sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.AnalyzeColumns: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 118        exp.AnalyzeWith: lambda self, e: self.expressions(e, prefix="WITH ", sep=" "),
 119        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 120        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 121        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 124        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 125        exp.Ceil: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 126        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 128        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 130        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 131        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 135        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 136        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 138        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 139        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 140        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 141        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 142        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 143        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 144        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 145        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 146        exp.Floor: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 147        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 148        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 149        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 150        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 151        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 152        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 153        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 154        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 155        exp.Int64: lambda self, e: self.sql(exp.cast(e.this, exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT)),
 156        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 157        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 158        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 159        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 160        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 161        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 162        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 163        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 164        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 165        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 166        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 168        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 169        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 170        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 171        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 172        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 173        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 174        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 175        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 176        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 177            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 178        ),
 179        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 180        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 181        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 182        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 183        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 184        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 185        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 186        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 187        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 188        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 189        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 190        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 191        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 192        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 193        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 194        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 195        exp.Tags: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 196        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 197        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 198        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 199        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 200        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 201        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 202        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 203        exp.UsingData: lambda self, e: f"USING DATA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 205        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 206        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 207        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 208        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 209        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 210        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 211        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 212        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 213    }
 214
 215    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 216    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 217    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 218    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 219
 220    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 221    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 222    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 223
 224    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 225    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 226
 227    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 228    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 229
 230    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 231    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 232
 233    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 234    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 235
 236    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 237    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 238
 239    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 240    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 241
 242    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 243    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 244
 245    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 246    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 247
 248    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 249    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 250
 251    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 252    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 253
 254    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 255    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 256
 257    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 258    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 259
 260    # Whether join hints should be generated
 261    JOIN_HINTS = True
 262
 263    # Whether table hints should be generated
 264    TABLE_HINTS = True
 265
 266    # Whether query hints should be generated
 267    QUERY_HINTS = True
 268
 269    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 270    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 271
 272    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 273    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 274
 275    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 276    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 277
 278    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 279    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 280
 281    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 282    RETURNING_END = True
 283
 284    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 285    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 286
 287    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 288    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 289
 290    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 291    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 292
 293    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 294    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 295
 296    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 297    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 298    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 299    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 300
 301    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 302    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 303
 304    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 305    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 306
 307    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 308    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 309
 310    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 311    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 312
 313    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 314    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 315
 316    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 317    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 318
 319    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 320    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 321
 322    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 323    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 324
 325    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 326    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 327
 328    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 329    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 330
 331    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 332    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 333
 334    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 335    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 336
 337    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 338    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 339
 340    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 341    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 342
 343    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 344    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 345
 346    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 347    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 348
 349    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 350    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 351
 352    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 353    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 354
 355    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 356    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 357
 358    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 359    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 360
 361    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 362    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 363
 364    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 365    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 366
 367    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 368    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 369
 370    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 371    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 372
 373    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 374    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 375
 376    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 377    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 378    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 379
 380    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 381    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 382
 383    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 384    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 385
 386    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 387    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 388
 389    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 390    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 391
 392    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 393    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 394
 395    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 396    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 397
 398    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 399    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 400    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 401    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 402
 403    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 404    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 405
 406    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 407    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 408
 409    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 410    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 411
 412    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 413    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 414
 415    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 416    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 417
 418    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 419    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 420
 421    # The HEX function name
 422    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 423
 424    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 425    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 426
 427    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 428    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 429
 430    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 431    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 432
 433    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 434    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 435
 436    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 437    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 438
 439    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 440    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 441
 442    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
 443    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
 444
 445    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
 446    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
 447
 448    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 449    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 450
 451    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
 452    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
 453
 454    # The syntax to use when altering the type of a column
