments=node.comments,
2387                        separated=True,
2388                    )
2389                )
2390                stack.append(node.this)
2391            else:
2392                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2393
2394        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2395        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2396        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2397
2398    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2399        return self.set_operations(expression)
2400
2401    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2402        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2403        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2404        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2405        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2406
2407    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2408        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2409
2410        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2411        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2412
2413        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2414            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2415                alias.append("columns", offset)
2416
2417        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2418            columns = alias.columns
2419            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2420        else:
2421            alias = self.sql(alias)
2422
2423        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2424        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2425            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2426        else:
2427            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2428                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2429            elif offset:
2430                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2431            else:
2432                suffix = alias
2433
2434        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2435
2436    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2437        return ""
2438
2439    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2440        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2441        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2442
2443    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2444        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2445        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2446        order = expression.args.get("order")
2447        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2448        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2449        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2450        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2451
2452        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2453
2454        first = expression.args.get("first")
2455        if first is None:
2456            first = ""
2457        else:
2458            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2459
2460        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2461            return f"{this} {alias}"
2462
2463        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2464        return f"{this} ({args})"
2465
2466    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2467        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2468        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2469
2470    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2471        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2472        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2473        end = (
2474            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2475            or "CURRENT ROW"
2476        )
2477        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2478
2479    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2480        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2481        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2482        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2483
2484    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2485        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2486        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2487        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2488        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2489
2490    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2491        return apply_index_offset(
2492            expression.this,
2493            expression.expressions,
2494            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2495        )
2496
2497    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2498        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2499        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2500        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2501
2502    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2503        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2504
2505    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2506        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2507        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2508            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2509                this = self.wrap(this)
2510            return f"ANY{this}"
2511        return f"ANY {this}"
2512
2513    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2514        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2515
2516    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2517        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2518        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2519
2520        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2521            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2522            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2523
2524        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2525
2526        if default:
2527            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2528
2529        statements.append("END")
2530
2531        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2532            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2533
2534        return " ".join(statements)
2535
2536    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2537        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2538        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2539        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2540
2541    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2542        order = expression.args.get("order")
2543        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2544        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2545
2546    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2547        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2548        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2549        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2550
2551    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2552        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2553
2554        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2555            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2556        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2557            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2558        else:
2559            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2560
2561    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2562        args = expression.expressions
2563        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2564            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2565
2566        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2567            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2568
2569        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2570            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2571
2572        return args
2573
2574    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2575        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2576
2577        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2578        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2579            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2580
2581        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2582
2583    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2584        return self.func(
2585            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2586        )
2587
2588    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2589        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2590        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2591
2592    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2593        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2594        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2595        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2596        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2597        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2598        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2599        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2600        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2601
2602    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2603        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2604        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2605        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2606        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2607
2608    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2609        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2610
2611    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2612        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2613        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2614        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2615
2616    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2617        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2618
2619    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2620        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2621        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2622
2623    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2624        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2625            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2626            if not callable(transform):
2627                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2628                return ""
2629
2630            return transform(self, expression)
2631
2632        if isinstance(expression, int):
2633            return str(expression)
2634
2635        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2636            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2637            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2638        else:
2639            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2640            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2641
2642        return escaped
2643
2644    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2645        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2646
2647    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2648        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2649        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2650
2651        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2652        if unique_keys is not None:
2653            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2654        else:
2655            unique_keys = ""
2656
2657        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2658        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2659        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2660        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2661
2662        return self.func(
2663            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2664            *expression.expressions,
2665            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2666        )
2667
2668    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2669        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2670
2671    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2672        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2673        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2674        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2675        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2676        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2677        return self.func(
2678            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2679        )
2680
2681    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2682        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2683        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2684        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2685        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2686        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2687        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2688        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2689        return self.func(
2690            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2691            this,
2692            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2693        )
2694
2695    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2696        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2697        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2698        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2699
2700        if nested_schema:
2701            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2702
2703        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2704        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2705        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2706        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2707
2708    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2709        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2710
2711    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2712        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2713        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2714        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2715        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2716        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2717        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2718        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2719        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2720        return self.func(
2721            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2722        )
2723
2724    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2725        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2726        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2727        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2728        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2729        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2730        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2731
2732    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2733        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2734        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2735        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2736        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2737        with_ = (
2738            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2739            if expressions
2740            else ""
2741        )
2742        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2743
2744    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2745        query = expression.args.get("query")
2746        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2747        field = expression.args.get("field")
2748        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2749
2750        if query:
2751            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2752        elif unnest:
2753            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2754        elif field:
2755            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2756        else:
2757            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2758
2759        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2760
2761    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2762        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2763
2764    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2765        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2766        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2767            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2768        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2769
2770        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2771            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2772            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2773
2774        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2775        if this:
2776            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2777            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2778
2779        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2780
2781    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2782        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2783
2784    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2786        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2787        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2788        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2789        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2790        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2791
2792    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2793        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2794
2795    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2796        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2797        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2798
2799    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2800        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2801        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2802        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2803        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2804
2805    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2806        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2807
2808    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2809        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2810        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2811        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2812
2813    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2814        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2815        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2816
2817        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2818            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2819        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2820            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2821
2822        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2823
2824    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2825        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2826
2827    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2828        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2829        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2830        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2831
2832    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2834        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2835        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2836
2837    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2839        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2840        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2841
2842    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2843        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2844
2845    def and_sql(
2846        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2847    ) -> str:
2848        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2849
2850    def or_sql(
2851        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2852    ) -> str:
2853        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2854
2855    def xor_sql(
2856        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2857    ) -> str:
2858        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2859
2860    def connector_sql(
2861        self,
2862        expression: exp.Connector,
2863        op: str,
2864        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2865    ) -> str:
2866        if stack is not None:
2867            if expression.expressions:
2868                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2869            else:
2870                stack.append(expression.right)
2871                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2872                    for comment in expression.comments:
2873                        if comment:
2874                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2875                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2876            return op
2877
2878        stack = [expression]
2879        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2880        ops = set()
2881
2882        while stack:
2883            node = stack.pop()
2884            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2885                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2886            else:
2887                sql = self.sql(node)
2888                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2889                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2890                else:
2891                    sqls.append(sql)
2892
2893        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2894        return sep.join(sqls)
2895
2896    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2897        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2898
2899    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2900        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2901
