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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5
   6from sqlglot import exp
   7from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   8from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
   9from sqlglot.time import format_time
  10from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  11
  12logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  13
  14
  15class Generator:
  16    """
  17    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  18
  19    Args:
  20        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  21            Default: False.
  22        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  23            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  24            True or 'always': Always quote.
  25            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  26        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  27            Default: False.
  28        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  29            Default: 2.
  30        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  33            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  34            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  35            False: Disables function name normalization.
  36        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  37            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  38        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  39            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  40            Default: 3
  41        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  42            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  43            Default: False
  44        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  45            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  46            line length.
  47            Default: 80
  48        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  49            Default: True
  50    """
  51
  52    TRANSFORMS = {
  53        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  54            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  55        ),
  56        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  57            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  58        ),
  59        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  60        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  61        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  63        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  65        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  70        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  71        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  73        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  75        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  76        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  77        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  78        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  81        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  82        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  83        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  84        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  85        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  86        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  87        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  88        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  90        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  91        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  92        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93    }
  94
  95    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
  96    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
  97
  98    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
  99    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 100
 101    # Always do union distinct or union all
 102    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 103
 104    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 105    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 106
 107    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 108    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 109
 110    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 111    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 112
 113    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 114    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 115
 116    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 117    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 118
 119    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 120    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 123    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 124
 125    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 126    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 127
 128    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 129    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 130
 131    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 132    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 133
 134    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 135    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 136
 137    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 138    JOIN_HINTS = True
 139
 140    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 141    TABLE_HINTS = True
 142
 143    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 144    QUERY_HINTS = True
 145
 146    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 147    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 148
 149    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 150    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 151
 152    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 153    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 154
 155    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 156    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 157
 158    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 159    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 160
 161    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 162        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 163        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 164        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 165        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 166        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 167        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 168        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 169    }
 170
 171    STAR_MAPPING = {
 172        "except": "EXCEPT",
 173        "replace": "REPLACE",
 174    }
 175
 176    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 177        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 178        "seconds": "second",
 179        "minutes": "minute",
 180        "hours": "hour",
 181        "days": "day",
 182        "weeks": "week",
 183        "months": "month",
 184        "quarters": "quarter",
 185        "years": "year",
 186    }
 187
 188    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 189
 190    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 191
 192    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 193
 194    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 195        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 196        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 197        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 198        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 199        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 200        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 201        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 202        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 203        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 204        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 205        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 206        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 207        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 208        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 209        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 210        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 211        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 212        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 213        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 214        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 215        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 216        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 217        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 218        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 219        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 222        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 223        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 224        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 225        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 226        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 227        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 228        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 229        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 231        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 235        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 236        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 237        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 238        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 239        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 240        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 241        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 242        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 243        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 244        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 245        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 246        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 247        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 248        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 249        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 250    }
 251
 252    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 253    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 254
 255    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 256    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 257        exp.Select,
 258        exp.From,
 259        exp.Where,
 260        exp.With,
 261    )
 262
 263    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 264    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 265        exp.Column,
 266        exp.Literal,
 267        exp.Neg,
 268        exp.Paren,
 269    )
 270
 271    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 272
 273    # Autofilled
 274    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 275    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 276    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 277    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 278    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 279    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 280    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 281    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 282    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 283    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 284
 285    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 286
 287    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 288    QUOTE_START = "'"
 289    QUOTE_END = "'"
 290    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 291    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 292    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 293    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 294
 295    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 296    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 297    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 298    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 299    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 300    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 301    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 302
 303    __slots__ = (
 304        "pretty",
 305        "identify",
 306        "normalize",
 307        "pad",
 308        "_indent",
 309        "normalize_functions",
 310        "unsupported_level",
 311        "max_unsupported",
 312        "leading_comma",
 313        "max_text_width",
 314        "comments",
 315        "unsupported_messages",
 316        "_escaped_quote_end",
 317        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 318        "_cache",
 319    )
 320
 321    def __init__(
 322        self,
 323        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 324        identify: str | bool = False,
 325        normalize: bool = False,
 326        pad: int = 2,
 327        indent: int = 2,
 328        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 329        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 330        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 331        leading_comma: bool = False,
 332        max_text_width: int = 80,
 333        comments: bool = True,
 334    ):
 335        import sqlglot
 336
 337        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 338        self.identify = identify
 339        self.normalize = normalize
 340        self.pad = pad
 341        self._indent = indent
 342        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 343        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 344        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 345        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 346        self.comments = comments
 347
 348        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 349        self.normalize_functions = (
 350            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 351        )
 352
 353        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 354        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 355        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 356        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 357
 358    def generate(
 359        self,
 360        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 361        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 362    ) -> str:
 363        """
 364        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 365
 366        Args:
 367            expression: The syntax tree.
 368            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 369                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 370
 371        Returns:
 372            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 373        """
 374        if cache is not None:
 375            self._cache = cache
 376
 377        self.unsupported_messages = []
 378        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 379        self._cache = None
 380
 381        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 382            return sql
 383
 384        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 385            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 386                logger.warning(msg)
 387        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 388            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 389
 390        if self.pretty:
 391            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 392        return sql
 393
 394    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 395        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 396            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 397        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 398
 399    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 400        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 401
 402    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 403        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 404
 405    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 406        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 407        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 408        return comment
 409
 410    def maybe_comment(
 411        self,
 412        sql: str,
 413        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 414        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 415    ) -> str:
 416        comments = (
 417            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 418            if self.comments
 419            else None
 420        )
 421
 422        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 423            return sql
 424
 425        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 426        comments_sql = sep.join(
 427            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 428        )
 429
 430        if not comments_sql:
 431            return sql
 432
 433        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 434            return (
 435                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 436                if sql[0].isspace()
 437                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 438            )
 439
 440        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 441
 442    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 443        this_sql = self.indent(
 444            self.sql(expression)
 445            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 446            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 447            level=1,
 448            pad=0,
 449        )
 450        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 451
 452    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 453        original = self.identify
 454        self.identify = False
 455        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 456        self.identify = original
 457        return result
 458
 459    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 460        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 461            return name.upper()
 462        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 463            return name.lower()
 464        return name
 465
 466    def indent(
 467        self,
 468        sql: str,
 469        level: int = 0,
 470        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 471        skip_first: bool = False,
 472        skip_last: bool = False,
 473    ) -> str:
 474        if not self.pretty:
 475            return sql
 476
 477        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 478        lines = sql.split("\n")
 479
 480        return "\n".join(
 481            line
 482            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 483            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 484            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 485        )
 486
 487    def sql(
 488        self,
 489        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 490        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 491        comment: bool = True,
 492    ) -> str:
 493        if not expression:
 494            return ""
 495
 496        if isinstance(expression, str):
 497            return expression
 498
 499        if key:
 500            value = expression.args.get(key)
 501            if value:
 502                return self.sql(value)
 503            return ""
 504
 505        if self._cache is not None:
 506            expression_id = hash(expression)
 507
 508            if expression_id in self._cache:
 509                return self._cache[expression_id]
 510
 511        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 512
 513        if callable(transform):
 514            sql = transform(self, expression)
 515        elif transform:
 516            sql = transform
 517        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 518            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 519
 520            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 521                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 522            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 523                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 524            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 525                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 526            else:
 527                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 528        else:
 529            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 530
 531        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 532
 533        if self._cache is not None:
 534            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 535        return sql
 536
 537    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 538        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 539        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 540        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 541
 542    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 543        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 544        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 545        options = expression.args.get("options")
 546        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 547        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 548        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 549        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 550        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 551
 552    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 553        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 554            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 555        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 556        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 557
 558    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 559        return ".".join(
 560            self.sql(part)
 561            for part in (
 562                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 563                expression.args.get("db"),
 564                expression.args.get("table"),
 565                expression.args.get("this"),
 566            )
 567            if part
 568        )
 569
 570    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 571        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 572        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 573        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 574        return f"{position}{this}"
 575
 576    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 577        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 578        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 579        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 580        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 581        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 582        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 583        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 584        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 585
 586        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 587
 588    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 589        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 590        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 591        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 592
 593    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 594        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 595
 596    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 597        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 598            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 599        else:
 600            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 601
 602        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 603
 604    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 605        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 606    ) -> str:
 607        this = ""
 608        if expression.this is not None:
 609            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 610            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 611
 612        start = expression.args.get("start")
 613        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 614        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 615        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 616        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 617        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 618        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 619        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 620        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 621        cycle_sql = ""
 622
 623        if cycle is not None:
 624            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 625            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 626
 627        sequence_opts = ""
 628        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 629            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 630            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 631
 632        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 633        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 634
 635        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 636
 637    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 638        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 639
 640    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 641        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 642        if desc is not None:
 643            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 644        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 645
 646    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 647        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 648        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 649        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 650
 651    def createable_sql(
 652        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 653    ) -> str:
 654        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 655
 656    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 657        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 658        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 659        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 660
 661        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 662
 663        properties_sql = ""
 664        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 665            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 666        ):
 667            properties_sql = self.sql(
 668                exp.Properties(
 669                    expressions=[
 670                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 671                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 672                    ]
 673                )
 674            )
 675
 676        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 677        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 678        if expression_sql:
 679            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 680
 681            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 682                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 683                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 684                        exp.Properties(
 685                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 686                        ),
 687                        wrapped=False,
 688                    )
 689                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 690                else:
 691                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 692
 693        postindex_props_sql = ""
 694        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 695            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 696                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 697                wrapped=False,
 698                prefix=" ",
 699            )
 700
 701        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 702        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 703        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 704
 705        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 706        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 707
 708        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 709        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 710            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 711                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 712                sep=" ",
 713                prefix=" ",
 714                wrapped=False,
 715            )
 716
 717        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 718
 719        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 720        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 721            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 722                exp.Properties(
 723                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 724                ),
 725                sep=" ",
 726                prefix=" ",
 727                wrapped=False,
 728            )
 729
 730        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 731        no_schema_binding = (
 732            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 733        )
 734
 735        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 736        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 737
 738        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 739        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 740
 741    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 742        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 743        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 744
 745        if when:
 746            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 747            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 748            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 749
 750        return f"CLONE {this}"
 751
 752    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 753        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 754
 755    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 756        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 757        if with_:
 758            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 759        return sql
 760
 761    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 762        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 763        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 764
 765        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 766
 767    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 768        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 769        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 770
 771    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 772        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 773        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 774        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 775        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 776
 777    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 778        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 779        if self.BIT_START:
 780            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 781        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 782
 783    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 784        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 785        if self.HEX_START:
 786            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 787        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 788
 789    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 790        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 791        if self.BYTE_START:
 792            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 793        return this
 794
 795    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 796        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 797        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 798
 799    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 800        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 801        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 802        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 803        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 804
 805    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 806        type_value = expression.this
 807        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 808        nested = ""
 809        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 810        values = ""
 811        if interior:
 812            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 813                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 814                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 815                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 816                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 817                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 818            else:
 819                nested = f"({interior})"
 820
 821        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 822
 823    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 824        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 825        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 826        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 827        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 828
 829    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 830        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 831        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 832        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 833        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 834        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 835        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 836        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 837        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 838        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 839        sql = f"DELETE{tables}{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 840        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 841
 842    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 844        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 845        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 846        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 847        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 848        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 849        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 850        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 851        return (
 852            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 853        )
 854
 855    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 856        return self.prepend_ctes(
 857            expression,
 858            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 859        )
 860
 861    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 862        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 863
 864    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 865        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 866        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 867        count = expression.args.get("count")
 868        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 869        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 870            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 871        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 872        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 873
 874    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 875        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 876        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 877        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 878
 879    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 880        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 881            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 882            return ""
 883
 884        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 885