 455    ALTER_SET_TYPE = "SET DATA TYPE"
 456
 457    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
 458    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
 459    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
 460    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
 461    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
 462
 463    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 464        exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2: "TIMESTAMP",
 465        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 466        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 467        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 468        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 469        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 470        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 471        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 472        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 473        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 474        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 475        exp.DataType.Type.SMALLDATETIME: "TIMESTAMP",
 476    }
 477
 478    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 479        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 480        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 481        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 482        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 483        "DAYS": "DAY",
 484        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 485        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 486        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 487        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 488    }
 489
 490    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 491        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 492        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 493        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 494        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 495            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 496            if e.args.get("windows")
 497            else ""
 498        ),
 499        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 500    }
 501
 502    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 503
 504    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 505
 506    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 507    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 508
 509    EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: t.Set[str] = set()
 510
 511    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 512        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 513        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 514        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 515        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 517        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 518        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 520        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 524        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 525        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 526        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 527        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 528        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 529        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 530        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 531        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 532        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 533        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 534        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 535        exp.EncodeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 536        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 539        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 540        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 541        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 542        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 543        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 544        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 545        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 546        exp.IncludeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 547        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 548        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 549        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 550        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 551        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 552        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 553        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 554        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 555        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 556        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 557        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 558        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 559        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 560        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 561        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 563        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 564        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 565        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 566        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 567        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 568        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 569        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 570        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 571        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 572        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 573        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 574        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 575        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 576        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 577        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 578        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 579        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 580        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 581        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 582        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 583        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 584        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 585        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 586        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 587        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 588        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 589        exp.Tags: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 590        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 591        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 592        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 593        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 594        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 595        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 596        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 597        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 598        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 599        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 600        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 601        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 602        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 603    }
 604
 605    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 606    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 607
 608    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 609    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 610        exp.Command,
 611        exp.Create,
 612        exp.Describe,
 613        exp.Delete,
 614        exp.Drop,
 615        exp.From,
 616        exp.Insert,
 617        exp.Join,
 618        exp.MultitableInserts,
 619        exp.Select,
 620        exp.SetOperation,
 621        exp.Update,
 622        exp.Where,
 623        exp.With,
 624    )
 625
 626    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 627    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 628        exp.Binary,
 629        exp.SetOperation,
 630    )
 631
 632    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 633    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 634        exp.Column,
 635        exp.Literal,
 636        exp.Neg,
 637        exp.Paren,
 638    )
 639
 640    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 641        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 642        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 643        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 644        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 645    }
 646
 647    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 648    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 649
 650    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 651
 652    __slots__ = (
 653        "pretty",
 654        "identify",
 655        "normalize",
 656        "pad",
 657        "_indent",
 658        "normalize_functions",
 659        "unsupported_level",
 660        "max_unsupported",
 661        "leading_comma",
 662        "max_text_width",
 663        "comments",
 664        "dialect",
 665        "unsupported_messages",
 666        "_escaped_quote_end",
 667        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 668        "_next_name",
 669        "_identifier_start",
 670        "_identifier_end",
 671        "_quote_json_path_key_using_brackets",
 672    )
 673
 674    def __init__(
 675        self,
 676        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 677        identify: str | bool = False,
 678        normalize: bool = False,
 679        pad: int = 2,
 680        indent: int = 2,
 681        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 682        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 683        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 684        leading_comma: bool = False,
 685        max_text_width: int = 80,
 686        comments: bool = True,
 687        dialect: DialectType = None,
 688    ):
 689        import sqlglot
 690        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 691
 692        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 693        self.identify = identify
 694        self.normalize = normalize
 695        self.pad = pad
 696        self._indent = indent
 697        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 698        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 699        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 700        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 701        self.comments = comments
 702        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 703
 704        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 705        self.normalize_functions = (
 706            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 707        )
 708
 709        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 710        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 711            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 712        )
 713        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 714
 715        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 716
 717        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 718        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 719
 720        self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets = True
 721
 722    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 723        """
 724        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 725
 726        Args:
 727            expression: The syntax tree.
 728            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 729                it is safer to copy.
 730
 731        Returns:
 732            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 733        """
 734        if copy:
 735            expression = expression.copy()
 736
 737        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 738
 739        self.unsupported_messages = []
 740        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 741
 742        if self.pretty:
 743            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 744
 745        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 746            return sql
 747
 748        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 749            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 750                logger.warning(msg)
 751        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 752            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 753
 754        return sql
 755
 756    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 757        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 758        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 759
 760        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 761            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 762
 763            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 764
 765        return expression
 766
 767    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 768        if (
 769            not expression.parent
 770            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 771            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 772        ):
 773            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 774
 775            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 776        return expression
 777
 778    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 779        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 780            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 781        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 782
 783    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 784        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 785
 786    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 787        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 788
 789    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 790        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 791        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 792        return comment
 793
 794    def maybe_comment(
 795        self,
 796        sql: str,
 797        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 798        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 799        separated: bool = False,
 800    ) -> str:
 801        comments = (
 802            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 803            if self.comments
 804            else None
 805        )
 806
 807        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 808            return sql
 809
 810        comments_sql = " ".join(