2902    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2903        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2904
2905    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2906        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2907
2908    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2909        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2910
2911    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2912        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2913
2914    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2915        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2916        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2917        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2918        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2919        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2920        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2921        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2922
2923    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2924        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2925        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2926
2927    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2928        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2929
2930    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2931        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2932            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2933        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2934
2935    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2936        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2937
2938    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2939        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2940        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2941        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2942        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2943        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2944        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2945
2946    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2948        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2949        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2950        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2951        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2952        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2953        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2954        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2955        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2956
2957    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2958        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2959        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2960        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2961        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2962
2963        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2964            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2965
2966        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2967
2968    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2969        return "BEGIN"
2970
2971    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2972        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2973        if chain is not None:
2974            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2975
2976        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2977
2978    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2979        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2980        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2981        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2982
2983    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2984        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2985
2986        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2987        if dtype:
2988            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2989            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2990            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2991            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2992            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2993
2994        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2995        if default:
2996            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2997
2998        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2999        if comment:
3000            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3001
3002        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
3003            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3004
3005        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3006
3007    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3008        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3009        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3010            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3011        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3012
3013    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3014        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3015        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3016        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3017        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3018        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3019
3020    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3021        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3022            # Remove db from tables
3023            expression = expression.transform(
3024                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3025            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3026        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3027        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3028
3029    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3030        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3031        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3032        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3033        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3034
3035    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3036        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3037
3038        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3039            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3040        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3041            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3042        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3043            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3044        else:
3045            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3046
3047        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3048        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3049        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3050        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3051        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3052        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3053        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3054
3055    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3056        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3057            return self.expressions(
3058                expression,
3059                key="actions",
3060                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3061            )
3062        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3063
3064    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3065        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3066        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3067        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3068
3069    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3070        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3071
3072    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3073        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3074
3075        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3076            case = exp.case()
3077            for arg in expression.expressions:
3078                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3079            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3080
3081        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3082
3083        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3084        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3085        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3086
3087    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3088        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3089
3090    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3091        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3092
3093    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3094        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3095        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3096        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3097        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3098
3099    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3100        return self.sql(
3101            exp.Cast(
3102                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3103                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3104            )
3105        )
3106
3107    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3108        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3109            return self.func(
3110                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3111            )
3112        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3113
3114    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3115        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3116
3117        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3118            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3119
3120        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3121            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3122                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3123
3124        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3125            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3126                return self.sql(
3127                    exp.cast(
3128                        l / r,
3129                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3130                    )
3131                )
3132
3133        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3134
3135    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3136        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3137
3138    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3139        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3140
3141    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3142        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3143
3144    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3145        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3146
3147    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3148        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3149
3150    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3151        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3152
3153    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3154        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3155
3156    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3157        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3158
3159    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3160        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3161
3162    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3163        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3164
3165    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3166        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3167
3168    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3169        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3170            return self.sql(
3171                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3172            )
3173        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3174
3175    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3176        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3177
3178    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3179        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3180
3181    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3182        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3183
3184    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3185        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3186
3187    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3188        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3189
3190    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3191        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3192
3193    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3194        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3195
3196    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3197        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3198
3199    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3200        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3201
3202    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3203        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3204
3205    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3206        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3207
3208    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3209        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3210
3211    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3212        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3213
3214    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3215        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3216            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3217            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3218
3219        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3220
3221    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3222        this = expression.this
3223        expr = expression.expression
3224
3225        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3226            this, expr = expr, this
3227        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3228            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3229                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3230
3231            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3232
3233        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3234
3235    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3236        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3237        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3239        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3240        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3241
3242    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3243        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3244        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3245
3246    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3247        args = []
3248
3249        for key in expression.arg_types:
3250            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3251
3252            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3253                for value in arg_value:
3254                    args.append(value)
3255            elif arg_value is not None:
3256                args.append(arg_value)
3257
3258        if self.normalize_functions:
3259            name = expression.sql_name()
3260        else:
3261            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3262
3263        return self.func(name, *args)
3264
3265    def func(
3266        self,
3267        name: str,
3268        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3269        prefix: str = "(",
3270        suffix: str = ")",
3271    ) -> str:
3272        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3273
3274    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3275        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3276        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3277            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3278        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3279
3280    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3281        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3282
3283    def format_time(
3284        self,
3285        expression: exp.Expression,
3286        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3287        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3288    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3289        return format_time(
3290            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3291            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3292            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3293        )
3294
3295    def expressions(
3296        self,
3297        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3298        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3299        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3300        flat: bool = False,
3301        indent: bool = True,
3302        skip_first: bool = False,
3303        skip_last: bool = False,
3304        sep: str = ", ",
3305        prefix: str = "",
3306        dynamic: bool = False,
3307        new_line: bool = False,
3308    ) -> str:
3309        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3310
3311        if not expressions:
3312            return ""
3313
3314        if flat:
3315            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3316
3317        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3318
3319        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3320        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3321            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3322
3323        result_sqls = []
3324        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3325            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3326            if not sql:
3327                continue
3328
3329            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3330
3331            if self.pretty:
3332                if self.leading_comma:
3333                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3334                else:
3335                    result_sqls.append(
3336                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3337                    )
3338            else:
3339                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3340
3341        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3342            if new_line:
3343                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3344                result_sqls.append("")
3345            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3346        else:
3347            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3348        return (
3349            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3350            if indent
3351            else result_sql
3352        )
3353
3354    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3355        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3356        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3357        if flat:
3358            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3359        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3360
3361    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3362        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3363        if not property_name:
3364            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3365        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3366
3367    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3368        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3369
3370    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3371        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3372
3373    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3374        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3375        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3376        expressions = (
3377            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3378        )
3379        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3380
3381    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3383        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3384        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3385
3386    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3387        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3388
3389    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3390        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3391        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3392        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3393        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3394
3395        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3396        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3397            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3398            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3399            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3400            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3401        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3402            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3403                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3404            else:
3405                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3406        else:
3407            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3408        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3409
3410    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3411        table = expression.this
3412        table_alias = ""
3413
3414        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3415        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3416            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3417            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3418