 886    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 887        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 888        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 889        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 890        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
 891        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 892        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 893        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 894        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 895        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 896        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 897        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 898        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 899        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 900        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 901
 902    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 903        text = expression.name
 904        lower = text.lower()
 905        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 906        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 907        if (
 908            expression.quoted
 909            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 910            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 911            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 912        ):
 913            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 914        return text
 915
 916    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 917        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 918        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 919        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 920        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 921        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 922
 923    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 924        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 925        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 926
 927    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 928        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 929
 930    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 931        root_properties = []
 932        with_properties = []
 933
 934        for p in expression.expressions:
 935            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 936            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 937                with_properties.append(p)
 938            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 939                root_properties.append(p)
 940
 941        return self.root_properties(
 942            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 943        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 944
 945    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 946        if properties.expressions:
 947            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 948        return ""
 949
 950    def properties(
 951        self,
 952        properties: exp.Properties,
 953        prefix: str = "",
 954        sep: str = ", ",
 955        suffix: str = "",
 956        wrapped: bool = True,
 957    ) -> str:
 958        if properties.expressions:
 959            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 960            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 961            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 962        return ""
 963
 964    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 965        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 966
 967    def locate_properties(
 968        self, properties: exp.Properties
 969    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 970        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 971            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 972        }
 973
 974        for p in properties.expressions:
 975            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 976            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 977                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 978            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 979                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 980            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 981                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 982            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 983                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 984            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 985                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 986            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 987                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 988            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 989                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 990            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 991                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 992
 993        return properties_locs
 994
 995    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 996        property_cls = expression.__class__
 997        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 998            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
 999
1000        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1001        if not property_name:
1002            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1003
1004        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1005
1006    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1007        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1008        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1009        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1010
1011    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1012        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1013        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1014        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1015
1016    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1017        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1018        local = expression.args.get("local")
1019        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1020        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1021        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1022        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1023        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1024
1025    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1026        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1027        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1028        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1029
1030    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1031        if expression.args.get("default"):
1032            property = "DEFAULT"
1033        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1034            property = "ON"
1035        else:
1036            property = "OFF"
1037        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1038
1039    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1040        if expression.args.get("no"):
1041            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1042        if expression.args.get("default"):
1043            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1044
1045        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1046        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1047
1048    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1049        default = expression.args.get("default")
1050        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1051        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1052        if default or minimum or maximum:
1053            if default:
1054                prop = "DEFAULT"
1055            elif minimum:
1056                prop = "MINIMUM"
1057            else:
1058                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1059            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1060        units = expression.args.get("units")
1061        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1062        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1063
1064    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1065        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1066        always = expression.args.get("always")
1067        default = expression.args.get("default")
1068        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1069        never = expression.args.get("never")
1070
1071        if autotemp is not None:
1072            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1073        elif always:
1074            prop = "ALWAYS"
1075        elif default:
1076            prop = "DEFAULT"
1077        elif manual:
1078            prop = "MANUAL"
1079        elif never:
1080            prop = "NEVER"
1081        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1082
1083    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1084        no = expression.args.get("no")
1085        no = " NO" if no else ""
1086        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1087        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1088
1089        for_ = ""
1090        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1091            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1092        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1093            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1094        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1095            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1096        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1097
1098    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1099        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1100        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1101        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1102        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1103        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1104        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1105
1106    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1107        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1108        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1109        statistics_sql = ""
1110        if statistics is not None:
1111            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1112        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1113
1114    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1115        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1116
1117        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1118            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1119        else:
1120            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1121
1122        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1123        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1124        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1125
1126        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1127
1128        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1129        partition_sql = (
1130            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1131        )
1132        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1133        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1134        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1135        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1136        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1137        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1138        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1139
1140    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1141        return self.prepend_ctes(
1142            expression,
1143            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1144        )
1145
1146    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1147        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1148
1149    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1150        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1151
1152    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1153        return expression.name.upper()
1154
1155    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1156        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1157        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1158        if constraint:
1159            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1160        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1161        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1162        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1163        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1164        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1165        if expressions:
1166            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1167        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1168
1169    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1170        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1171
1172    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1173        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1174        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1175        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1176        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1177        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1178        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1179        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1180        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1181        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1182        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1183        null = expression.args.get("null")
1184        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1185        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1186
1187    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1188        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1189
1190    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1191        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1192        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1193        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1194        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1195
1196    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1197        table = ".".join(
1198            part
1199            for part in [
1200                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1201                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1202                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1203            ]
1204            if part
1205        )
1206
1207        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1208        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1209        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1210        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1211        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1212        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1213        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1214        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1215        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1216        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1217
1218        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1219
1220    def tablesample_sql(
1221        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1222    ) -> str:
1223        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1224            table = expression.this.copy()
1225            table.set("alias", None)
1226            this = self.sql(table)
1227            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1228        else:
1229            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1230            alias = ""
1231        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1232        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1233        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1234        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1235        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1236        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1237        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1238        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1239        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1240        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1241        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1242        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1243        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1244            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1245        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1246        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1247        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1248        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1249
1250    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1251        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1252
1253        if expression.this:
1254            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1255            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1256            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1257            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1258            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1259            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1260
1261        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1262        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1263        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1264        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1265        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1266        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1267
1268    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1269        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1270
1271    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1272        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1273        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1274        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1275        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1276        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1277        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1278        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1279        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1280
1281    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1282        args = self.expressions(expression)
1283        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1284        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1285        values = (
1286            f"({values})"
1287            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1288            else values
1289        )
1290        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1291
1292    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1293        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1294
1295    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1296        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1297        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1298        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1299
1300    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1301        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1302
1303    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1304        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1305
1306        if expression.args.get("all"):
1307            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1308
1309        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1310        grouping_sets = (
1311            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1312        )
1313
1314        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1315        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1316            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1317        else:
1318            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1319            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1320
1321        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1322        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1323            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1324        else:
1325            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1326            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1327
1328        groupings = csv(
1329            grouping_sets,
1330            cube_sql,
1331            rollup_sql,
1332            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1333            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1334        )
1335
1336        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1337            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1338
1339        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1340
1341    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1342        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1343        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1344
1345    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1346        op_sql = " ".join(
1347            op
1348            for op in (
1349                expression.method,
1350                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1351                expression.side,
1352                expression.kind,
1353                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1354            )
1355            if op
1356        )
1357        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1358        using = expression.args.get("using")
1359
1360        if not on_sql and using:
1361            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1362
1363        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1364
1365        if on_sql:
1366            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1367            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1368            if using:
1369                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1370            else:
1371                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1372        elif not op_sql:
1373            return f", {this_sql}"
1374
1375        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1376        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1377
1378    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1379        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1380        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1381        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1382
1383    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1384        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1385
1386        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1387            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1388
1389        if expression.args.get("view"):
1390            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1391            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1392            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1393            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1394            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1395            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1396
1397        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1398        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1399        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1400
1401    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1402        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1403        args = ", ".join(
1404            sql
1405            for sql in (
1406                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1407                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1408            )
1409            if sql
1410        )
1411        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1412
1413    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1414        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1415        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1416
1417    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1418        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1419        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1420        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1421        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1422        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1423        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1424        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1425        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1426
1427    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1428        expressions = (
1429            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1430        )
1431        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1432        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1433
1434    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1435        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1436
1437    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1438        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1439            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1440            return ""
1441
1442        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1443        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1444        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1445        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1446
1447        if wait is not None:
1448            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1449                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1450            else:
1451                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1452
1453        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1454
1455    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1456        text = expression.this or ""
1457        if expression.is_string:
1458            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1459        return text
1460
1461    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1462        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1463        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1464            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1465        elif self.pretty:
1466            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1467        return text
1468
1469    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1470        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1471        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1472        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1473        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1474        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1475        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1476        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1477        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1478        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1479        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1480        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1481
1482    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1483        return "NULL"
1484
1485    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1486        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1487
1488    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1489        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1490        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1491        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1492
1493    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1494        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1495
1496    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1497        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1498
1499    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1500        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1501
1502    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1503        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1504        asc = not desc
1505
1506        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1507        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1508        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1509        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1510        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1511
1512        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1513        nulls_sort_change = ""
1514        if nulls_first and (
1515            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1516        ):
1517            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1518        elif (
1519            nulls_last
1520            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1521            and not nulls_are_last
1522        ):
1523            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1524
1525        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1526            self.unsupported(
1527                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1528            )
1529            nulls_sort_change = ""
1530
1531        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1532
1533    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1534        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1535        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1536        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1537        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1538        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1539        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1540        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1541        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1542        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1543        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1544        definition_sqls = [
1545            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1546            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1547        ]
1548        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1549        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1550        body = "".join(
1551            (
1552                partition,
1553                order,
1554                measures,
1555                rows,
1556                after,
1557                pattern,
1558                define,
1559            )
1560        )
1561        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1562        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1563        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1564
1565    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1566        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1567
1568        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1569        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1570
1571        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1572            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1573        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1574            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1575
1576        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1577
1578        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1579            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1580            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1581            else []
1582        )
1583
1584        return csv(
1585            *sqls,
1586            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1587            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1588            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1589            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1590            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1591            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1592            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1593            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1594            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1595            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1596            sep="",
1597        )
1598
1599    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1600        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1601    ) -> t.List[str]:
1602        return [
1603            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1604            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1605        ]
1606
1607    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1608        return [
1609            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1610            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1611            if expression.args.get("windows")
1612            else "",
1613            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1614            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1615            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1616        ]
1617
1618    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1619        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1620        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1621        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1622
1623    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1624        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1625        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1626        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1627        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1628        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1629        top = (
1630            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1631            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1632            else ""
1633        )
1634
1635        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1636
1637        if kind:
1638            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1639                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1640            else:
1641                if kind == "STRUCT":
1642                    expressions = self.expressions(
1643                        sqls=[
1644                            self.sql(
1645                                exp.Struct(
1646                                    expressions=[
1647                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1648                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1649                                        )
1650                                        for e in expression.expressions
1651                                    ]
1652                                )
1653                            )
1654                        ]
1655                    )
1656                kind = ""
1657
1658        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1659        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1660            expression,
1661            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1662            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1663            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1664        )
1665        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1666
1667    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1668        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1669        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1670        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1671        return f"{this}{sql}"
1672
1673    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1674        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1675
1676    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1677        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1678        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1679        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1680        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1681        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1682
1683    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1684        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1685        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1686        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1687
1688    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1689        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1690        kind = expression.text("kind")
1691        if kind:
1692            kind = f"{kind}."