 811            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 812        )
 813
 814        if not comments_sql:
 815            return sql
 816
 817        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 818
 819        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 820            return (
 821                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 822                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 823                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 824            )
 825
 826        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 827
 828    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 829        this_sql = (
 830            self.sql(expression)
 831            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 832            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 833        )
 834        if not this_sql:
 835            return "()"
 836
 837        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 838        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 839
 840    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 841        original = self.identify
 842        self.identify = False
 843        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 844        self.identify = original
 845        return result
 846
 847    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 848        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 849            return name.upper()
 850        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 851            return name.lower()
 852        return name
 853
 854    def indent(
 855        self,
 856        sql: str,
 857        level: int = 0,
 858        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 859        skip_first: bool = False,
 860        skip_last: bool = False,
 861    ) -> str:
 862        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 863            return sql
 864
 865        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 866        lines = sql.split("\n")
 867
 868        return "\n".join(
 869            (
 870                line
 871                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 872                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 873            )
 874            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 875        )
 876
 877    def sql(
 878        self,
 879        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 880        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 881        comment: bool = True,
 882    ) -> str:
 883        if not expression:
 884            return ""
 885
 886        if isinstance(expression, str):
 887            return expression
 888
 889        if key:
 890            value = expression.args.get(key)
 891            if value:
 892                return self.sql(value)
 893            return ""
 894
 895        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 896
 897        if callable(transform):
 898            sql = transform(self, expression)
 899        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 900            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 901
 902            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 903                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 904            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 905                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 906            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 907                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 908            else:
 909                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 910        else:
 911            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 912
 913        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 914
 915    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 916        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 917        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 918        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 919
 920    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 921        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 922        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 923        options = expression.args.get("options")
 924        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 925        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 926        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 927        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 928        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 929
 930    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 931        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 932            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 933        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 934        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 935
 936    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 937        return ".".join(
 938            self.sql(part)
 939            for part in (
 940                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 941                expression.args.get("db"),
 942                expression.args.get("table"),
 943                expression.args.get("this"),
 944            )
 945            if part
 946        )
 947
 948    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 949        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 950
 951        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 952            join_mark = ""
 953            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 954
 955        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 956
 957    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 958        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 959        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 960        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 961        return f"{position}{this}"
 962
 963    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 964        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 965        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 966        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 967        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 968        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 969        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 970        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 971        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 972
 973        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 974            kind = ""
 975
 976        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 977
 978    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 979        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 980        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 981        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 982
 983    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 984        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 985        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 986            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 987        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 988            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 989        else:
 990            persisted = ""
 991        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 992
 993    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 994        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 995
 996    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 997        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 998            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 999        else:
1000            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1001
1002        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
1003
1004    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
1005        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
1006    ) -> str:
1007        this = ""
1008        if expression.this is not None:
1009            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
1010            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
1011
1012        start = expression.args.get("start")
1013        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1014        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
1015        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1016        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
1017        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1018        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
1019        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1020        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
1021        cycle_sql = ""
1022
1023        if cycle is not None:
1024            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
1025            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
1026
1027        sequence_opts = ""
1028        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
1029            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
1030            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
1031
1032        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1033        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1034
1035        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
1036
1037    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1038        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1039    ) -> str:
1040        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1041        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1042        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1043
1044    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1045        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1046    ) -> str:
1047        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1048
1049    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1050        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1051
1052    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1053        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1054
1055    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1056        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1057        if desc is not None:
1058            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1059        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1060
1061    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1062        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1063        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1064        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1065        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1066        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1067        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1068        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1069        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1070
1071    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1072        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1073
1074    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1075        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1076        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1077        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1078        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1079
1080        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1081
1082        properties_sql = ""
1083        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1084            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1085        ):
1086            properties_sql = self.sql(
1087                exp.Properties(
1088                    expressions=[
1089                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1090                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1091                    ]
1092                )
1093            )
1094
1095            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1096                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1097            elif not self.pretty:
1098                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1099                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1100
1101        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1102        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1103
1104        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1105        if expression_sql:
1106            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1107
1108            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1109                postalias_props_sql = ""
1110                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1111                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1112                        exp.Properties(
1113                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1114                        ),
1115                        wrapped=False,
1116                    )
1117                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1118                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1119
1120        postindex_props_sql = ""
1121        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1122            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1123                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1124                wrapped=False,
1125                prefix=" ",
1126            )
1127
1128        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1129        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1130        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1131
1132        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1133        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1134        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1135
1136        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1137        if clustered is None:
1138            clustered_sql = ""
1139        elif clustered:
1140            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1141        else:
1142            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1143
1144        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1145        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1146            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1147                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1148                sep=" ",
1149                prefix=" ",
1150                wrapped=False,
1151            )
1152
1153        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1154
1155        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1156        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1157            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1158                exp.Properties(
1159                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1160                ),
1161                sep=" ",
1162                prefix=" ",
1163                wrapped=False,
1164            )
1165
1166        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1167        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1168        no_schema_binding = (