3419        this = self.sql(table)
3420        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3421        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3422        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3423        sep = self.sep()
3424
3425        return self.prepend_ctes(
3426            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3427        )
3428
3429    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3430        if expression.args.get("format"):
3431            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3432
3433        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3434
3435    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3436        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3437            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3438            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3439
3440        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3441        if not fmt:
3442            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3443            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3444
3445        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3446
3447    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3449        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3450        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3451        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3452        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3453
3454    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3455        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3456        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3457        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3458        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3459
3460    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3461        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3462
3463    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3464        return ""
3465
3466    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3467        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3468        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3469        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3470        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3471        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3472
3473    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3474        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3475        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3476
3477        if having:
3478            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3479
3480        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3481
3482    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3483        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3484        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3485        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3486        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3487        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3488        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3489        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3490        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3491        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3492        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3493        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3494        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3495        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3496
3497    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3498        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3499        if key_block_size:
3500            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3501
3502        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3503        if using:
3504            return f"USING {using}"
3505
3506        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3507        if parser:
3508            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3509
3510        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3511        if comment:
3512            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3513
3514        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3515        if visible is not None:
3516            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3517
3518        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3519        if engine_attr:
3520            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3521
3522        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3523        if secondary_engine_attr:
3524            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3525
3526        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3527        return ""
3528
3529    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3530        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3531        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3532
3533    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3534        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3535        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3537        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3538        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3539        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3540        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3541        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3542        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3543        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3544        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3545
3546    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3547        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3548            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3549
3550        case = exp.Case().when(
3551            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3552            expression.args["true"],
3553            copy=False,
3554        )
3555        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3556        if else_cond:
3557            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3558
3559        return self.sql(case)
3560
3561    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3562        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3563        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3564        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3565        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3566        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3567        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3568
3569    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3570        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3571
3572    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3573        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3574
3575    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3576        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3577        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3578        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3579        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3580        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3581        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3582
3583    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3584        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3585        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3586        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3587
3588    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3589        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3590        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3591        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3592
3593    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3594        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3595
3596    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3597        arg = expression.this
3598        if not arg.type:
3599            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3600
3601            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3602
3603        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3604            return self.sql(arg)
3605
3606        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3607        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3608
3609    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3610        this = expression.this
3611        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3612            return self.sql(this)
3613
3614        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3615
3616    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3617        this = expression.this
3618        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3619            return self.sql(this)
3620
3621        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3622
3623    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3624        this = expression.this
3625        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3626
3627        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3628            return self.sql(
3629                exp.cast(
3630                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3631                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3632                )
3633            )
3634
3635        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3636            return self.sql(this)
3637
3638        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3639
3640    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3641        return self.sql(
3642            exp.func(
3643                "DATEDIFF",
3644                expression.this,
3645                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3646                "day",
3647            )
3648        )
3649
3650    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3651        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3652            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3653
3654        unit = expression.text("unit")
3655        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3656            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3657
3658        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3659
3660    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3661        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3662
3663        return self.func(
3664            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3665        )
3666
3667    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3668        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3669            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3670            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3671            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3672            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3673
3674        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3675
3676        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3677        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3678            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3679
3680        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3681
3682    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3683        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3684        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3685
3686    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3687        expression.set(
3688            "expressions",
3689            [
3690                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3691                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3692                else e
3693                for e in expression.expressions
3694            ],
3695        )
3696
3697        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3698
3699    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3700        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3701        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3702
3703        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3704
3705    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3706        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3707        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3708
3709        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3710
3711        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3712        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3713
3714        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3715        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3716
3717        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3718        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3719
3720        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3721        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3722
3723        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3724
3725    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3726    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3727    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3728        to = expression.this
3729        value = expression.expression
3730        style = expression.args.get("style")
3731        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3732        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3733
3734        if not to or not value:
3735            return ""
3736
3737        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3738        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3739            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3740
3741        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3742        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3743
3744        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3745        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3746            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3747
3748            style_value = style.name
3749            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3750            if not converted_style:
3751                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3752
3753            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3754
3755            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3756                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3757            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3758                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3759            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3760                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3761            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3762                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3763
3764        if not transformed:
3765            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3766
3767        return self.sql(transformed)
3768
3769    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3770        this = expression.this
3771        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3772            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3773            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3774
3775        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3776            return f".{this}"
3777
3778        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3779        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3780
3781    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3782        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3783        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3784
3785    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3786        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3787            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3788
3789            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3790
3791        return expression
3792
3793    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3794        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3795            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3796            mods = sorted(
3797                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3798                key=lambda x: 0
3799                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3800                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3801            )
3802
3803            if mods:
3804                mod = mods[0]
3805                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3806                this.meta["inline"] = True
3807                mod.this.replace(this)
3808                return self.sql(expression.this)
3809
3810            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3811
3812            if agg_func:
3813                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3814
3815        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3816
3817    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3818        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3819        if self.pretty:
3820            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3821        return string
3822
3823    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3824        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3825
3826        if option.upper() == "FILE_FORMAT":
3827            values = self.expressions(expression, key="expression", flat=True, sep=" ")
3828            return f"{option} = ({values})"
3829
3830        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3831
3832        if not value:
3833            return option
3834
3835        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3836
3837        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3838
3839    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3840        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3841        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3842            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3843            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3844            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3845        else:
3846            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3847            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3848            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if credentials else ""
3849
3850        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3851
3852        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3853        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3854
3855        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3856        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3857
3858        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3859        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3860
3861        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3862
3863    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3865        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3866
3867        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3868        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3869        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3870        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3871
3872        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3873        params = self.expressions(
3874            expression,
3875            key="params",
3876            sep=sep,
3877            new_line=True,
3878            skip_last=True,
3879            skip_first=True,
3880            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3881        )
3882
3883        if params:
3884            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3885                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3886            elif not self.pretty:
3887                params = f" {params}"
3888
3889        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3890
3891    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3892        return ""

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
550    def __init__(
551        self,
552        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
553        identify: str | bool = False,
554        normalize: bool = False,
555        pad: int = 2,
556        indent: int = 2,
557        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
558        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
559        max_unsupported: int = 3,
560        leading_comma: bool = False,
561        max_text_width: int = 80,
562        comments: bool = True,
563        dialect: DialectType = None,
564    ):
565        import sqlglot
566        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
567
568        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
569        self.identify = identify
570        self.normalize = normalize
571        self.pad = pad
572        self._indent = indent
573        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
574        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
575        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
576        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
577        self.comments = comments
578        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
579
580        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
581        self.normalize_functions = (
582            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
583        )
584
585        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
586        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
587            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
588        )
589        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
590            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
591        )
592
593        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtract'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtractScalar'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Timestamp'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
595    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
596        """
597        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
598
599        Args:
600            expression: The syntax tree.
601            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
602                it is safer to copy.