1693        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1694
1695    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1696        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1697
1698    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1699        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1700        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1701
1702        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1703        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1704
1705        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1706        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1707
1708    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1709        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1710        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1711
1712    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1713        return self.prepend_ctes(
1714            expression,
1715            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1716        )
1717
1718    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1719        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1720        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1721        return f"UNION{kind}"
1722
1723    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1724        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1725        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1726        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1727            columns = alias.columns
1728            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1729        else:
1730            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1731        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1732        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1733        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1734        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1735        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1736
1737    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1738        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1739        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1740
1741    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1742        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1743        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1744        order = expression.args.get("order")
1745        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1746        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1747        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1748        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1749
1750        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1751
1752        first = expression.args.get("first")
1753        if first is None:
1754            first = ""
1755        else:
1756            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1757
1758        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1759            return f"{this} {alias}"
1760
1761        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1762        return f"{this} ({args})"
1763
1764    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1765        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1766        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1767
1768    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1769        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1770        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1771        end = (
1772            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1773            or "CURRENT ROW"
1774        )
1775        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1776
1777    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1778        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1779        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1780        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1781
1782    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1783        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1784        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1785        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1786        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1787
1788    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1789        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1790        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1791
1792        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1793
1794    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1795        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1796
1797    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1798        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1799
1800    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1802        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1803            this = self.wrap(this)
1804        return f"ANY {this}"
1805
1806    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1807        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1808
1809    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1810        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1811        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1812
1813        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1814            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1815            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1816
1817        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1818
1819        if default:
1820            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1821
1822        statements.append("END")
1823
1824        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1825            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1826
1827        return " ".join(statements)
1828
1829    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1830        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1831        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1832        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1833
1834    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1835        order = expression.args.get("order")
1836        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1837        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1838
1839    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1840        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1841        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1842        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1843
1844    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1845        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1846
1847        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1848            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1849        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1850            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1851        else:
1852            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1853
1854    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1855        expressions = expression.expressions
1856        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1857            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1858        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1859
1860    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1861        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1862        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1863
1864    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1865        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1866        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1867        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1868        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1869        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1870        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1871        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1872        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1873
1874    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1875        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1876        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1877        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1878        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1879
1880    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1881        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1882
1883    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1884        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1885        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1886        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1887
1888    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1889        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1890
1891    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1892        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1893        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1894        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1895        if unique_keys is not None:
1896            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1897        else:
1898            unique_keys = ""
1899        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1900        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1901        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1902        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1903        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1904        return self.func(
1905            "JSON_OBJECT",
1906            *expression.expressions,
1907            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1908        )
1909
1910    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1911        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1912        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1913        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1914        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1915        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1916        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1917
1918    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1920        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1921        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1922        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1923        with_ = (
1924            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1925            if expressions
1926            else ""
1927        )
1928        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1929
1930    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1931        query = expression.args.get("query")
1932        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1933        field = expression.args.get("field")
1934        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1935
1936        if query:
1937            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1938        elif unnest:
1939            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1940        elif field:
1941            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1942        else:
1943            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1944
1945        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1946
1947    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1948        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1949
1950    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1951        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1952        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1953            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1954        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1955
1956        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1957            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1958            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1959
1960        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1961        if this:
1962            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1963            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1964
1965        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1966
1967    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1968        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1969
1970    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1971        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1972        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1973        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1974        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1975        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1976        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1977
1978    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1979        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1980
1981    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1982        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1983            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1984        else:
1985            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1986            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1987
1988        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1989
1990    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1991        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1992        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1993        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1994        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1995
1996    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1997        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1998
1999    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2000        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2001        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2002        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2003
2004    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2005        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2006
2007    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2008        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2009        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2010        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2011
2012    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2013        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2014
2015    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2016        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2017
2018    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2019        if not self.pretty:
2020            return self.binary(expression, op)
2021
2022        sqls = tuple(
2023            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2024            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2025        )
2026
2027        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2028        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2029
2030    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2031        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2032
2033    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2034        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2035
2036    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2037        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2038
2039    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2040        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2041
2042    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2043        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2044
2045    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2046        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2047
2048    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2049        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2050        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2051        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2052
2053    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2054        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2055        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2056
2057    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2058        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2059
2060    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2061        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2062
2063    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2064        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2065        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2066        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2067        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2068        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2069
2070    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2071        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2072        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2073        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2074        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2075        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2076        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2077        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2078        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2079        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2080
2081    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2082        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2083        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2084        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2085        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2086
2087        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2088            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2089
2090        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2091
2092    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2093        return "BEGIN"
2094
2095    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2096        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2097        if chain is not None:
2098            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2099
2100        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2101
2102    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2103        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2104        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2105        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2106
2107    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2108        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2109
2110        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2111        if dtype:
2112            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2113            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2114            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2115            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2116            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2117
2118        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2119        if default:
2120            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2121
2122        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2123            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2124
2125        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2126
2127    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2128        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2129            # Remove db from tables
2130            expression = expression.transform(
2131                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2132            )
2133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2134        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2135
2136    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2137        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2138
2139        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2140            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2141        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2142            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2143        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2144            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2145        else:
2146            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2147
2148        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2149        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2150
2151    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2152        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2153        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2154        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2155
2156    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2157        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2158        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2159        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2160
2161        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2162        if enforced is not None:
2163            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2164
2165        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2166
2167    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2168        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2169        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2170
2171        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2172        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2173        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2174
2175    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2176        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2177
2178    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2179        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2180
2181    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2182        return self.sql(
2183            exp.Cast(
2184                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2185                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2186            )
2187        )
2188
2189    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2190        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2191
2192    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2193        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2194            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2195        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2196
2197    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2198        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2199
2200    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2201        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2202
2203    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2204        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2205
2206    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2207        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2208
2209    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2210        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2211
2212    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2213        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2214
2215    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2216        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2217
2218    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2219        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2220
2221    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2222        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2223
2224    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2225        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2226
2227    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2228        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2229
2230    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2231        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2232            return self.sql(
2233                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2234            )
2235        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2236
2237    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2238        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2239
2240    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2241        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2242
2243    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2244        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2245
2246    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2247        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2248
2249    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2250        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2251
2252    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2253        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2254
2255    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2256        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2257
2258    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2259        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2260
2261    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2262        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2263
2264    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2265        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2266
2267    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2268        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2269
2270    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2271        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2272
2273    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2274        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2275
2276    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2277        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2278
2279    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2280        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2281        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2282        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2283        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2284        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2285
2286    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2287        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2288        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2289
2290    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2291        args = []
2292        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2293            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2294                for value in arg_value:
2295                    args.append(value)
2296            else:
2297                args.append(arg_value)
2298
2299        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2300
2301    def func(
2302        self,
2303        name: str,
2304        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2305        prefix: str = "(",
2306        suffix: str = ")",
2307    ) -> str:
2308        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2309
2310    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2311        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2312        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2313            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2314        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2315
2316    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2317        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2318
2319    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2320        return format_time(
2321            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2322        )
2323
2324    def expressions(
2325        self,
2326        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2327        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2328        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2329        flat: bool = False,
2330        indent: bool = True,
2331        skip_first: bool = False,
2332        sep: str = ", ",
2333        prefix: str = "",
2334    ) -> str:
2335        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2336
2337        if not expressions:
2338            return ""
2339
2340        if flat:
2341            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2342
2343        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2344
2345        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2346        pad = " " * self.pad
2347        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2348
2349        result_sqls = []
2350        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2351            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2352            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2353
2354            if self.pretty:
2355                if self.leading_comma:
2356                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2357                else:
2358                    result_sqls.append(
2359                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2360                    )
2361            else:
2362                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2363
2364        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2365        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2366
2367    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2368        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2369        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2370        if flat:
2371            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2372        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2373
2374    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2375        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2376        if not property_name:
2377            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2378        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2379
2380    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2381        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2382        op = self.seg(op)
2383        return self.query_modifiers(
2384            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2385        )
2386
2387    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2388        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2389
2390    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2391        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2392
2393    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2394        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2395        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2396        expressions = (
2397            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2398        )
2399        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2400
2401    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2402        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2403        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2404        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2405
2406    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2407        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2408
2409    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2410        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2411        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2412        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2413        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2414
2415        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2416        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2417            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2418            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2419                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2420        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2421            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2422                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2423            else:
2424                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2425        else:
2426            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2427        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2428
2429    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2430        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2431        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2432        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2433        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2434
2435    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2436        if expression.args.get("format"):
2437            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2438
2439        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2440
2441    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2442        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2443        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2444        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2445        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2446        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2447
2448    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2449        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2450        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2451        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2452        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2453
2454    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2455        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2456
2457    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2458        return ""
2459
2460    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2461        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2462        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2463        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2464        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2465        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2466
2467    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2468        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2469        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2470
2471        if having:
2472            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2473
2474        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2475
2476
2477def cached_generator(
2478    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2479) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2480    """Returns a cached generator."""
2481    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2482    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2483    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  22            Default: False.
  23        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  24            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  25            True or 'always': Always quote.
  26            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  27        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  28            Default: False.
  29        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  30            Default: 2.
  31        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  32            Default: 2.
  33        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  34            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  35            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  36            False: Disables function name normalization.
  37        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  38            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  39        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  40            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  41            Default: 3
  42        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  43            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  44            Default: False
  45        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  46            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  47            line length.