1169            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1170        )
1171
1172        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1173        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1174
1175        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
1176            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
1177        else:
1178            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"
1179
1180        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1181        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1182
1183    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1184        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1185        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1186        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1187        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1188        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1189        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1190        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1191        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1192        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1193        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1194
1195        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1196        if cache is None:
1197            cache_str = ""
1198        elif cache is True:
1199            cache_str = " CACHE"
1200        else:
1201            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1202
1203        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1204        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1205
1206        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1207
1208    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1209        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1210        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1211        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1212        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1213
1214    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1215        style = expression.args.get("style")
1216        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1217        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1218        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1219        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1220        format = f" {format}" if format else ""
1221
1222        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1223
1224    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1225        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1226        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1227
1228    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1229        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1230        if with_:
1231            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1232        return sql
1233
1234    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1235        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1236        recursive = (
1237            "RECURSIVE "
1238            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1239            else ""
1240        )
1241        search = self.sql(expression, "search")
1242        search = f" {search}" if search else ""
1243
1244        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}{search}"
1245
1246    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1247        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1248        if alias:
1249            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1250
1251        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1252
1253        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1254        if materialized is False:
1255            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1256        elif materialized:
1257            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1258
1259        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1260
1261    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1262        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1263        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1264        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1265
1266        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1267            columns = ""
1268            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1269
1270        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1271            alias = self._next_name()
1272
1273        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1274
1275    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1277        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1278            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1279        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1280
1281    def hexstring_sql(
1282        self, expression: exp.HexString, binary_function_repr: t.Optional[str] = None
1283    ) -> str:
1284        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1285        is_integer_type = expression.args.get("is_integer")
1286
1287        if (is_integer_type and not self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE) or (
1288            not self.dialect.HEX_START and not binary_function_repr
1289        ):
1290            # Integer representation will be returned if:
1291            # - The read dialect treats the hex value as integer literal but not the write
1292            # - The transpilation is not supported (write dialect hasn't set HEX_START or the param flag)
1293            return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1294
1295        if not is_integer_type:
1296            # Read dialect treats the hex value as BINARY/BLOB
1297            if binary_function_repr:
1298                # The write dialect supports the transpilation to its equivalent BINARY/BLOB
1299                return self.func(binary_function_repr, exp.Literal.string(this))
1300            if self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE:
1301                # The write dialect does not support the transpilation, it'll treat the hex value as INTEGER
1302                self.unsupported("Unsupported transpilation from BINARY/BLOB hex string")
1303
1304        return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1305
1306    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1307        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1308        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1309            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1310        return this
1311
1312    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1313        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1314        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1315
1316        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1317            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1318            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1319        else:
1320            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1321            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1322
1323        if escape:
1324            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1325            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1326        else:
1327            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1328            escape_sql = ""
1329
1330        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1331            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1332
1333        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1334
1335    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1336        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1337        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1338
1339    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1340        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1341        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1342        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1343        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1344
1345    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1346        nested = ""
1347        values = ""
1348        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1349
1350        type_value = expression.this
1351        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1352            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1353        else:
1354            type_sql = (
1355                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1356                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1357                else type_value
1358            )
1359
1360        if interior:
1361            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1362                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1363                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1364                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1365                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1366                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1367            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1368                nested = f" {interior}"
1369            else:
1370                nested = f"({interior})"
1371
1372        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1373        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1374            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1375            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1376        ):
1377            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1378
1379        return type_sql
1380
1381    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1382        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1383        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1384        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1385        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1386
1387    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1388        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1389        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1390        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1391        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1392        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1393        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1394        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1395        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1396        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1397        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1398        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1399        if self.RETURNING_END:
1400            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1401        else:
1402            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1403        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1404
1405    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1406        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1407        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1408        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1409        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1410        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1411        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1412        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1413        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1414        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1415        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1416        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1417        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1418        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1419        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1420        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1421
1422    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1423        op_type = type(expression)
1424        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1425
1426        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1427        if (
1428            distinct is False
1429            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1430            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1431        ):
1432            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1433
1434        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1435
1436        if distinct is None:
1437            distinct = default_distinct
1438            if distinct is None:
1439                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1440
1441        if distinct is default_distinct:
1442            kind = ""
1443        else:
1444            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1445
1446        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1447        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1448
1449    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1450        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1451            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1452            order = expression.args.get("order")
1453
1454            if limit or order:
1455                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1456                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1457                )
1458
1459                if limit:
1460                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1461                if order:
1462                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1463                return self.sql(select)
1464
1465        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1466        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1467
1468        while stack:
1469            node = stack.pop()
1470
1471            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1472                stack.append(node.expression)
1473                stack.append(
1474                    self.maybe_comment(
1475                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1476                    )
1477                )
1478                stack.append(node.this)
1479            else:
1480                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1481
1482        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1483        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1484        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1485
1486    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1487        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1488        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1489        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1490        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1491        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
1492        limit_options = f"{limit_options}" if limit_options else " ROWS ONLY"
1493        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count}{limit_options}"
1494
1495    def limitoptions_sql(self, expression: exp.LimitOptions) -> str:
1496        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1497        rows = " ROWS" if expression.args.get("rows") else ""
1498        with_ties = " WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else ""