603
604        Returns:
605            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
606        """
607        if copy:
608            expression = expression.copy()
609
610        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
611
612        self.unsupported_messages = []
613        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
614
615        if self.pretty:
616            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
617
618        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
619            return sql
620
621        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
622            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
623                logger.warning(msg)
624        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
625            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
626
627        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
629    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
630        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
631        if (
632            not expression.parent
633            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
634            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
635        ):
636            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
637
638            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
639
640        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
641            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
642
643            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
644
645        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
647    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
648        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
649            raise UnsupportedError(message)
650        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
652    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
653        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
655    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
656        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
658    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
659        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
660        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
661        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
663    def maybe_comment(
664        self,
665        sql: str,
666        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
667        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
668        separated: bool = False,
669    ) -> str:
670        comments = (
671            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
672            if self.comments
673            else None
674        )
675
676        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
677            return sql
678
679        comments_sql = " ".join(
680            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
681        )
682
683        if not comments_sql:
684            return sql
685
686        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
687
688        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
689            return (
690                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
691                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
692                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
693            )
694
695        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
697    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
698        this_sql = (
699            self.sql(expression)
700            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
701            else self.sql(expression, "this")
702        )
703        if not this_sql:
704            return "()"
705
706        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
707        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
709    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
710        original = self.identify
711        self.identify = False
712        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
713        self.identify = original
714        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
716    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
717        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
718            return name.upper()
719        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
720            return name.lower()
721        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
723    def indent(
724        self,
725        sql: str,
726        level: int = 0,
727        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
728        skip_first: bool = False,
729        skip_last: bool = False,
730    ) -> str:
731        if not self.pretty or not sql:
732            return sql
733
734        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
735        lines = sql.split("\n")
736
737        return "\n".join(
738            (
739                line
740                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
741                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
742            )
743            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
744        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
746    def sql(
747        self,
748        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
749        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
750        comment: bool = True,
751    ) -> str:
752        if not expression:
753            return ""
754
755        if isinstance(expression, str):
756            return expression
757
758        if key:
759            value = expression.args.get(key)
760            if value:
761                return self.sql(value)
762            return ""
763
764        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
765
766        if callable(transform):
767            sql = transform(self, expression)
768        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
769            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
770
771            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
772                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
773            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
774                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
775            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
776                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
777            else:
778                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
779        else:
780            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
781
782        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
784    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
785        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
786        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
787        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
789    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
790        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
791        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
792        options = expression.args.get("options")
793        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
794        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
795        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
796        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
797        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
799    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
800        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
801            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
802        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
803        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
805    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
806        return ".".join(
807            self.sql(part)
808            for part in (
809                expression.args.get("catalog"),
810                expression.args.get("db"),
811                expression.args.get("table"),
812                expression.args.get("this"),
813            )
814            if part
815        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
817    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
818        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
819
820        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
821            join_mark = ""
822            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
823
824        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
826    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
827        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
828        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
829        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
830        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
832    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
833        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
834        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
835        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
836        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
837        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
838        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
839        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
840        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
841
842        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
843            kind = ""
844
845        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
847    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
849        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
850        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
852    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
854        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
855            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
856        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
857            persisted = " PERSISTED"
858        else:
859            persisted = ""
860        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
862    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
863        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
865    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
866        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
867            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
868        else:
869            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
870
871        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
873    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
874        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
875    ) -> str:
876        this = ""
877        if expression.this is not None:
878            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
879            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
880
881        start = expression.args.get("start")
882        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
883        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
884        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
885        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
886        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
887        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
888        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
889        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
890        cycle_sql = ""
891
892        if cycle is not None:
893            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
894            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
895
896        sequence_opts = ""
897        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
898            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
899            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
900
901        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
902        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
903
904        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
906    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
907        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
908    ) -> str:
909        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
910        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
911        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
913    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
914        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
915    ) -> str:
916        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
918    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
919        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
921    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
922        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
924    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
925        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
926        if desc is not None:
927            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
928        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
930    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
931        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
932        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
933        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
934        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
935        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
936        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
937        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
939    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
940        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
 942    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 943        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 944        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 945        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 946
 947        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 948
 949        properties_sql = ""
 950        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 951            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 952        ):
 953            properties_sql = self.sql(
 954                exp.Properties(
 955                    expressions=[
 956                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 957                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 958                    ]
 959                )
 960            )
 961
 962        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 963        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 964
 965        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 966        if expression_sql:
 967            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 968
 969            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 970                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 971                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 972                        exp.Properties(
 973                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 974                        ),
 975                        wrapped=False,
 976                    )
 977                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 978                else:
 979                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 980
 981        postindex_props_sql = ""
 982        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 983            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 984                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 985                wrapped=False,
 986                prefix=" ",
 987            )
 988
 989        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 990        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 991        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 992
 993        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 994        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 995
 996        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 997        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 998            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 999                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1000                sep=" ",
1001                prefix=" ",
1002                wrapped=False,
1003            )
1004
1005        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1006
1007        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1008        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1009            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1010                exp.Properties(
1011                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1012                ),
1013                sep=" ",
1014                prefix=" ",
1015                wrapped=False,
1016            )
1017
1018        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1019        no_schema_binding = (
1020            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1021        )
1022
1023        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1024        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1025
1026        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1027        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1029    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1030        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1031        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1032        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1033        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1034        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1035        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1036        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1037        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1038        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1039        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1040
1041        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1042        if cache is None:
1043            cache_str = ""
1044        elif cache is True:
1045            cache_str = " CACHE"
1046        else:
1047            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1048
1049        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1050        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1051
1052        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1054    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1055        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1056        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1057        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1058        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1060    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1061        style = expression.args.get("style")
1062        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1063        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1065    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1066        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1067        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1069    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1070        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1071        if with_:
1072            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1073        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1075    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1076        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1077        recursive = (
1078            "RECURSIVE "
1079            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1080            else ""
1081        )
1082
1083        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1085    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1086        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1087
1088        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1089        if materialized is False:
1090            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1091        elif materialized:
1092            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1093
1094        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1096    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1097        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1098        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1099        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1100
1101        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1102            columns = ""
1103            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1104
1105        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1106            alias = self._next_name()
1107
1108        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1110    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1111        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1112        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1113            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1114        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1116    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1117        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1118        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1119            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1120        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1122    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1123        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1124        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1125            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1126        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1128    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1130        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1131
1132        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1133            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1134            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1135
1136        if escape:
1137            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1138        else:
1139            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1140
1141        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1142        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1144    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1145        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1146        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1148    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1149        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1150        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1151        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1152        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1154    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1155        type_value = expression.this
1156
1157        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1158            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1159        else:
1160            type_sql = (
1161                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1162                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1163                else type_value
1164            )
1165
1166        nested = ""
1167        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1168        values = ""
1169
1170        if interior:
1171            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1172                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1173                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1174                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1175                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1176                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1177            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1178                nested = f" {interior}"
1179            else:
1180                nested = f"({interior})"
1181
1182        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1183        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1184            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1185            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1186        ):
1187            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1188
1189        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1191    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1192        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1193        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1194        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1195        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1197    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1198        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1199        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1200        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1201        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1202        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1203        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1204        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1205        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1206        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1207        if self.RETURNING_END:
1208            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1209        else:
1210            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1211        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1213    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1214        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1215        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1216        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1217        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1218        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1219        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1220        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1221        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1222        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1223        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1224        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1225        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1226        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1228    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1229        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1231    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1232        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1234    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1235        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1236        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1237        count = expression.args.get("count")
1238        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1239        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1240            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1241        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1242        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1244    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1245        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1246            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1247            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1248            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1249
1250        agg = expression.this
1251        agg_arg = agg.this
1252        cond = expression.expression.this
1253        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1254        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1256    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1257        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1258            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1259            return ""
1260
1261        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1263    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1264        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1265        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1266        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1267        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1268        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1269        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1270        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1271        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1272        if include:
1273            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1274        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1275        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1276        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1277        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1278
1279        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1281    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1282        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1283        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1284        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1285        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1286        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1287        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1288        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1289
1290        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1291
1292        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1293        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1295    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1296        text = expression.name
1297        lower = text.lower()
1298        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1299        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1300        if (
1301            expression.quoted
1302            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1303            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1304            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1305        ):
1306            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1307        return text
def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str:
1309    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1310        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1311        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1312            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1313
1314        return text
def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str:
1316    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1317        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1318        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1319            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1320        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1322    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1323        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1324        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1325        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1326        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1327        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1329    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1330        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1331        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1333    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1334        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1336    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1337        root_properties = []
1338        with_properties = []
1339
1340        for p in expression.expressions:
1341            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1342            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1343                with_properties.append(p)
1344            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1345                root_properties.append(p)
1346
1347        return self.root_properties(
1348            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1349        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1351    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1352        if properties.expressions:
1353            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1354        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1356    def properties(
1357        self,
1358        properties: exp.Properties,
1359        prefix: str = "",
1360        sep: str = ", ",
1361        suffix: str = "",
1362        wrapped: bool = True,
1363    ) -> str:
1364        if properties.expressions:
1365            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1366            if expressions:
1367                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1368                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1369        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1371    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1372        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1374    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1375        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1376        for p in properties.expressions:
1377            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1378            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1379                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1380            else:
1381                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1382
1383        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1385    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1386        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1387            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1388        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1390    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1391        property_cls = expression.__class__
1392        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1393            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1394
1395        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1396        if not property_name:
1397            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1398
1399        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1401    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1402        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1403            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1404            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1405
1406            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1407            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1408                like = f"({like})"
1409
1410            return like
1411
1412        if expression.expressions:
1413            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1414
1415        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1416        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1418    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1419        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1420        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1421        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1423    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1424        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1425        local = expression.args.get("local")
1426        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1427        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1428        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1429        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1430        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1432    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1433        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1434        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1435        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1437    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1438        if expression.args.get("default"):
1439            property = "DEFAULT"
1440        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1441            property = "ON"
1442        else:
1443            property = "OFF"
1444        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1446    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1447        if expression.args.get("no"):
1448            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1449        if expression.args.get("default"):
1450            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1451
1452        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1453        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1455    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1456        default = expression.args.get("default")
1457        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1458        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1459        if default or minimum or maximum:
1460            if default:
1461                prop = "DEFAULT"
1462            elif minimum:
1463                prop = "MINIMUM"
1464            else:
1465                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1466            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1467        units = expression.args.get("units")
1468        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1469        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1471    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1472        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1473        always = expression.args.get("always")
1474        default = expression.args.get("default")
1475        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1476        never = expression.args.get("never")
1477
1478        if autotemp is not None:
1479            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1480        elif always:
1481            prop = "ALWAYS"
1482        elif default:
1483            prop = "DEFAULT"
1484        elif manual:
1485            prop = "MANUAL"
1486        elif never:
1487            prop = "NEVER"
1488        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1490    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1491        no = expression.args.get("no")
1492        no = " NO" if no else ""
1493        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1494        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1495        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1496        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1497        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1499    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1500        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1501            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1502        if expression.this:
1503            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1504            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1505            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1506
1507        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1508        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1509        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1511    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1512        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1513
1514        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1515        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1516            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1517        else:
1518            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1519
1520        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1522    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1523        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1524        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1525        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1526        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1527        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1528        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1529        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1531    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1532        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1533        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1534        statistics_sql = ""
1535        if statistics is not None:
1536            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1537        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1539    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1540        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1541
1542        if expression.this:
1543            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1544            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1545
1546            if expression.expression:
1547                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1548                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1549
1550            sql = f"{sql})"
1551
1552        return f"{sql})"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1554    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1555        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1556        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1557
1558        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1559            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1560        else:
1561            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1562
1563        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1564        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1565        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1566        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1567        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1568        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1569        if is_function:
1570            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1571        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1572
1573        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1574        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1575        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1576        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1577        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1578        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1579        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1580        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1581
1582        if self.RETURNING_END:
1583            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1584        else:
1585            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1586
1587        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1588        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1590    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1591        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1593    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1594        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1596    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1597        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1599    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1600        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1601        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1602        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1603        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1604        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1606    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1607        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1609    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1610        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1612    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1613        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1614
1615        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1616        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1617
1618        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1619        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1620        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1621
1622        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1623        if expressions:
1624            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1625            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1626
1627        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1629    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1630        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1632    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1633        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1634        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1635        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1636        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1637        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1638        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1639        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1640        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1641        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1642        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1643        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1644        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1645        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1647    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1648        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1650    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1651        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1652        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1653        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1654        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1656    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1657        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1658        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1659        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1660        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1662    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1663        return ".".join(
1664            self.sql(part)
1665            for part in (
1666                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1667                expression.args.get("db"),
1668                expression.args.get("this"),
1669            )
1670            if part is not None
1671        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1673    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1674        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1675        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1676        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1677        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1678        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1679        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1680        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1681        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1682        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1683        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1684        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1685        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1686        joins = self.indent(
1687            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1688        )
1689        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1690
1691        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1692        if file_format:
1693            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1694            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1695            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1696
1697        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1698        if ordinality:
1699            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1700            alias = ""
1701
1702        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1703        if when:
1704            table = f"{table} {when}"
1705
1706        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1708    def tablesample_sql(
1709        self,
1710        expression: exp.TableSample,
1711        sep: str = " AS ",
1712        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1713    ) -> str:
1714        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1715            table = expression.this.copy()
1716            table.set("alias", None)
1717            this = self.sql(table)
1718            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1719        else:
1720            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1721            alias = ""
1722
1723        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1724        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1725        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1726        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1727        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1728        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1729        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1730        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1731        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1732
1733        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1734        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1735            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1736
1737        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1738        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1739            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1740
1741        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1742        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1743            expr = f"({expr})"
1744
1745        return (
1746            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1747        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1749    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1750        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1751
1752        if expression.this:
1753            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1754            if not expressions:
1755                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1756
1757            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1758            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1759            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1760            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1761            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1762
1763        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1764        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1765        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1766        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1767        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1768        if include_nulls is not None:
1769            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1770        else:
1771            nulls = ""
1772        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1774    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1775        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1776        kind = expression.text("kind")
1777        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1778        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1780    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1781        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1783    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1784        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1785        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1786        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1787        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1788        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1789        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1790        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1791        if self.RETURNING_END:
1792            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1793        else:
1794            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1795        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1796        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1798    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1799        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1800
1801        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1802        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1803            args = self.expressions(expression)
1804            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1805            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1806            values = (
1807                f"({values})"
1808                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1809                else values
1810            )
1811            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1812
1813        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1814        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1815        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1816
1817        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1818
1819        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1820            row = tup.expressions
1821
1822            if i == 0 and column_names:
1823                row = [
1824                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1825                ]
1826
1827            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1828
1829        if self.pretty:
1830            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1831            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1832            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1833            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1834            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1835
1836        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1837        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1838        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1840    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1841        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1843    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1844        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1845        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1846        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1848    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1849        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1851    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1852        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1853        if group_by_all is True:
1854            modifier = " ALL"
1855        elif group_by_all is False:
1856            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1857        else:
1858            modifier = ""
1859
1860        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1861
1862        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1863        grouping_sets = (
1864            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1865        )
1866
1867        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1868        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1869            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1870        else:
1871            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1872            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1873
1874        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1875        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1876            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1877        else:
1878            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1879            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1880
1881        groupings = csv(
1882            grouping_sets,
1883            cube_sql,
1884            rollup_sql,
1885            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1886            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1887        )
1888
1889        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1890            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1891