  48            Default: 80
  49        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  50            Default: True
  51    """
  52
  53    TRANSFORMS = {
  54        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  55            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  56        ),
  57        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  58            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  59        ),
  60        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  61        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  64        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  65        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  66        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  71        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  72        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  75        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  76        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  77        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  78        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  79        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  82        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  83        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  84        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  85        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  86        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  87        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  88        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  89        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  91        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  92        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  93        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94    }
  95
  96    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
  97    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
  98
  99    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 100    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 101
 102    # Always do union distinct or union all
 103    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 104
 105    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 106    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 107
 108    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 109    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 110
 111    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 112    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 113
 114    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 115    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 116
 117    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 118    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 119
 120    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 121    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 122
 123    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 124    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 125
 126    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 127    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 128
 129    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 130    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 131
 132    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 133    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 134
 135    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 136    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 137
 138    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 139    JOIN_HINTS = True
 140
 141    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 142    TABLE_HINTS = True
 143
 144    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 145    QUERY_HINTS = True
 146
 147    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 148    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 149
 150    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 151    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 152
 153    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 154    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 155
 156    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 157    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 158
 159    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 160    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 161
 162    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 163        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 164        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 165        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 166        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 167        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 168        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 169        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 170    }
 171
 172    STAR_MAPPING = {
 173        "except": "EXCEPT",
 174        "replace": "REPLACE",
 175    }
 176
 177    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 178        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 179        "seconds": "second",
 180        "minutes": "minute",
 181        "hours": "hour",
 182        "days": "day",
 183        "weeks": "week",
 184        "months": "month",
 185        "quarters": "quarter",
 186        "years": "year",
 187    }
 188
 189    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 190
 191    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 192
 193    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 194
 195    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 196        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 197        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 198        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 199        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 200        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 201        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 202        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 203        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 204        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 205        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 206        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 207        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 208        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 209        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 210        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 211        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 212        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 213        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 214        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 215        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 216        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 217        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 218        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 219        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 223        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 224        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 225        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 226        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 227        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 228        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 229        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 230        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 232        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 235        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 236        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 237        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 238        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 239        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 240        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 241        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 242        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 243        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 244        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 245        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 246        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 247        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 248        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 249        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 250        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 251    }
 252
 253    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 254    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 255
 256    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 257    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 258        exp.Select,
 259        exp.From,
 260        exp.Where,
 261        exp.With,
 262    )
 263
 264    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 265    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 266        exp.Column,
 267        exp.Literal,
 268        exp.Neg,
 269        exp.Paren,
 270    )
 271
 272    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 273
 274    # Autofilled
 275    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 276    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 277    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 278    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 279    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 280    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 281    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 282    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 283    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 284    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 285
 286    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 287
 288    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 289    QUOTE_START = "'"
 290    QUOTE_END = "'"
 291    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 292    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 293    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 294    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 295
 296    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 297    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 298    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 299    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 300    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 301    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 302    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 303
 304    __slots__ = (
 305        "pretty",
 306        "identify",
 307        "normalize",
 308        "pad",
 309        "_indent",
 310        "normalize_functions",
 311        "unsupported_level",
 312        "max_unsupported",
 313        "leading_comma",
 314        "max_text_width",
 315        "comments",
 316        "unsupported_messages",
 317        "_escaped_quote_end",
 318        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 319        "_cache",
 320    )
 321
 322    def __init__(
 323        self,
 324        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 325        identify: str | bool = False,
 326        normalize: bool = False,
 327        pad: int = 2,
 328        indent: int = 2,
 329        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 330        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 331        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 332        leading_comma: bool = False,
 333        max_text_width: int = 80,
 334        comments: bool = True,
 335    ):
 336        import sqlglot
 337
 338        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 339        self.identify = identify
 340        self.normalize = normalize
 341        self.pad = pad
 342        self._indent = indent
 343        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 344        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 345        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 346        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 347        self.comments = comments
 348
 349        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 350        self.normalize_functions = (
 351            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 352        )
 353
 354        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 355        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 356        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 357        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 358
 359    def generate(
 360        self,
 361        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 362        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 363    ) -> str:
 364        """
 365        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 366
 367        Args:
 368            expression: The syntax tree.
 369            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 370                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 371
 372        Returns:
 373            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 374        """
 375        if cache is not None:
 376            self._cache = cache
 377
 378        self.unsupported_messages = []
 379        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 380        self._cache = None
 381
 382        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 383            return sql
 384
 385        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 386            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 387                logger.warning(msg)
 388        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 389            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 390
 391        if self.pretty:
 392            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 393        return sql
 394
 395    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 396        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 397            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 398        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 399
 400    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 401        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 402
 403    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 404        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 405
 406    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 407        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 408        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 409        return comment
 410
 411    def maybe_comment(
 412        self,
 413        sql: str,
 414        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 415        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 416    ) -> str:
 417        comments = (
 418            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 419            if self.comments
 420            else None
 421        )
 422
 423        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 424            return sql
 425
 426        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 427        comments_sql = sep.join(
 428            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 429        )
 430
 431        if not comments_sql:
 432            return sql
 433
 434        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 435            return (
 436                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 437                if sql[0].isspace()
 438                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 439            )
 440
 441        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 442
 443    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 444        this_sql = self.indent(
 445            self.sql(expression)
 446            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 447            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 448            level=1,
 449            pad=0,
 450        )
 451        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 452
 453    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 454        original = self.identify
 455        self.identify = False
 456        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 457        self.identify = original
 458        return result
 459
 460    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 461        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 462            return name.upper()
 463        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 464            return name.lower()
 465        return name
 466
 467    def indent(
 468        self,
 469        sql: str,
 470        level: int = 0,
 471        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 472        skip_first: bool = False,
 473        skip_last: bool = False,
 474    ) -> str:
 475        if not self.pretty:
 476            return sql
 477
 478        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 479        lines = sql.split("\n")
 480
 481        return "\n".join(
 482            line
 483            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 484            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 485            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 486        )
 487
 488    def sql(
 489        self,
 490        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 491        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 492        comment: bool = True,
 493    ) -> str:
 494        if not expression:
 495            return ""
 496
 497        if isinstance(expression, str):
 498            return expression
 499
 500        if key:
 501            value = expression.args.get(key)
 502            if value:
 503                return self.sql(value)
 504            return ""
 505
 506        if self._cache is not None:
 507            expression_id = hash(expression)
 508
 509            if expression_id in self._cache:
 510                return self._cache[expression_id]
 511
 512        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 513
 514        if callable(transform):
 515            sql = transform(self, expression)
 516        elif transform:
 517            sql = transform
 518        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 519            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 520
 521            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 522                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 523            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 524                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 525            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 526                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 527            else:
 528                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 529        else:
 530            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 531
 532        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 533
 534        if self._cache is not None:
 535            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 536        return sql
 537
 538    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 539        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 540        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 541        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 542
 543    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 544        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 545        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 546        options = expression.args.get("options")
 547        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 548        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 549        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 550        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 551        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 552
 553    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 554        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 555            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 556        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 557        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 558
 559    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 560        return ".".join(
 561            self.sql(part)
 562            for part in (
 563                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 564                expression.args.get("db"),
 565                expression.args.get("table"),
 566                expression.args.get("this"),
 567            )
 568            if part
 569        )
 570
 571    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 572        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 573        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 574        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 575        return f"{position}{this}"
 576
 577    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 578        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 579        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 580        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 581        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 582        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 583        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 584        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 585        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 586
 587        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 588
 589    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 590        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 591        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 592        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 593
 594    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 595        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 596
 597    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 598        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 599            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 600        else:
 601            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 602
 603        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 604
 605    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 606        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 607    ) -> str:
 608        this = ""
 609        if expression.this is not None:
 610            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 611            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 612
 613        start = expression.args.get("start")
 614        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 615        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 616        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 617        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 618        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 619        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 620        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 621        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 622        cycle_sql = ""
 623
 624        if cycle is not None:
 625            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 626            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 627
 628        sequence_opts = ""
 629        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 630            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 631            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 632
 633        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 634        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 635
 636        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 637
 638    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 639        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 640
 641    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 642        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 643        if desc is not None:
 644            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 645        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 646
 647    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 648        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 649        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 650        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 651
 652    def createable_sql(
 653        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 654    ) -> str:
 655        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 656
 657    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 658        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 659        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 660        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 661
 662        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 663
 664        properties_sql = ""
 665        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 666            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 667        ):
 668            properties_sql = self.sql(
 669                exp.Properties(
 670                    expressions=[
 671                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 672                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 673                    ]
 674                )
 675            )
 676
 677        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 678        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 679        if expression_sql:
 680            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 681
 682            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 683                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 684                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 685                        exp.Properties(
 686                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 687                        ),
 688                        wrapped=False,
 689                    )
 690                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 691                else:
 692                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 693
 694        postindex_props_sql = ""
 695        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 696            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 697                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 698                wrapped=False,
 699                prefix=" ",
 700            )
 701
 702        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 703        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 704        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 705
 706        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 707        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 708
 709        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 710        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 711            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 712                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 713                sep=" ",
 714                prefix=" ",
 715                wrapped=False,
 716            )
 717
 718        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 719
 720        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 721        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 722            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 723                exp.Properties(
 724                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 725                ),
 726                sep=" ",
 727                prefix=" ",
 728                wrapped=False,
 729            )
 730
 731        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 732        no_schema_binding = (
 733            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 734        )
 735
 736        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 737        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 738
 739        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 740        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 741
 742    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 743        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 744        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 745
 746        if when:
 747            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 748            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 749            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 750
 751        return f"CLONE {this}"
 752
 753    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 754        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 755
 756    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 757        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 758        if with_:
 759            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 760        return sql
 761
 762    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 763        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 764        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 765
 766        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 767
 768    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 769        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 770        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 771
 772    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 773        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 774        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 775        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 776        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 777
 778    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 780        if self.BIT_START:
 781            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 782        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 783
 784    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 786        if self.HEX_START:
 787            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 788        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 789
 790    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 791        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 792        if self.BYTE_START:
 793            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 794        return this
 795
 796    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 797        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 798        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 799
 800    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 802        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 803        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 804        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 805
 806    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 807        type_value = expression.this
 808        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 809        nested = ""
 810        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 811        values = ""
 812        if interior:
 813            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 814                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 815                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 816                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 817                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 818                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 819            else:
 820                nested = f"({interior})"
 821
 822        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 823
 824    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 825        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 826        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 827        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 828        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 829
 830    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 831        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 832        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 833        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 834        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 835        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 836        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 837        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 838        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 839        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 840        sql = f"DELETE{tables}{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 841        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 842
 843    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 844        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 845        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 846        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 847        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 848        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 849        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 850        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 851        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 852        return (
 853            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 854        )
 855
 856    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 857        return self.prepend_ctes(
 858            expression,
 859            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 860        )
 861
 862    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 863        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 864
 865    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 866        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 867        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 868        count = expression.args.get("count")
 869        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 870        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 871            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 872        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 873        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 874
 875    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 877        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 878        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 879
 880    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 881        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 882            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 883            return ""
 884
 885        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 886
 887    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 888        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 889        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 890        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 891        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
 892        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 893        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 894        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 895        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 896        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 897        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 898        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 899        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 900        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 901        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 902
 903    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 904        text = expression.name
 905        lower = text.lower()