1499        if not with_ties and rows:
1500            with_ties = " ONLY"
1501        return f"{percent}{rows}{with_ties}"
1502
1503    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1504        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1505            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1506            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1507            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1508
1509        agg = expression.this
1510        agg_arg = agg.this
1511        cond = expression.expression.this
1512        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1513        return self.sql(agg)
1514
1515    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1516        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1517            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1518            return ""
1519
1520        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1521
1522    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1523        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1524        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1525        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1526        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1527        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1528        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1529        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1530        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1531        if include:
1532            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1533        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1534        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1535        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1536        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1537        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1538        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1539
1540        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1541
1542    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1543        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1544        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1545        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1546        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1547        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1548        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1549        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1550
1551        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1552
1553        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1554        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1555
1556    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1557        text = expression.name
1558        lower = text.lower()
1559        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1560        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1561        if (
1562            expression.quoted
1563            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1564            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1565            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1566        ):
1567            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1568        return text
1569
1570    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1571        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1572        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1573            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1574
1575        return text
1576
1577    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1578        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1579        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1580            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1581        return text
1582
1583    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1584        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1585        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1586        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1587        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1588        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1589
1590    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1591        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1592        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1593
1594    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1595        partition_keyword = "SUBPARTITION" if expression.args.get("subpartition") else "PARTITION"
1596        return f"{partition_keyword}({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1597
1598    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1599        root_properties = []
1600        with_properties = []
1601
1602        for p in expression.expressions:
1603            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1604            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1605                with_properties.append(p)
1606            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1607                root_properties.append(p)
1608
1609        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1610        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1611
1612        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1613            with_props = " " + with_props
1614
1615        return root_props + with_props
1616
1617    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1618        if properties.expressions:
1619            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1620        return ""
1621
1622    def properties(
1623        self,
1624        properties: exp.Properties,
1625        prefix: str = "",
1626        sep: str = ", ",
1627        suffix: str = "",
1628        wrapped: bool = True,
1629    ) -> str:
1630        if properties.expressions:
1631            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1632            if expressions:
1633                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1634                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1635        return ""
1636
1637    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1638        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1639
1640    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1641        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1642        for p in properties.expressions:
1643            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1644            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1645                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1646            else:
1647                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1648
1649        return properties_locs
1650
1651    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1652        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1653            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1654        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1655
1656    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1657        property_cls = expression.__class__
1658        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1659            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1660
1661        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1662        if not property_name:
1663            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1664
1665        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1666
1667    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1668        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1669            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1670            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1671
1672            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1673            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1674                like = f"({like})"
1675
1676            return like
1677
1678        if expression.expressions:
1679            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1680
1681        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1682        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1683
1684    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1685        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1686        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1687        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1688
1689    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1690        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1691        local = expression.args.get("local")
1692        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1693        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1694        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1695        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1696        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1697
1698    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1699        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1700        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1701        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1702
1703    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1704        if expression.args.get("default"):
1705            property = "DEFAULT"
1706        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1707            property = "ON"
1708        else:
1709            property = "OFF"
1710        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1711
1712    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1713        if expression.args.get("no"):
1714            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1715        if expression.args.get("default"):
1716            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1717
1718        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1719        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1720
1721    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1722        default = expression.args.get("default")
1723        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1724        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1725        if default or minimum or maximum:
1726            if default:
1727                prop = "DEFAULT"
1728            elif minimum:
1729                prop = "MINIMUM"
1730            else:
1731                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1732            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1733        units = expression.args.get("units")
1734        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1735        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1736
1737    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1738        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1739        always = expression.args.get("always")
1740        default = expression.args.get("default")
1741        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1742        never = expression.args.get("never")
1743
1744        if autotemp is not None:
1745            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1746        elif always:
1747            prop = "ALWAYS"
1748        elif default:
1749            prop = "DEFAULT"
1750        elif manual:
1751            prop = "MANUAL"
1752        elif never:
1753            prop = "NEVER"
1754        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1755
1756    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1757        no = expression.args.get("no")
1758        no = " NO" if no else ""
1759        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1760        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1761        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1762        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1763        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1764
1765    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1766        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1767            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1768        if expression.this:
1769            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1770            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1771            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1772
1773        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1774        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1775        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1776
1777    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1778        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1779
1780        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1781        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1782            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1783        else:
1784            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1785
1786        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1787
1788    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1789        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1790        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1791        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1792        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1793        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1794        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1795        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1796
1797    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1798        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1799        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1800        statistics_sql = ""
1801        if statistics is not None:
1802            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1803        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1804
1805    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1807        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1808        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1809        data_consistency = (
1810            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1811        )
1812        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1813        retention_period = (
1814            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1815        )
1816
1817        if this:
1818            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1819        else:
1820            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1821
1822        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1823
1824        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1825
1826    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1827        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1828        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1829
1830        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1831            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1832        else:
1833            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1834
1835        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1836        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1837        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1838        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1839        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1840        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1841        if is_function:
1842            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1843        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1844
1845        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1846        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1847        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1848        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1849        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1850        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1851        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1852        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1853
1854        if self.RETURNING_END:
1855            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1856        else:
1857            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1858
1859        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1860        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1861        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1862        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1863
1864        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1865        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1866
1867        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1868        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1869
1870    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1871        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1872
1873    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1874        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1875        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1877        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1878        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1879
1880    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1881        return expression.name
1882
1883    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1884        return expression.name
1885
1886    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1887        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1888
1889        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1890        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1891
1892        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1893        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1894        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1895
1896        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1897        if expressions:
1898            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1899            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1900
1901        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1902        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}{where}"
1903
1904    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1905        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1906
1907    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1908        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1909        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1910        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1911        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1912        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1913        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1914        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1915        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1916        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1917        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1918        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1919        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1920        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1921
1922    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1923        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1924
1925    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1926        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1927        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1928        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1929        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1930
1931    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1932        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1933        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1934        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1935        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1936
1937    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1938        return ".".join(
1939            self.sql(part)
1940            for part in (
1941                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1942                expression.args.get("db"),
1943                expression.args.get("this"),
1944            )
1945            if part is not None
1946        )
1947
1948    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1949        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1950        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1951        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1952        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1953        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1954        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1955        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1956        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1957
1958        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1959        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1960            sample_pre_alias = sample
1961            sample_post_alias = ""
1962        else:
1963            sample_pre_alias = ""
1964            sample_post_alias = sample
1965
1966        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1967        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1968        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1969        joins = self.indent(
1970            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1971        )
1972        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1973
1974        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1975        if file_format:
1976            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1977            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1978            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1979
1980        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1981        if ordinality:
1982            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1983            alias = ""
1984
1985        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1986        if when:
1987            table = f"{table} {when}"
1988
1989        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1990        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1991
1992        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1993        if rows_from:
1994            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1995
1996        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1997
1998    def tablesample_sql(
1999        self,
2000        expression: exp.TableSample,
2001        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
2002    ) -> str:
2003        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
2004        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
2005        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
2006        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
2007        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
2008        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
2009        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
2010        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
2011        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
2012
2013        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
2014        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
2015            size = f"{size} ROWS"
2016
2017        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
2018        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
2019            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
2020
2021        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
2022        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
2023            expr = f"({expr})"
2024
2025        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
2026
2027    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
2028        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2029        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
2030
2031        if expression.this:
2032            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2033            if not expressions:
2034                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
2035
2036            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
2037            into = self.sql(expression, "into")
2038            into = f"{self.seg('INTO')} {into}" if into else ""
2039            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
2040            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
2041            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2042            return f"{direction} {this}{on}{into}{using}{group}"
2043
2044        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2045        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2046
2047        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
2048
2049        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
2050        if include_nulls is not None:
2051            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
2052        else:
2053            nulls = ""
2054
2055        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
2056        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
2057        return f"{self.seg(direction)}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
2058
2059    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
2060        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
2061        kind = expression.text("kind")
2062        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2063        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
2064
2065    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
2066        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
2067
2068    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
2069        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2070        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2071        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2072        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2073        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2074        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2075        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2076        if self.RETURNING_END:
2077            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2078        else:
2079            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2080        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2081        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2082
2083    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2084        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2085
2086        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2087        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2088            args = self.expressions(expression)
2089            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2090            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2091            values = (
2092                f"({values})"
2093                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2094                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2095                else values
2096            )
2097            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2098
2099        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2100        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2101        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2102
2103        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2104
2105        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2106            row = tup.expressions
2107
2108            if i == 0 and column_names:
2109                row = [
2110                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2111                ]
2112
2113            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2114
2115        if self.pretty:
2116            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2117            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2118            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2119            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2120            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2121
2122        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2123        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2124        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2125
2126    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2127        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2128
2129    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2130    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2131        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2132        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2133        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2134
2135    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2136        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2137
2138    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2139        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2140        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2141
2142    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2143        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2144        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2145
2146    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2147        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2148        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2149
2150    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2151        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2152        if group_by_all is True:
2153            modifier = " ALL"
2154        elif group_by_all is False:
2155            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2156        else:
2157            modifier = ""
2158
2159        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2160
2161        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2162        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2163        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2164
2165        groupings = csv(
2166            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2167            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2168            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2169            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2170            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2171        )