1892        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1894    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1895        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1896        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1898    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1899        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1900        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1901        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1902        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1903        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1904        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1906    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1907        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1909    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1910        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1911            side = None
1912        else:
1913            side = expression.side
1914
1915        op_sql = " ".join(
1916            op
1917            for op in (
1918                expression.method,
1919                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1920                side,
1921                expression.kind,
1922                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1923            )
1924            if op
1925        )
1926        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1927        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1928        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1929        using = expression.args.get("using")
1930
1931        if not on_sql and using:
1932            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1933
1934        this = expression.this
1935        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1936
1937        if on_sql:
1938            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1939            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1940            if using:
1941                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1942            else:
1943                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1944        elif not op_sql:
1945            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1946                return f" {this_sql}"
1947
1948            return f", {this_sql}"
1949
1950        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1951        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1953    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1954        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1955        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1956        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1958    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1959        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1960
1961        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1962        if cross_apply is True:
1963            op = "INNER JOIN "
1964        elif cross_apply is False:
1965            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1966        else:
1967            op = ""
1968
1969        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1971    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1972        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1973
1974        if expression.args.get("view"):
1975            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1976            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1977            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1978            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1979            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1980            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1981
1982        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1983        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1984        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1986    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1987        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1988
1989        args = [
1990            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1991            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1992            if e
1993        ]
1994
1995        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1996        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1997        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1998        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1999
2000        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
2002    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2003        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2004        value = expression.expression
2005        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2006        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2007        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2008        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
2010    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2011        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2012        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2013        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2014        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2015        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2016        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2017        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2018        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2020    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2021        expressions = (
2022            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2023        )
2024        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2025        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2027    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2028        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2030    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2031        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2032            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2033            return ""
2034
2035        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2036        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2037        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2038        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2039
2040        if wait is not None:
2041            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2042                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2043            else:
2044                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2045
2046        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2048    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2049        text = expression.this or ""
2050        if expression.is_string:
2051            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2052        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2054    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2055        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2056            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2057            text = "".join(
2058                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2059            )
2060
2061        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2062            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2063        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2065    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2066        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2067        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2068        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2069        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2070        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2071        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2072        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2073        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2074        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2075        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2076        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2078    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2079        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2081    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2082        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2084    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2085        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2086        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2087        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2088        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2089        interpolated_values = [
2090            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2091            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2092        ]
2093        interpolate = (
2094            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2095        )
2096        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2098    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2099        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2100        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2101        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2102        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2103        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2104        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2105        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2107    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2108        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2110    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2111        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2113    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2114        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2116    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2117        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2118        asc = not desc
2119
2120        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2121        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2122        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2123        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2124        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2125
2126        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2127
2128        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2129        nulls_sort_change = ""
2130        if nulls_first and (
2131            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2132        ):
2133            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2134        elif (
2135            nulls_last
2136            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2137            and not nulls_are_last
2138        ):
2139            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2140
2141        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2142        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2143            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2144            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2145                self.unsupported(
2146                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2147                )
2148                nulls_sort_change = ""
2149            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2150                if expression.this.is_int:
2151                    self.unsupported(
2152                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2153                    )
2154                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2155                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2156                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2157                nulls_sort_change = ""
2158
2159        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2160        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2161
2162        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2164    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2165        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2166        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2167
2168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2169
2170        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2172    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2173        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2174        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2175        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2176        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2177        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2178        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2179        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2180        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2181        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2182        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2183        definition_sqls = [
2184            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2185            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2186        ]
2187        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2188        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2189        body = "".join(
2190            (
2191                partition,
2192                order,
2193                measures,
2194                rows,
2195                after,
2196                pattern,
2197                define,
2198            )
2199        )
2200        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2201        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2202        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2204    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2205        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2206
2207        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2208            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2209        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2210            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2211
2212        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2213        if options:
2214            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2215
2216        return csv(
2217            *sqls,
2218            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2219            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2220            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2221            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2222            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2223            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2224            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2225            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2226            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2227            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2228            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2229            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2230            options,
2231            sep="",
2232        )
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2234    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2235        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2237    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2238        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2239    ) -> t.List[str]:
2240        return [
2241            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2242            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2243        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2245    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2246        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2247        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2248        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2250    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2251        into = expression.args.get("into")
2252        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2253            into.pop()
2254
2255        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2256        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2257        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2258        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2259
2260        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2261        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2262            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2263            limit.pop()
2264        else:
2265            top = ""
2266
2267        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2268
2269        if kind:
2270            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2271                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2272            else:
2273                if kind == "STRUCT":
2274                    expressions = self.expressions(
2275                        sqls=[
2276                            self.sql(
2277                                exp.Struct(
2278                                    expressions=[
2279                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2280                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2281                                        else e
2282                                        for e in expression.expressions
2283                                    ]
2284                                )
2285                            )
2286                        ]
2287                    )
2288                kind = ""
2289
2290        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2291        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2292        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2293        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2294        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2295            expression,
2296            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2297            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2298            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2299        )
2300
2301        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2302
2303        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2304            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2305                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2306            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2307                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2308            else:
2309                table_kind = ""
2310            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2311
2312        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2314    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2315        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2316        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2317        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2319    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2320        if expression.expressions:
2321            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2322        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2324    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2325        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2326        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2327        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2328        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2329        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2330        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2331        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2333    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2334        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2335        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2337    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2338        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2339        kind = expression.text("kind")
2340        if kind:
2341            kind = f"{kind}."
2342        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2344    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2345        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2347    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2348        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2349        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2350
2351        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2352        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2353
2354        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2355        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2357    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2358        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2359        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2361    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2362        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2363            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2364            order = expression.args.get("order")
2365
2366            if limit or order:
2367                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2368
2369                if limit:
2370                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2371                if order:
2372                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2373                return self.sql(select)
2374
2375        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2376        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2377
2378        while stack:
2379            node = stack.pop()
2380
2381            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2382                stack.append(node.expression)
2383                stack.append(
2384                    self.maybe_comment(
2385                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2386                        comments=node.comments,
2387                        separated=True,
2388                    )
2389                )
2390                stack.append(node.this)
2391            else:
2392                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2393
2394        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2395        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2396        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2398    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2399        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2401    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2402        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2403        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2404        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2405        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2407    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2408        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2409
2410        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2411        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2412
2413        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2414            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2415                alias.append("columns", offset)
2416
2417        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2418            columns = alias.columns
2419            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2420        else:
2421            alias = self.sql(alias)
2422
2423        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2424        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2425            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2426        else:
2427            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2428                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2429            elif offset:
2430                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2431            else:
2432                suffix = alias
2433
2434        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2436    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2437        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2439    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2440        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2441        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2443    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2444        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2445        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2446        order = expression.args.get("order")
2447        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2448        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2449        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2450        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2451
2452        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2453
2454        first = expression.args.get("first")
2455        if first is None:
2456            first = ""
2457        else:
2458            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2459
2460        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2461            return f"{this} {alias}"
2462
2463        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2464        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2466    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2467        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2468        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2470    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2471        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2472        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2473        end = (
2474            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2475            or "CURRENT ROW"
2476        )
2477        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2479    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2480        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2481        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2482        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2484    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2485        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2486        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2487        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2488        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2490    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2491        return apply_index_offset(
2492            expression.this,
2493            expression.expressions,
2494            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2495        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2497    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2498        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2499        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2500        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2502    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2503        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2505    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2506        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2507        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2508            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2509                this = self.wrap(this)
2510            return f"ANY{this}"
2511        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2513    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2514        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2516    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2517        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2518        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2519
2520        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2521            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2522            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2523
2524        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2525
2526        if default:
2527            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2528
2529        statements.append("END")
2530
2531        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2532            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2533