 906        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 907        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 908        if (
 909            expression.quoted
 910            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 911            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 912            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 913        ):
 914            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 915        return text
 916
 917    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 918        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 919        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 920        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 921        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 922        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 923
 924    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 925        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 926        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 927
 928    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 929        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 930
 931    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 932        root_properties = []
 933        with_properties = []
 934
 935        for p in expression.expressions:
 936            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 937            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 938                with_properties.append(p)
 939            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 940                root_properties.append(p)
 941
 942        return self.root_properties(
 943            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 944        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 945
 946    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 947        if properties.expressions:
 948            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 949        return ""
 950
 951    def properties(
 952        self,
 953        properties: exp.Properties,
 954        prefix: str = "",
 955        sep: str = ", ",
 956        suffix: str = "",
 957        wrapped: bool = True,
 958    ) -> str:
 959        if properties.expressions:
 960            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 961            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 962            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 963        return ""
 964
 965    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 966        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 967
 968    def locate_properties(
 969        self, properties: exp.Properties
 970    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 971        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 972            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 973        }
 974
 975        for p in properties.expressions:
 976            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 977            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 978                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 979            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 980                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 981            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 982                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 983            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 984                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 985            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 986                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 987            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 988                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 989            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 990                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 991            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 992                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 993
 994        return properties_locs
 995
 996    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 997        property_cls = expression.__class__
 998        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 999            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1000
1001        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1002        if not property_name:
1003            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1004
1005        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1006
1007    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1008        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1009        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1010        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1011
1012    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1013        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1014        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1015        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1016
1017    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1018        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1019        local = expression.args.get("local")
1020        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1021        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1022        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1023        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1024        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1025
1026    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1027        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1028        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1029        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1030
1031    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1032        if expression.args.get("default"):
1033            property = "DEFAULT"
1034        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1035            property = "ON"
1036        else:
1037            property = "OFF"
1038        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1039
1040    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1041        if expression.args.get("no"):
1042            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1043        if expression.args.get("default"):
1044            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1045
1046        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1047        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1048
1049    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1050        default = expression.args.get("default")
1051        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1052        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1053        if default or minimum or maximum:
1054            if default:
1055                prop = "DEFAULT"
1056            elif minimum:
1057                prop = "MINIMUM"
1058            else:
1059                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1060            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1061        units = expression.args.get("units")
1062        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1063        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1064
1065    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1066        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1067        always = expression.args.get("always")
1068        default = expression.args.get("default")
1069        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1070        never = expression.args.get("never")
1071
1072        if autotemp is not None:
1073            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1074        elif always:
1075            prop = "ALWAYS"
1076        elif default:
1077            prop = "DEFAULT"
1078        elif manual:
1079            prop = "MANUAL"
1080        elif never:
1081            prop = "NEVER"
1082        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1083
1084    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1085        no = expression.args.get("no")
1086        no = " NO" if no else ""
1087        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1088        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1089
1090        for_ = ""
1091        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1092            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1093        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1094            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1095        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1096            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1097        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1098
1099    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1100        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1101        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1102        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1103        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1104        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1105        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1106
1107    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1108        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1109        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1110        statistics_sql = ""
1111        if statistics is not None:
1112            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1113        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1114
1115    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1116        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1117
1118        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1119            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1120        else:
1121            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1122
1123        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1124        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1125        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1126
1127        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1128
1129        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1130        partition_sql = (
1131            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1132        )
1133        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1134        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1135        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1136        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1137        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1138        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1139        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1140
1141    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1142        return self.prepend_ctes(
1143            expression,
1144            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1145        )
1146
1147    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1148        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1149
1150    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1151        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1152
1153    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1154        return expression.name.upper()
1155
1156    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1157        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1158        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1159        if constraint:
1160            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1161        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1162        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1163        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1164        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1165        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1166        if expressions:
1167            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1168        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1169
1170    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1171        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1172
1173    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1174        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1175        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1176        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1177        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1178        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1179        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1180        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1181        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1182        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1183        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1184        null = expression.args.get("null")
1185        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1186        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1187
1188    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1189        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1190
1191    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1192        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1193        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1194        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1195        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1196
1197    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1198        table = ".".join(
1199            part
1200            for part in [
1201                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1202                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1203                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1204            ]
1205            if part
1206        )
1207
1208        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1209        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1210        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1211        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1212        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1213        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1214        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1215        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1216        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1217        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1218
1219        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1220
1221    def tablesample_sql(
1222        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1223    ) -> str:
1224        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1225            table = expression.this.copy()
1226            table.set("alias", None)
1227            this = self.sql(table)
1228            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1229        else:
1230            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1231            alias = ""
1232        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1233        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1234        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1235        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1236        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1237        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1238        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1239        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1240        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1241        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1242        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1243        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1244        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1245            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1246        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1247        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1248        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1249        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1250
1251    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1252        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1253
1254        if expression.this:
1255            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1256            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1257            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1258            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1259            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1260            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1261
1262        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1263        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1264        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1265        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1266        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1267        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1268
1269    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1270        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1271
1272    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1273        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1274        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1275        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1276        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1277        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1278        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1279        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1280        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1281
1282    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1283        args = self.expressions(expression)
1284        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1285        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1286        values = (
1287            f"({values})"
1288            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1289            else values
1290        )
1291        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1292
1293    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1294        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1295
1296    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1297        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1298        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1299        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1300
1301    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1302        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1303
1304    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1305        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1306
1307        if expression.args.get("all"):
1308            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1309
1310        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1311        grouping_sets = (
1312            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1313        )
1314
1315        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1316        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1317            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1318        else:
1319            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1320            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1321
1322        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1323        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1324            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1325        else:
1326            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1327            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1328
1329        groupings = csv(
1330            grouping_sets,
1331            cube_sql,
1332            rollup_sql,
1333            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1334            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1335        )
1336
1337        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1338            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1339
1340        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1341
1342    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1343        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1344        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1345
1346    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1347        op_sql = " ".join(
1348            op
1349            for op in (
1350                expression.method,
1351                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1352                expression.side,
1353                expression.kind,
1354                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1355            )
1356            if op
1357        )
1358        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1359        using = expression.args.get("using")
1360
1361        if not on_sql and using:
1362            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1363
1364        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1365
1366        if on_sql:
1367            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1368            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1369            if using:
1370                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1371            else:
1372                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1373        elif not op_sql:
1374            return f", {this_sql}"
1375
1376        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1377        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1378
1379    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1380        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1381        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1382        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1383
1384    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1385        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1386
1387        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1388            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1389
1390        if expression.args.get("view"):
1391            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1392            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1393            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1394            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1395            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1396            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1397
1398        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1399        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1400        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1401
1402    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1403        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1404        args = ", ".join(
1405            sql
1406            for sql in (
1407                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1408                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1409            )
1410            if sql
1411        )
1412        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1413
1414    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1415        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1416        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1417
1418    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1419        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1420        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1421        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1422        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1423        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1424        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1425        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1426        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1427
1428    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1429        expressions = (
1430            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1431        )
1432        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1433        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1434
1435    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1436        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1437
1438    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1439        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1440            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1441            return ""
1442
1443        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1444        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1445        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1446        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1447
1448        if wait is not None:
1449            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1450                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1451            else:
1452                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1453
1454        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1455
1456    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1457        text = expression.this or ""
1458        if expression.is_string:
1459            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1460        return text
1461
1462    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1463        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1464        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1465            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1466        elif self.pretty:
1467            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1468        return text
1469
1470    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1471        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1472        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1473        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1474        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1475        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1476        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1477        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1478        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1479        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1480        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1481        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1482
1483    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1484        return "NULL"
1485
1486    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1487        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1488
1489    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1490        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1491        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1492        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1493
1494    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1495        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1496
1497    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1498        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1499
1500    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1501        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1502
1503    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1504        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1505        asc = not desc
1506
1507        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1508        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1509        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1510        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1511        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1512
1513        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1514        nulls_sort_change = ""
1515        if nulls_first and (
1516            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1517        ):
1518            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1519        elif (
1520            nulls_last
1521            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1522            and not nulls_are_last
1523        ):
1524            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1525
1526        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1527            self.unsupported(
1528                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1529            )
1530            nulls_sort_change = ""
1531
1532        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1533
1534    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1535        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1536        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1537        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1538        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1539        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1540        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1541        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1542        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1543        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1544        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1545        definition_sqls = [
1546            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1547            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1548        ]
1549        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1550        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1551        body = "".join(
1552            (
1553                partition,
1554                order,
1555                measures,
1556                rows,
1557                after,
1558                pattern,
1559                define,
1560            )
1561        )
1562        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1563        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1564        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1565
1566    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1567        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1568
1569        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1570        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1571
1572        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1573            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1574        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1575            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1576
1577        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1578
1579        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1580            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1581            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1582            else []
1583        )
1584
1585        return csv(
1586            *sqls,
1587            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1588            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1589            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1590            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1591            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1592            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1593            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1594            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1595            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1596            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1597            sep="",
1598        )
1599
1600    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1601        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1602    ) -> t.List[str]:
1603        return [
1604            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1605            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1606        ]
1607
1608    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1609        return [
1610            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1611            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1612            if expression.args.get("windows")
1613            else "",
1614            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1615            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1616            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1617        ]
1618
1619    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1620        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1621        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1622        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1623
1624    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1625        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1626        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1627        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1628        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1629        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1630        top = (
1631            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1632            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1633            else ""
1634        )
1635
1636        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1637
1638        if kind:
1639            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1640                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1641            else:
1642                if kind == "STRUCT":
1643                    expressions = self.expressions(
1644                        sqls=[
1645                            self.sql(
1646                                exp.Struct(
1647                                    expressions=[
1648                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1649                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1650                                        )
1651                                        for e in expression.expressions
1652                                    ]
1653                                )
1654                            )
1655                        ]
1656                    )
1657                kind = ""
1658
1659        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1660        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1661            expression,
1662            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1663            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1664            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1665        )
1666        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1667
1668    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1669        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1670        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1671        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1672        return f"{this}{sql}"
1673
1674    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1675        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1676
1677    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1678        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1679        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1680        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1681        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1682        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1683
1684    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1685        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1686        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1687        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1688
1689    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1690        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1691        kind = expression.text("kind")
1692        if kind:
1693            kind = f"{kind}."