2172
2173        if (
2174            expression.expressions
2175            and groupings
2176            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2177        ):
2178            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2179
2180        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2181
2182    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2183        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2184        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2185
2186    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2187        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2188        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2189        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2190        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2191        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2192        return start + connect
2193
2194    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2195        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2196
2197    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2198        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2199            side = None
2200        else:
2201            side = expression.side
2202
2203        op_sql = " ".join(
2204            op
2205            for op in (
2206                expression.method,
2207                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2208                side,
2209                expression.kind,
2210                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2211            )
2212            if op
2213        )
2214        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2215        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2216        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2217        using = expression.args.get("using")
2218
2219        if not on_sql and using:
2220            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2221
2222        this = expression.this
2223        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2224
2225        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2226        if exprs:
2227            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2228
2229        if on_sql:
2230            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2231            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2232            if using:
2233                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2234            else:
2235                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2236        elif not op_sql:
2237            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2238                return f" {this_sql}"
2239
2240            return f", {this_sql}"
2241
2242        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2243            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2244
2245        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2246
2247    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2248        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2249        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2250        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2251
2252    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2253        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2254
2255        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2256        if cross_apply is True:
2257            op = "INNER JOIN "
2258        elif cross_apply is False:
2259            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2260        else:
2261            op = ""
2262
2263        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2264
2265    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2266        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2267
2268        if expression.args.get("view"):
2269            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2270            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2271            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2272            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2273            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2274            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2275
2276        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2277        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2278        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2279
2280    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2281        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2282
2283        args = [
2284            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2285            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2286            if e
2287        ]
2288
2289        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2290        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2291        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2292        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
2293        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2294
2295        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{limit_options}{expressions}"
2296
2297    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2298        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2299        value = expression.expression
2300        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2301        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2302        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2303        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2304
2305    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2306        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2307        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2308        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2309        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2310        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2311        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2312        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2313        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2314
2315    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2316        expressions = f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2317        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2318        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2319
2320    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2321        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2322
2323    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2324        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2325            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2326            return ""
2327
2328        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2329        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2330        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2331        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2332
2333        if wait is not None:
2334            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2335                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2336            else:
2337                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2338
2339        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2340
2341    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2342        text = expression.this or ""
2343        if expression.is_string:
2344            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2345        return text
2346
2347    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2348        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2349            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2350            text = "".join(
2351                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2352            )
2353
2354        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2355            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2356        )
2357
2358    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2359        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2360        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2361        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2362        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2363        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2364        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2365        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2366        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2367        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2368        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2369        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2370
2371    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2372        return "NULL"
2373
2374    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2375        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2376
2377    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2378        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2379        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2380        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2381        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2382
2383    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2384        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2385        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2386        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2387        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2388        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2389        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2390        interpolated_values = [
2391            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2392            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2393            else self.sql(e, "this")
2394            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2395        ]
2396        interpolate = (
2397            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2398        )
2399        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2400
2401    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2402        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2403
2404    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2405        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2406
2407    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2408        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2409
2410    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2411        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2412        asc = not desc
2413
2414        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2415        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2416        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2417        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2418        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2419
2420        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2421
2422        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2423        nulls_sort_change = ""
2424        if nulls_first and (
2425            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2426        ):
2427            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2428        elif (
2429            nulls_last
2430            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2431            and not nulls_are_last
2432        ):
2433            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2434
2435        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2436        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2437            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2438            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2439                self.unsupported(
2440                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2441                )
2442                nulls_sort_change = ""
2443            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False and (
2444                (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2445                or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2446            ):
2447                # BigQuery does not allow these ordering/nulls combinations when used under
2448                # an aggregation func or under a window containing one
2449                ancestor = expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Window, exp.Select)
2450
2451                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.Window):
2452                    ancestor = ancestor.this
2453                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.AggFunc):
2454                    self.unsupported(
2455                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2456                    )
2457                    nulls_sort_change = ""
2458            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2459                if expression.this.is_int:
2460                    self.unsupported(
2461                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2462                    )
2463                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2464                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2465                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2466                nulls_sort_change = ""
2467
2468        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2469        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2470
2471        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2472
2473    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2474        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2475        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2476
2477        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2478
2479        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2480
2481    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2482        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2483        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2484        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2485        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2486        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2487        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2488        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2489        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2490        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2491        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2492        definition_sqls = [
2493            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2494            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2495        ]
2496        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2497        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2498        body = "".join(
2499            (
2500                partition,
2501                order,
2502                measures,
2503                rows,
2504                after,
2505                pattern,
2506                define,
2507            )
2508        )