2534        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2536    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2537        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2538        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2539        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2541    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2542        order = expression.args.get("order")
2543        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2544        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2546    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2547        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2548        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2549        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2551    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2552        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2553
2554        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2555            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2556        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2557            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2558        else:
2559            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2561    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2562        args = expression.expressions
2563        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2564            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2565
2566        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2567            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2568
2569        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2570            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2571
2572        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2574    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2575        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2576
2577        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2578        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2579            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2580
2581        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2583    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2584        return self.func(
2585            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2586        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2588    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2589        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2590        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2592    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2593        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2594        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2595        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2596        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2597        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2598        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2599        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2600        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2602    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2603        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2604        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2605        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2606        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2608    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2609        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2611    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2612        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2613        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2614        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2616    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2617        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2619    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2620        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2621        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2623    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2624        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2625            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2626            if not callable(transform):
2627                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2628                return ""
2629
2630            return transform(self, expression)
2631
2632        if isinstance(expression, int):
2633            return str(expression)
2634
2635        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2636            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2637            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2638        else:
2639            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2640            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2641
2642        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2644    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2645        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2647    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2648        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2649        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2650
2651        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2652        if unique_keys is not None:
2653            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2654        else:
2655            unique_keys = ""
2656
2657        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2658        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2659        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2660        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2661
2662        return self.func(
2663            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2664            *expression.expressions,
2665            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2666        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2668    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2669        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2671    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2672        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2673        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2674        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2675        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2676        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2677        return self.func(
2678            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2679        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2681    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2682        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2683        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2684        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2685        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2686        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2687        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2688        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2689        return self.func(
2690            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2691            this,
2692            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2693        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2695    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2696        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2697        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2698        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2699
2700        if nested_schema:
2701            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2702
2703        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2704        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2705        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2706        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2708    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2709        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2711    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2712        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2713        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2714        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2715        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2716        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2717        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2718        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2719        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2720        return self.func(
2721            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2722        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2724    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2725        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2726        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2727        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2728        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2729        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2730        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2732    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2733        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2734        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2735        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2736        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2737        with_ = (
2738            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2739            if expressions
2740            else ""
2741        )
2742        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2744    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2745        query = expression.args.get("query")
2746        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2747        field = expression.args.get("field")
2748        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2749
2750        if query:
2751            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2752        elif unnest:
2753            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2754        elif field:
2755            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2756        else:
2757            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2758
2759        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2761    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2762        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2764    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2765        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2766        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2767            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2768        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2769
2770        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2771            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2772            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2773
2774        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2775        if this:
2776            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2777            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2778
2779        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2781    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2782        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2784    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2786        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2787        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2788        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2789        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2790        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2792    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2793        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2795    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2796        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2797        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2799    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2800        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2801        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2802        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2803        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2805    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2806        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2808    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2809        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2810        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2811        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2813    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2814        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2815        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2816
2817        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2818            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2819        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2820            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2821
2822        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2824    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2825        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2827    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2828        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2829        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2830        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2832    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2834        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2835        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2837    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2839        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2840        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2842    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2843        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2845    def and_sql(
2846        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2847    ) -> str:
2848        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2850    def or_sql(
2851        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2852    ) -> str:
2853        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2855    def xor_sql(
2856        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2857    ) -> str:
2858        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2860    def connector_sql(
2861        self,
2862        expression: exp.Connector,
2863        op: str,
2864        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2865    ) -> str:
2866        if stack is not None:
2867            if expression.expressions:
2868                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2869            else:
2870                stack.append(expression.right)
2871                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2872                    for comment in expression.comments:
2873                        if comment:
2874                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2875                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2876            return op
2877
2878        stack = [expression]
2879        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2880        ops = set()
2881
2882        while stack:
2883            node = stack.pop()
2884            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2885                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2886            else:
2887                sql = self.sql(node)
2888                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2889                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2890                else:
2891                    sqls.append(sql)
2892
2893        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2894        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2896    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2897        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2899    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2900        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2902    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2903        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2905    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2906        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2908    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2909        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2911    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2912        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2914    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2915        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2916        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2917        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2918        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2919        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2920        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2921        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2923    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2924        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2925        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2927    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2928        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2930    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2931        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2932            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2933        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2935    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2936        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2938    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2939        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2940        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2941        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2942        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2943        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2944        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2946    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2948        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2949        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2950        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2951        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2952        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2953        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2954        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2955        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2957    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2958        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2959        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2960        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2961        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2962
2963        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2964            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2965
2966        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2968    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2969        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2971    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2972        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2973        if chain is not None:
2974            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2975
2976        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2978    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2979        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2980        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2981        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2983    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2984        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2985
2986        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2987        if dtype:
2988            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2989            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2990            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2991            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2992            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2993
2994        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2995        if default:
2996            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2997
2998        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2999        if comment:
3000            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3001
3002        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
3003            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3004
3005        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3007    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3008        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3009        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3010            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3011        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3013    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3014        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3015        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3016        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3017        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3018        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
3020    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3021        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3022            # Remove db from tables
3023            expression = expression.transform(
3024                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3025            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3026        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3027        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3029    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3030        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3031        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3032        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3033        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3035    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3036        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3037
3038        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3039            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3040        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3041            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3042        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3043            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3044        else:
3045            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3046
3047        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3048        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3049        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3050        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3051        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3052        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3053        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3055    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3056        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3057            return self.expressions(
3058                expression,
3059                key="actions",
3060                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3061            )
3062        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3064    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3065        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3066        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3067        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3069    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3070        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3072    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3073        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3074
3075        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3076            case = exp.case()
3077            for arg in expression.expressions:
3078                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3079            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3080
3081        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3082
3083        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3084        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3085        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3087    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3088        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3090    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3091        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3093    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3094        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3095        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3096        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3097        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3099    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3100        return self.sql(
3101            exp.Cast(
3102                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3103                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3104            )
3105        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3107    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3108        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3109            return self.func(
3110                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3111            )
3112        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3114    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3115        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3116
3117        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3118            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3119
3120        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3121            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3122                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3123
3124        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3125            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3126                return self.sql(
3127                    exp.cast(
3128                        l / r,
3129                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3130                    )
3131                )
3132
3133        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3135    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3136        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3138    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3139        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3141    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3142        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3144    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3145        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3147    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3148        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3150    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3151        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3153    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3154        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3156    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3157        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3159    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3160        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3162    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3163        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3165    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3166        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3168    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3169        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3170            return self.sql(