1694        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1695
1696    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1697        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1698
1699    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1700        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1701        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1702
1703        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1704        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1705
1706        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1707        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1708
1709    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1710        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1711        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1712
1713    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1714        return self.prepend_ctes(
1715            expression,
1716            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1717        )
1718
1719    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1720        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1721        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1722        return f"UNION{kind}"
1723
1724    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1725        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1726        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1727        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1728            columns = alias.columns
1729            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1730        else:
1731            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1732        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1733        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1734        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1735        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1736        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1737
1738    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1739        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1740        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1741
1742    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1743        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1744        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1745        order = expression.args.get("order")
1746        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1747        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1748        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1749        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1750
1751        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1752
1753        first = expression.args.get("first")
1754        if first is None:
1755            first = ""
1756        else:
1757            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1758
1759        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1760            return f"{this} {alias}"
1761
1762        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1763        return f"{this} ({args})"
1764
1765    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1766        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1767        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1768
1769    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1770        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1771        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1772        end = (
1773            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1774            or "CURRENT ROW"
1775        )
1776        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1777
1778    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1780        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1781        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1782
1783    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1784        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1785        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1786        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1787        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1788
1789    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1790        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1791        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1792
1793        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1794
1795    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1796        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1797
1798    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1799        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1800
1801    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1802        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1803        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1804            this = self.wrap(this)
1805        return f"ANY {this}"
1806
1807    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1808        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1809
1810    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1811        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1812        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1813
1814        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1815            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1816            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1817
1818        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1819
1820        if default:
1821            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1822
1823        statements.append("END")
1824
1825        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1826            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1827
1828        return " ".join(statements)
1829
1830    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1831        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1832        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1833        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1834
1835    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1836        order = expression.args.get("order")
1837        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1838        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1839
1840    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1841        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1842        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1843        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1844
1845    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1846        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1847
1848        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1849            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1850        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1851            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1852        else:
1853            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1854
1855    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1856        expressions = expression.expressions
1857        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1858            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1859        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1860
1861    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1862        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1863        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1864
1865    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1866        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1867        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1868        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1869        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1870        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1871        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1872        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1873        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1874
1875    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1876        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1877        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1878        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1879        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1880
1881    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1882        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1883
1884    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1885        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1886        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1887        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1888
1889    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1890        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1891
1892    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1893        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1894        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1895        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1896        if unique_keys is not None:
1897            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1898        else:
1899            unique_keys = ""
1900        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1901        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1902        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1903        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1904        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1905        return self.func(
1906            "JSON_OBJECT",
1907            *expression.expressions,
1908            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1909        )
1910
1911    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1912        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1913        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1914        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1915        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1916        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1917        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1918
1919    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1921        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1922        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1923        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1924        with_ = (
1925            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1926            if expressions
1927            else ""
1928        )
1929        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1930
1931    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1932        query = expression.args.get("query")
1933        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1934        field = expression.args.get("field")
1935        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1936
1937        if query:
1938            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1939        elif unnest:
1940            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1941        elif field:
1942            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1943        else:
1944            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1945
1946        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1947
1948    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1949        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1950
1951    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1952        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1953        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1954            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1955        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1956
1957        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1958            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1959            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1960
1961        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1962        if this:
1963            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1964            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1965
1966        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1967
1968    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1969        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1970
1971    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1972        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1973        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1974        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1975        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1976        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1977        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1978
1979    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1980        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1981
1982    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1983        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1984            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1985        else:
1986            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1987            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1988
1989        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1990
1991    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1992        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1993        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1994        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1995        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1996
1997    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1998        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1999
2000    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2001        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2002        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2003        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2004
2005    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2006        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2007
2008    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2009        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2010        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2011        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2012
2013    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2014        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2015
2016    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2017        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2018
2019    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2020        if not self.pretty:
2021            return self.binary(expression, op)
2022
2023        sqls = tuple(
2024            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2025            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2026        )
2027
2028        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2029        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2030
2031    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2032        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2033
2034    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2035        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2036
2037    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2038        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2039
2040    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2041        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2042
2043    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2044        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2045
2046    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2047        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2048
2049    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2050        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2051        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2052        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2053
2054    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2055        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2056        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2057
2058    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2059        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2060
2061    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2062        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2063
2064    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2065        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2066        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2067        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2068        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2069        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2070
2071    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2072        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2073        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2074        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2075        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2076        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2077        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2078        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2079        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2080        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2081
2082    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2083        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2084        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2085        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2086        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2087
2088        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2089            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2090
2091        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2092
2093    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2094        return "BEGIN"
2095
2096    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2097        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2098        if chain is not None:
2099            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2100
2101        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2102
2103    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2104        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2105        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2106        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2107
2108    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2109        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2110
2111        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2112        if dtype:
2113            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2114            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2115            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2116            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2117            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2118
2119        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2120        if default:
2121            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2122
2123        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2124            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2125
2126        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2127
2128    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2129        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2130            # Remove db from tables
2131            expression = expression.transform(
2132                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2133            )
2134        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2135        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2136
2137    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2138        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2139
2140        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2141            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2142        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2143            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2144        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2145            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2146        else:
2147            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2148
2149        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2150        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2151
2152    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2153        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2154        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2155        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2156
2157    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2158        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2159        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2160        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2161
2162        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2163        if enforced is not None:
2164            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2165
2166        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2167
2168    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2169        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2170        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2171
2172        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2173        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2174        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2175
2176    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2177        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2178
2179    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2180        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2181
2182    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2183        return self.sql(
2184            exp.Cast(
2185                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2186                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2187            )
2188        )
2189
2190    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2191        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2192
2193    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2194        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2195            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2196        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2197
2198    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2199        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2200
2201    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2202        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2203
2204    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2205        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2206
2207    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2208        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2209
2210    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2211        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2212
2213    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2214        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2215
2216    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2217        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2218
2219    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2220        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2221
2222    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2223        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2224
2225    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2226        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2227
2228    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2229        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2230
2231    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2232        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2233            return self.sql(
2234                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2235            )
2236        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2237
2238    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2239        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2240
2241    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2242        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2243
2244    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2245        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2246
2247    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2248        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2249
2250    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2251        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2252
2253    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2254        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2255
2256    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2257        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2258
2259    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2260        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2261
2262    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2263        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2264
2265    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2266        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2267
2268    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2269        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2270
2271    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2272        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2273
2274    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2275        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2276
2277    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2278        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2279
2280    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2281        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2282        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2283        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2284        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2285        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2286
2287    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2288        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2289        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2290
2291    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2292        args = []
2293        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2294            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2295                for value in arg_value:
2296                    args.append(value)
2297            else:
2298                args.append(arg_value)
2299
2300        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2301
2302    def func(
2303        self,
2304        name: str,
2305        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2306        prefix: str = "(",
2307        suffix: str = ")",
2308    ) -> str:
2309        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2310
2311    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2312        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2313        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2314            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2315        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2316
2317    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2318        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2319
2320    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2321        return format_time(
2322            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2323        )
2324
2325    def expressions(
2326        self,
2327        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2328        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2329        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2330        flat: bool = False,
2331        indent: bool = True,
2332        skip_first: bool = False,
2333        sep: str = ", ",
2334        prefix: str = "",
2335    ) -> str:
2336        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2337
2338        if not expressions:
2339            return ""
2340
2341        if flat:
2342            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2343
2344        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2345
2346        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2347        pad = " " * self.pad
2348        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2349
2350        result_sqls = []
2351        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2352            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2353            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2354
2355            if self.pretty:
2356                if self.leading_comma:
2357                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2358                else:
2359                    result_sqls.append(
2360                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2361                    )
2362            else:
2363                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2364
2365        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2366        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2367
2368    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2369        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2370        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2371        if flat:
2372            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2373        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2374
2375    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2376        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2377        if not property_name:
2378            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2379        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2380
2381    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2383        op = self.seg(op)
2384        return self.query_modifiers(
2385            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2386        )
2387
2388    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2389        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2390
2391    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2392        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2393
2394    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2395        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2396        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2397        expressions = (
2398            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2399        )
2400        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2401
2402    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2403        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2404        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2405        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2406
2407    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2408        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2409
2410    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2411        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2412        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2413        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2414        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2415
2416        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2417        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2418            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2419            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2420                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2421        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2422            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2423                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2424            else:
2425                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2426        else:
2427            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2428        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2429
2430    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2431        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2432        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2433        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2434        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2435
2436    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2437        if expression.args.get("format"):
2438            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2439
2440        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2441
2442    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2444        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2445        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2446        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2447        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2448
2449    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2450        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2451        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2452        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2453        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2454
2455    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2456        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2457
2458    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2459        return ""
2460
2461    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2462        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2463        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2464        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2465        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2466        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2467
2468    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2469        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2470        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2471
2472        if having:
2473            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2474
2475        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
322    def __init__(
323        self,
324        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
325        identify: str | bool = False,
326        normalize: bool = False,
327        pad: int = 2,
328        indent: int = 2,
329        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
330        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
331        max_unsupported: int = 3,
332        leading_comma: bool = False,
333        max_text_width: int = 80,
334        comments: bool = True,
335    ):
336        import sqlglot
337
338        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
339        self.identify = identify
340        self.normalize = normalize
341        self.pad = pad
342        self._indent = indent
343        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
344        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
345        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
346        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
347        self.comments = comments
348
349        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
350        self.normalize_functions = (
351            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
352        )
353
354        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
355        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
356        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
357        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Select'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.From'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Where'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.With'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
246    @classmethod
247    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
248        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
249
250        Args:
251            text: The text to check.
252            identify:
253                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
254                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
255
256        Returns:
257            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
258        """
259        if identify is True or identify == "always":
260            return True
261
262        if identify == "safe":
263            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
264
265        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
359    def generate(
360        self,
361        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
362        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
363    ) -> str:
364        """
365        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
366
367        Args:
368            expression: The syntax tree.