3171                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3172            )
3173        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3175    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3176        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3178    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3179        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3181    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3182        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3184    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3185        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3187    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3188        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3190    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3191        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3193    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3194        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3196    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3197        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3199    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3200        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3202    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3203        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3205    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3206        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3208    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3209        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3211    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3212        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3214    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3215        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3216            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3217            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3218
3219        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3221    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3222        this = expression.this
3223        expr = expression.expression
3224
3225        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3226            this, expr = expr, this
3227        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3228            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3229                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3230
3231            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3232
3233        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3235    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3236        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3237        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3239        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3240        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3242    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3243        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3244        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3246    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3247        args = []
3248
3249        for key in expression.arg_types:
3250            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3251
3252            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3253                for value in arg_value:
3254                    args.append(value)
3255            elif arg_value is not None:
3256                args.append(arg_value)
3257
3258        if self.normalize_functions:
3259            name = expression.sql_name()
3260        else:
3261            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3262
3263        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3265    def func(
3266        self,
3267        name: str,
3268        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3269        prefix: str = "(",
3270        suffix: str = ")",
3271    ) -> str:
3272        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3274    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3275        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3276        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3277            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3278        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3280    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3281        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3283    def format_time(
3284        self,
3285        expression: exp.Expression,
3286        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3287        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3288    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3289        return format_time(
3290            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3291            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3292            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3293        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3295    def expressions(
3296        self,
3297        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3298        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3299        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3300        flat: bool = False,
3301        indent: bool = True,
3302        skip_first: bool = False,
3303        skip_last: bool = False,
3304        sep: str = ", ",
3305        prefix: str = "",
3306        dynamic: bool = False,
3307        new_line: bool = False,
3308    ) -> str:
3309        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3310
3311        if not expressions:
3312            return ""
3313
3314        if flat:
3315            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3316
3317        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3318
3319        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3320        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3321            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3322
3323        result_sqls = []
3324        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3325            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3326            if not sql:
3327                continue
3328
3329            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3330
3331            if self.pretty:
3332                if self.leading_comma:
3333                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3334                else:
3335                    result_sqls.append(
3336                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3337                    )
3338            else:
3339                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3340
3341        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3342            if new_line:
3343                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3344                result_sqls.append("")
3345            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3346        else:
3347            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3348        return (
3349            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3350            if indent
3351            else result_sql
3352        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3354    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3355        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3356        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3357        if flat:
3358            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3359        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3361    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3362        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3363        if not property_name:
3364            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3365        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3367    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3368        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3370    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3371        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3373    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3374        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3375        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3376        expressions = (
3377            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3378        )
3379        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3381    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3383        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3384        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3386    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3387        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3389    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3390        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3391        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3392        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3393        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3394
3395        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3396        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3397            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3398            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3399            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3400            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3401        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3402            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3403                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3404            else:
3405                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3406        else:
3407            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3408        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3410    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3411        table = expression.this
3412        table_alias = ""
3413
3414        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3415        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3416            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3417            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3418
3419        this = self.sql(table)
3420        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3421        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3422        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3423        sep = self.sep()
3424
3425        return self.prepend_ctes(
3426            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3427        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3429    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3430        if expression.args.get("format"):
3431            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3432
3433        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3435    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3436        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3437            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3438            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3439
3440        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3441        if not fmt:
3442            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3443            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3444
3445        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3447    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3449        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3450        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3451        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3452        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3454    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3455        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3456        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3457        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3458        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3460    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3461        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3463    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3464        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3466    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3467        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3468        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3469        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3470        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3471        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3473    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3474        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3475        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3476
3477        if having:
3478            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3479
3480        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3482    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3483        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3484        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3485        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3486        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3487        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3488        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3489        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3490        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3491        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3492        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3493        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3494        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3495        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3497    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3498        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3499        if key_block_size:
3500            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3501
3502        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3503        if using:
3504            return f"USING {using}"
3505
3506        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3507        if parser:
3508            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3509
3510        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3511        if comment:
3512            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3513
3514        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3515        if visible is not None:
3516            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3517
3518        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3519        if engine_attr:
3520            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3521
3522        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3523        if secondary_engine_attr:
3524            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3525
3526        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3527        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3529    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3530        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3531        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3533    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3534        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3535        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3537        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3538        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3539        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3540        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3541        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3542        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3543        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3544        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3546    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3547        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3548            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3549
3550        case = exp.Case().when(
3551            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3552            expression.args["true"],
3553            copy=False,
3554        )
3555        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3556        if else_cond:
3557            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3558
3559        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3561    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3562        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3563        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3564        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3565        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3566        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3567        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3569    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3570        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3572    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3573        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3575    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3576        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3577        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3578        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3579        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3580        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3581        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3583    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3584        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3585        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3586        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3588    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3589        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3590        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3591        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3593    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3594        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3596    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3597        arg = expression.this
3598        if not arg.type:
3599            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3600
3601            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3602
3603        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3604            return self.sql(arg)
3605
3606        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3607        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3609    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3610        this = expression.this
3611        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3612            return self.sql(this)
3613
3614        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3616    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3617        this = expression.this
3618        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3619            return self.sql(this)
3620
3621        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3623    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3624        this = expression.this
3625        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3626
3627        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3628            return self.sql(
3629                exp.cast(
3630                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3631                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3632                )
3633            )
3634
3635        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3636            return self.sql(this)
3637
3638        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3640    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3641        return self.sql(
3642            exp.func(
3643                "DATEDIFF",
3644                expression.this,
3645                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3646                "day",
3647            )
3648        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3650    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3651        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3652            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3653
3654        unit = expression.text("unit")
3655        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3656            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3657
3658        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3660    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3661        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3662
3663        return self.func(
3664            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3665        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3667    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3668        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3669            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3670            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3671            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3672            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3673
3674        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3675
3676        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3677        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3678            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3679
3680        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def generateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3682    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3683        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3684        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3686    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3687        expression.set(
3688            "expressions",
3689            [
3690                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3691                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3692                else e
3693                for e in expression.expressions
3694            ],
3695        )
3696
3697        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3699    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3700        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3701        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3702
3703        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3705    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3706        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3707        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3708
3709        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3710
3711        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3712        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3713
3714        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3715        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3716
3717        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3718        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3719
3720        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3721        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3722
3723        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3727    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3728        to = expression.this
3729        value = expression.expression
3730        style = expression.args.get("style")
3731        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3732        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3733
3734        if not to or not value:
3735            return ""
3736
3737        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3738        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3739            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3740
3741        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3742        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3743
3744        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3745        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3746            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3747
3748            style_value = style.name
3749            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3750            if not converted_style:
3751                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3752
3753            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3754
3755            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3756                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3757            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3758                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3759            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3760                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3761            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3762                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3763
3764        if not transformed:
3765            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3766
3767        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
3823    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3824        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3825
3826        if option.upper() == "FILE_FORMAT":
3827            values = self.expressions(expression, key="expression", flat=True, sep=" ")
3828            return f"{option} = ({values})"
3829
3830        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3831
3832        if not value:
3833            return option
3834
3835        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3836
3837        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
3839    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3840        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3841        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3842            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3843            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3844            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3845        else:
3846            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3847            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3848            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if credentials else ""
3849
3850        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3851
3852        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3853        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3854
3855        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3856        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3857
3858        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3859        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3860
3861        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
3863    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3865        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3866
3867        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3868        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3869        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3870        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3871
3872        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3873        params = self.expressions(
3874            expression,
3875            key="params",
3876            sep=sep,
3877            new_line=True,
3878            skip_last=True,
3879            skip_first=True,
3880            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3881        )
3882
3883        if params:
3884            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3885                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3886            elif not self.pretty:
3887                params = f" {params}"
3888
3889        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
3891    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3892        return ""