369            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
370                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
371
372        Returns:
373            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
374        """
375        if cache is not None:
376            self._cache = cache
377
378        self.unsupported_messages = []
379        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
380        self._cache = None
381
382        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
383            return sql
384
385        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
386            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
387                logger.warning(msg)
388        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
389            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
390
391        if self.pretty:
392            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
393        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
395    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
396        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
397            raise UnsupportedError(message)
398        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
400    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
401        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
403    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
404        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
406    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
407        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
408        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
409        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
411    def maybe_comment(
412        self,
413        sql: str,
414        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
415        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
416    ) -> str:
417        comments = (
418            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
419            if self.comments
420            else None
421        )
422
423        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
424            return sql
425
426        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
427        comments_sql = sep.join(
428            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
429        )
430
431        if not comments_sql:
432            return sql
433
434        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
435            return (
436                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
437                if sql[0].isspace()
438                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
439            )
440
441        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
443    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
444        this_sql = self.indent(
445            self.sql(expression)
446            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
447            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
448            level=1,
449            pad=0,
450        )
451        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
453    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
454        original = self.identify
455        self.identify = False
456        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
457        self.identify = original
458        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
460    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
461        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
462            return name.upper()
463        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
464            return name.lower()
465        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
467    def indent(
468        self,
469        sql: str,
470        level: int = 0,
471        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
472        skip_first: bool = False,
473        skip_last: bool = False,
474    ) -> str:
475        if not self.pretty:
476            return sql
477
478        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
479        lines = sql.split("\n")
480
481        return "\n".join(
482            line
483            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
484            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
485            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
486        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
488    def sql(
489        self,
490        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
491        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
492        comment: bool = True,
493    ) -> str:
494        if not expression:
495            return ""
496
497        if isinstance(expression, str):
498            return expression
499
500        if key:
501            value = expression.args.get(key)
502            if value:
503                return self.sql(value)
504            return ""
505
506        if self._cache is not None:
507            expression_id = hash(expression)
508
509            if expression_id in self._cache:
510                return self._cache[expression_id]
511
512        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
513
514        if callable(transform):
515            sql = transform(self, expression)
516        elif transform:
517            sql = transform
518        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
519            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
520
521            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
522                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
523            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
524                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
525            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
526                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
527            else:
528                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
529        else:
530            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
531
532        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
533
534        if self._cache is not None:
535            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
536        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
538    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
539        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
540        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
541        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
543    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
544        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
545        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
546        options = expression.args.get("options")
547        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
548        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
549        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
550        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
551        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
553    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
554        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
555            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
556        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
557        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
559    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
560        return ".".join(
561            self.sql(part)
562            for part in (
563                expression.args.get("catalog"),
564                expression.args.get("db"),
565                expression.args.get("table"),
566                expression.args.get("this"),
567            )
568            if part
569        )
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
571    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
572        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
573        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
574        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
575        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
577    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
578        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
579        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
580        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
581        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
582        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
583        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
584        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
585        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
586
587        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
589    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
590        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
591        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
592        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
594    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
595        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
597    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
598        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
599            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
600        else:
601            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
602
603        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
605    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
606        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
607    ) -> str:
608        this = ""
609        if expression.this is not None:
610            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
611            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
612
613        start = expression.args.get("start")
614        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
615        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
616        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
617        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
618        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
619        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
620        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
621        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
622        cycle_sql = ""
623
624        if cycle is not None:
625            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
626            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
627
628        sequence_opts = ""
629        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
630            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
631            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
632
633        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
634        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
635
636        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
638    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
639        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
641    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
642        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
643        if desc is not None:
644            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
645        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
647    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
648        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
649        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
650        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]) -> str:
652    def createable_sql(
653        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
654    ) -> str:
655        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
657    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
658        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
659        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
660        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
661
662        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
663
664        properties_sql = ""
665        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
666            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
667        ):
668            properties_sql = self.sql(
669                exp.Properties(
670                    expressions=[
671                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
672                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
673                    ]
674                )
675            )
676
677        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
678        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
679        if expression_sql:
680            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
681
682            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
683                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
684                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
685                        exp.Properties(
686                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
687                        ),
688                        wrapped=False,
689                    )
690                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
691                else:
692                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
693
694        postindex_props_sql = ""
695        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
696            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
697                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
698                wrapped=False,
699                prefix=" ",
700            )
701
702        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
703        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
704        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
705
706        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
707        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
708
709        postcreate_props_sql = ""
710        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
711            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
712                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
713                sep=" ",
714                prefix=" ",
715                wrapped=False,
716            )
717
718        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
719
720        postexpression_props_sql = ""
721        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
722            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
723                exp.Properties(
724                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
725                ),
726                sep=" ",
727                prefix=" ",
728                wrapped=False,
729            )
730
731        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
732        no_schema_binding = (
733            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
734        )
735
736        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
737        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
738
739        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
740        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
742    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
743        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
744        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
745
746        if when:
747            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
748            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
749            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
750
751        return f"CLONE {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
753    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
754        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
756    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
757        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
758        if with_:
759            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
760        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
762    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
763        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
764        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
765
766        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
768    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
769        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
770        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
772    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
773        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
774        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
775        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
776        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
778    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
780        if self.BIT_START:
781            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
782        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
784    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
786        if self.HEX_START:
787            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
788        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
790    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
791        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
792        if self.BYTE_START:
793            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
794        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
796    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
797        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
798        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeSize) -> str:
800    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
802        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
803        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
804        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
806    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
807        type_value = expression.this
808        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
809        nested = ""
810        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
811        values = ""
812        if interior:
813            if expression.args.get("nested"):
814                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
815                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
816                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
817                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
818                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
819            else:
820                nested = f"({interior})"
821
822        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
824    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
825        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
826        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
827        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
828        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
830    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
831        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
832        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
833        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
834        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
835        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
836        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
837        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
838        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
839        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
840        sql = f"DELETE{tables}{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
841        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
843    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
844        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
845        kind = expression.args["kind"]
846        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
847        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
848        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
849        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
850        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
851        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
852        return (
853            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
854        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
856    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
857        return self.prepend_ctes(
858            expression,
859            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
860        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
862    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
863        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
865    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
866        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
867        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
868        count = expression.args.get("count")
869        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
870        if expression.args.get("percent"):
871            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
872        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
873        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
875    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
877        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
878        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
880    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
881        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
882            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
883            return ""
884
885        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
887    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
888        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
889        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
890        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
891        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
892        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
893        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
894        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
895        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
896        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
897        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
898        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
899        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
900        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
901        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
903    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
904        text = expression.name
905        lower = text.lower()
906        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
907        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
908        if (
909            expression.quoted
910            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
911            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
912            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
913        ):
914            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
915        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
917    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
918        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
919        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
920        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
921        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
922        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
924    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
925        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
926        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
928    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
929        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
931    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
932        root_properties = []
933        with_properties = []
934
935        for p in expression.expressions:
936            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
937            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
938                with_properties.append(p)
939            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
940                root_properties.append(p)
941
942        return self.root_properties(
943            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
944        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
946    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
947        if properties.expressions:
948            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
949        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
951    def properties(
952        self,
953        properties: exp.Properties,
954        prefix: str = "",
955        sep: str = ", ",
956        suffix: str = "",
957        wrapped: bool = True,
958    ) -> str:
959        if properties.expressions:
960            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
961            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
962            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
963        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
965    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
966        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> Dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]:
968    def locate_properties(
969        self, properties: exp.Properties
970    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
971        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
972            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
973        }
974
975        for p in properties.expressions:
976            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
977            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
978                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
979            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
980                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
981            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
982                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
983            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
984                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
985            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
986                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
987            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
988                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
989            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
990                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
991            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
992                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
993
994        return properties_locs
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
 996    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 997        property_cls = expression.__class__
 998        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 999            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1000
1001        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1002        if not property_name:
1003            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1004
1005        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1007    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1008        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1009        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1010        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1012    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1013        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1014        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1015        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1017    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1018        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1019        local = expression.args.get("local")
1020        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1021        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1022        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1023        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1024        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1026    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1027        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1028        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1029        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1031    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1032        if expression.args.get("default"):
1033            property = "DEFAULT"
1034        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1035            property = "ON"
1036        else:
1037            property = "OFF"
1038        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1040    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1041        if expression.args.get("no"):
1042            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1043        if expression.args.get("default"):
1044            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1045
1046        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1047        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1049    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1050        default = expression.args.get("default")
1051        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1052        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1053        if default or minimum or maximum:
1054            if default:
1055                prop = "DEFAULT"
1056            elif minimum:
1057                prop = "MINIMUM"
1058            else:
1059                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1060            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1061        units = expression.args.get("units")
1062        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1063        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1065    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1066        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1067        always = expression.args.get("always")
1068        default = expression.args.get("default")
1069        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1070        never = expression.args.get("never")
1071
1072        if autotemp is not None:
1073            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1074        elif always:
1075            prop = "ALWAYS"
1076        elif default:
1077            prop = "DEFAULT"
1078        elif manual:
1079            prop = "MANUAL"
1080        elif never:
1081            prop = "NEVER"
1082        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1084    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1085        no = expression.args.get("no")
1086        no = " NO" if no else ""
1087        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1088        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1089
1090        for_ = ""
1091        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1092            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1093        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1094            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1095        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1096            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1097        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1099    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1100        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1101        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1102        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1103        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1104        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1105        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1107    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1108        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1109        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1110        statistics_sql = ""
1111        if statistics is not None:
1112            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1113        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1115    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1116        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1117
1118        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1119            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1120        else:
1121            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1122
1123        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1124        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1125        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1126
1127        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1128
1129        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1130        partition_sql = (
1131            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1132        )
1133        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1134        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1135        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1136        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1137        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1138        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1139        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1141    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1142        return self.prepend_ctes(
1143            expression,
1144            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1145        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1147    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1148        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1150    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1151        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1153    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1154        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1156    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1157        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1158        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1159        if constraint:
1160            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1161        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1162        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1163        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1164        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1165        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1166        if expressions:
1167            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1168        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1170    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1171        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1173    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1174        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1175        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1176        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1177        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1178        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1179        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1180        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1181        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1182        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1183        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1184        null = expression.args.get("null")
1185        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1186        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1188    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1189        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1191    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1192        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1193        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1194        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1195        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1197    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1198        table = ".".join(
1199            part
1200            for part in [
1201                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1202                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1203                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1204            ]
1205            if part
1206        )
1207
1208        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1209        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1210        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1211        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1212        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1213        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1214        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1215        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1216        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1217        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1218
1219        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1221    def tablesample_sql(
1222        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1223    ) -> str:
1224        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1225            table = expression.this.copy()
1226            table.set("alias", None)
1227            this = self.sql(table)
1228            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1229        else:
1230            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1231            alias = ""
1232        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1233        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1234        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1235        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1236        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1237        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1238        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1239        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1240        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1241        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1242        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1243        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1244        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1245            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1246        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1247        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1248        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1249        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1251    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1252        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1253
1254        if expression.this:
1255            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1256            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1257            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1258            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1259            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1260            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1261
1262        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1263        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1264        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1265        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1266        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1267        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1269    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1270        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1272    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1273        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1274        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1275        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1276        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1277        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1278        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1279        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1280        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1282    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1283        args = self.expressions(expression)
1284        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1285        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1286        values = (
1287            f"({values})"
1288            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1289            else values
1290        )
1291        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1293    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1294        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1296    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1297        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1298        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1299        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1301    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1302        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1304    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1305        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1306
1307        if expression.args.get("all"):
1308            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1309
1310        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1311        grouping_sets = (
1312            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1313        )
1314
1315        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1316        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1317            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1318        else:
1319            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1320            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1321
1322        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1323        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1324            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1325        else:
1326            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1327            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1328
1329        groupings = csv(
1330            grouping_sets,
1331            cube_sql,
1332            rollup_sql,
1333            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1334            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1335        )
1336
1337        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1338            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1339
1340        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1342    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1343        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1344        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1346    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1347        op_sql = " ".join(
1348            op
1349            for op in (
1350                expression.method,
1351                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1352                expression.side,
1353                expression.kind,
1354                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1355            )
1356            if op
1357        )
1358        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1359        using = expression.args.get("using")
1360
1361        if not on_sql and using:
1362            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1363
1364        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1365
1366        if on_sql:
1367            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1368            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1369            if using:
1370                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1371            else:
1372                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1373        elif not op_sql:
1374            return f", {this_sql}"
1375
1376        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1377        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1379    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1380        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1381        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1382        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1384    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1385        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1386
1387        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1388            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1389
1390        if expression.args.get("view"):
1391            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1392            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1393            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1394            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1395            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1396            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1397
1398        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1399        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1400        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1402    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1403        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1404        args = ", ".join(
1405            sql
1406            for sql in (
1407                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1408                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1409            )
1410            if sql
1411        )
1412        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1414    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1415        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1416        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1418    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1419        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1420        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1421        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1422        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1423        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1424        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1425        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1426        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1428    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1429        expressions = (
1430            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1431        )
1432        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1433        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1435    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1436        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1438    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1439        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1440            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1441            return ""
1442
1443        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1444        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1445        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1446        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1447
1448        if wait is not None:
1449            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1450                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1451            else:
1452                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1453
1454        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1456    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1457        text = expression.this or ""
1458        if expression.is_string:
1459            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1460        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1462    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1463        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1464        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1465            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1466        elif self.pretty:
1467            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1468        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1470    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1471        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1472        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1473        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1474        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1475        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1476        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1477        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1478        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1479        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1480        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1481        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1483    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1484        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1486    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1487        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1489    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1490        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1491        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1492        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1494    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1495        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1497    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1498        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1500    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1501        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1503    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1504        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1505        asc = not desc
1506
1507        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1508        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1509        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1510        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1511        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1512
1513        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1514        nulls_sort_change = ""
1515        if nulls_first and (
1516            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1517        ):
1518            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1519        elif (
1520            nulls_last
1521            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1522            and not nulls_are_last
1523        ):
1524            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1525
1526        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1527            self.unsupported(
1528                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1529            )
1530            nulls_sort_change = ""
1531
1532        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1534    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1535        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1536        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1537        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1538        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1539        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1540        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1541        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1542        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1543        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1544        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1545        definition_sqls = [
1546            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1547            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1548        ]
1549        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1550        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1551        body = "".join(
1552            (
1553                partition,
1554                order,
1555                measures,
1556                rows,
1557                after,
1558                pattern,
1559                define,
1560            )
1561        )
1562        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1563        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1564        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1566    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1567        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1568
1569        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1570        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1571
1572        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1573            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1574        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1575            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1576
1577        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1578
1579        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1580            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1581            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1582            else []
1583        )
1584
1585        return csv(
1586            *sqls,
1587            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1588            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1589            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1590            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1591            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1592            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1593            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1594            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1595            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1596            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1597            sep="",
1598        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1600    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1601        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1602    ) -> t.List[str]:
1603        return [
1604            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1605            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1606        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1608    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1609        return [
1610            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1611            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1612            if expression.args.get("windows")
1613            else "",
1614            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1615            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1616            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1617        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1619    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1620        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1621        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1622        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1624    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1625        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1626        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1627        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1628        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1629        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1630        top = (
1631            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1632            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1633            else ""
1634        )
1635
1636        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1637
1638        if kind:
1639            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1640                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1641            else:
1642                if kind == "STRUCT":
1643                    expressions = self.expressions(
1644                        sqls=[
1645                            self.sql(
1646                                exp.Struct(
1647                                    expressions=[
1648                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1649                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1650                                        )
1651                                        for e in expression.expressions
1652                                    ]
1653                                )
1654                            )
1655                        ]
1656                    )
1657                kind = ""
1658
1659        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1660        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1661            expression,
1662            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1663            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1664            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1665        )
1666        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1668    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1669        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1670        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1671        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1672        return f"{this}{sql}"
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1674    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1675        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1677    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1678        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1679        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1680        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1681        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1682        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1684    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1685        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1686        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1687        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1689    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1690        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1691        kind = expression.text("kind")
1692        if kind:
1693            kind = f"{kind}."
1694        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1696    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1697        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1699    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1700        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1701        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1702
1703        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1704        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1705
1706        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1707        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1709    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1710        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1711        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1713    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1714        return self.prepend_ctes(
1715            expression,
1716            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1717        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1719    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1720        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1721        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1722        return f"UNION{kind}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1724    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1725        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1726        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1727        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1728            columns = alias.columns
1729            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1730        else:
1731            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1732        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1733        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1734        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1735        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1736        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1738    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1739        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1740        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1742    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1743        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1744        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1745        order = expression.args.get("order")
1746        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1747        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1748        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1749        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1750
1751        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1752
1753        first = expression.args.get("first")
1754        if first is None:
1755            first = ""
1756        else:
1757            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1758
1759        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1760            return f"{this} {alias}"
1761
1762        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1763        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1765    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1766        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1767        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1769    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1770        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1771        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1772        end = (
1773            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1774            or "CURRENT ROW"
1775        )
1776        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
1778    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1780        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1781        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
1783    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1784        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1785        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1786        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1787        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
1789    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1790        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1791        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1792
1793        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
1795    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1796        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
1798    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1799        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
1801    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1802        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1803        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1804            this = self.wrap(this)
1805        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
1807    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1808        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
1810    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1811        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1812        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1813
1814        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1815            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1816            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1817
1818        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1819
1820        if default:
1821            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1822
1823        statements.append("END")
1824
1825        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1826            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1827
1828        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
1830    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1831        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1832        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1833        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
1835    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1836        order = expression.args.get("order")
1837        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1838        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
1840    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1841        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1842        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1843        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
1845    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1846        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1847
1848        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1849            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1850        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1851            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1852        else:
1853            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
1855    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1856        expressions = expression.expressions
1857        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1858            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1859        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
1861    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1862        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1863        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1865    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1866        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1867        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1868        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1869        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1870        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1871        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1872        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1873        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1875    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1876        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1877        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1878        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1879        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
1881    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1882        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1884    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1885        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1886        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1887        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1889    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1890        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
1892    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1893        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1894        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1895        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1896        if unique_keys is not None:
1897            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1898        else:
1899            unique_keys = ""
1900        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1901        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1902        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1903        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1904        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1905        return self.func(
1906            "JSON_OBJECT",
1907            *expression.expressions,
1908            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1909        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1911    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1912        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1913        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1914        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1915        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1916        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1917        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
1919    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1921        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1922        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1923        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1924        with_ = (
1925            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1926            if expressions
1927            else ""
1928        )
1929        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
1931    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1932        query = expression.args.get("query")
1933        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1934        field = expression.args.get("field")
1935        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1936
1937        if query:
1938            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1939        elif unnest:
1940            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1941        elif field:
1942            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1943        else:
1944            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1945
1946        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1948    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1949        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
1951    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1952        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1953        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1954            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1955        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1956
1957        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1958            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1959            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1960
1961        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1962        if this:
1963            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1964            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1965
1966        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
1968    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1969        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
1971    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1972        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1973        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1974        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1975        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1976        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1977        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
1979    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1980        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
1982    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1983        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1984            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1985        else:
1986            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1987            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1988
1989        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
1991    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1992        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1993        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1994        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1995        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
1997    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1998        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2000    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2001        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2002        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2003        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2005    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2006        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2008    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2009        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2010        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2011        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2013    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2014        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2016    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2017        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2019    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2020        if not self.pretty:
2021            return self.binary(expression, op)
2022
2023        sqls = tuple(
2024            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2025            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2026        )
2027
2028        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2029        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2031    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2032        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2034    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2035        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2037    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2038        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2040    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2041        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2043    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2044        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2046    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2047        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2049    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2050        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2051        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2052        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2054    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2055        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2056        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2058    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2059        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2061    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2062        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2064    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2065        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2066        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2067        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2068        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2069        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2071    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2072        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2073        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2074        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2075        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2076        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2077        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2078        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2079        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2080        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2082    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2083        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2084        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2085        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2086        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2087
2088        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2089            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2090
2091        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2093    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2094        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2096    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2097        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2098        if chain is not None:
2099            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2100
2101        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2103    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2104        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2105        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2106        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2108    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2109        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2110
2111        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2112        if dtype:
2113            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2114            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2115            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2116            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2117            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2118
2119        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2120        if default:
2121            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2122
2123        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2124            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2125
2126        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2128    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2129        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2130            # Remove db from tables
2131            expression = expression.transform(
2132                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2133            )
2134        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2135        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2137    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2138        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2139
2140        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2141            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2142        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2143            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2144        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2145            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2146        else:
2147            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2148
2149        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2150        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2152    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2153        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2154        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2155        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2157    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2158        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2159        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2160        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2161
2162        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2163        if enforced is not None:
2164            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2165
2166        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2168    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2169        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2170        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2171
2172        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2173        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2174        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2176    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2177        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2179    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2180        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2182    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2183        return self.sql(
2184            exp.Cast(
2185                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2186                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2187            )
2188        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2190    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2191        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2193    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2194        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2195            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2196        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2198    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2199        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2201    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2202        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2204    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2205        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2207    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2208        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2210    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2211        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2213    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2214        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2216    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2217        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2219    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2220        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2222    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2223        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2225    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2226        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2228    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2229        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2231    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2232        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2233            return self.sql(
2234                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2235            )
2236        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2238    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2239        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2241    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2242        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2244    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2245        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2247    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2248        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2250    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2251        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2253    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2254        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2256    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2257        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2259    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2260        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2262    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2263        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2265    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2266        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2268    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2269        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2271    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2272        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2274    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2275        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2277    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2278        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2280    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2281        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2282        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2283        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2284        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2285        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2287    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2288        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2289        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2291    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2292        args = []
2293        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2294            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2295                for value in arg_value:
2296                    args.append(value)
2297            else:
2298                args.append(arg_value)
2299
2300        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2302    def func(
2303        self,
2304        name: str,
2305        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2306        prefix: str = "(",
2307        suffix: str = ")",
2308    ) -> str:
2309        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2311    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2312        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2313        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2314            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2315        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2317    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2318        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2320    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2321        return format_time(
2322            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2323        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[List[str]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2325    def expressions(
2326        self,
2327        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2328        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2329        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2330        flat: bool = False,
2331        indent: bool = True,
2332        skip_first: bool = False,
2333        sep: str = ", ",
2334        prefix: str = "",
2335    ) -> str:
2336        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2337
2338        if not expressions:
2339            return ""
2340
2341        if flat:
2342            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2343
2344        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2345
2346        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2347        pad = " " * self.pad
2348        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2349
2350        result_sqls = []
2351        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2352            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2353            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2354
2355            if self.pretty:
2356                if self.leading_comma:
2357                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2358                else:
2359                    result_sqls.append(
2360                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2361                    )
2362            else:
2363                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2364
2365        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2366        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2368    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2369        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2370        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2371        if flat:
2372            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2373        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2375    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2376        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2377        if not property_name:
2378            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2379        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2381    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2383        op = self.seg(op)
2384        return self.query_modifiers(
2385            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2386        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2388    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2389        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2391    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2392        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2394    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2395        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2396        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2397        expressions = (
2398            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2399        )
2400        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2402    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2403        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2404        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2405        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2407    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2408        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2410    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2411        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2412        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2413        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2414        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2415
2416        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2417        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2418            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2419            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2420                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2421        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2422            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2423                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2424            else:
2425                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2426        else:
2427            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2428        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2430    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2431        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2432        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2433        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2434        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2436    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2437        if expression.args.get("format"):
2438            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2439
2440        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2442    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2444        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2445        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2446        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2447        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2449    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2450        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2451        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2452        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2453        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2455    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2456        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2458    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2459        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2461    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2462        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2463        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2464        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2465        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2466        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2468    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2469        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2470        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2471
2472        if having:
2473            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2474
2475        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2478def cached_generator(
2479    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2480) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2481    """Returns a cached generator."""
2482    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2483    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2484    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.