2509        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2510        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2511        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2512
2513    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2514        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2515
2516        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2517            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2518        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2519            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2520
2521        return csv(
2522            *sqls,
2523            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2524            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2525            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2526            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2527            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2528            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2529            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2530            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2531            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2532            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2533            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2534            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2535            self.options_modifier(expression),
2536            sep="",
2537        )
2538
2539    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2540        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2541        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2542
2543    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2544        return ""
2545
2546    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2547        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2548    ) -> t.List[str]:
2549        return [
2550            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2551            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2552        ]
2553
2554    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2555        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2556        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2557        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2558
2559    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2560        into = expression.args.get("into")
2561        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2562            into.pop()
2563
2564        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2565        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2566        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2567        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2568
2569        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2570        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2571            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2572            limit.pop()
2573        else:
2574            top = ""
2575
2576        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2577
2578        if kind:
2579            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2580                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2581            else:
2582                if kind == "STRUCT":
2583                    expressions = self.expressions(
2584                        sqls=[
2585                            self.sql(
2586                                exp.Struct(
2587                                    expressions=[
2588                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2589                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2590                                        else e
2591                                        for e in expression.expressions
2592                                    ]
2593                                )
2594                            )
2595                        ]
2596                    )
2597                kind = ""
2598
2599        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2600        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2601
2602        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2603        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2604        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2605        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2606        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2607            expression,
2608            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2609            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2610            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2611        )
2612
2613        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2614        if expression.args.get("with"):
2615            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2616            expression.pop_comments()
2617
2618        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2619
2620        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2621            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2622                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2623            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2624                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2625            else:
2626                table_kind = ""
2627            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2628
2629        return sql
2630
2631    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2632        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2633        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2634        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2635
2636    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2637        if expression.expressions:
2638            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2639        return ""
2640
2641    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2642        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2643        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2644        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2645        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2646        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2647        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2648        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2649
2650    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2651        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2652        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2653
2654    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2655        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2656        kind = expression.text("kind")
2657        if kind:
2658            kind = f"{kind}."
2659        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2660
2661    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2662        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2663
2664    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2665        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2666        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2667        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2668        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2669            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2670
2671            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2672            expression.set("sample", None)
2673
2674        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2675        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2676        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2677
2678    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2679        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2680        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2681
2682    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2683        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2684
2685        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2686        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2687
2688        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2689            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2690                alias.append("columns", offset)
2691
2692        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2693            columns = alias.columns
2694            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2695        else:
2696            alias = self.sql(alias)
2697
2698        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2699        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2700            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2701        else:
2702            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2703                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2704            elif offset:
2705                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2706            else:
2707                suffix = alias
2708
2709        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2710
2711    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2712        return ""
2713
2714    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2715        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2716        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2717
2718    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2719        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2720        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2721        order = expression.args.get("order")
2722        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2723        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2724        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2725        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2726
2727        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2728
2729        first = expression.args.get("first")
2730        if first is None:
2731            first = ""
2732        else:
2733            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2734
2735        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2736            return f"{this} {alias}"
2737
2738        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2739        return f"{this} ({args})"
2740
2741    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2742        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2743        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2744
2745    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2746        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2747        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2748        end = (
2749            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2750            or "CURRENT ROW"
2751        )
2752        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2753
2754    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2755        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2756        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2757        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2758
2759    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2760        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2761        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2762        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2763        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2764
2765    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2766        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2767    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2768        return apply_index_offset(
2769            expression.this,
2770            expression.expressions,
2771            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2772        )
2773
2774    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2775        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2776        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2777        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2778
2779    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2780        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2781
2782    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2783        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2784        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2785            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2786                this = self.wrap(this)
2787            return f"ANY{this}"
2788        return f"ANY {this}"
2789
2790    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2791        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2792
2793    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2794        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2795        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2796
2797        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2798            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2799            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2800
2801        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2802
2803        if default:
2804            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2805
2806        statements.append("END")
2807
2808        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2809            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2810
2811        return " ".join(statements)
2812
2813    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2814        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2815        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2816        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2817
2818    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2819        order = expression.args.get("order")
2820        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2821        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2822
2823    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2824        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2825        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2826        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2827
2828    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2829        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2830
2831        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2832            func_name = "LTRIM"
2833        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2834            func_name = "RTRIM"
2835        else:
2836            func_name = "TRIM"
2837
2838        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2839
2840    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2841        args = expression.expressions
2842        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2843            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2844
2845        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2846            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2847
2848        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2849            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2850
2851        return args
2852
2853    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2854        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2855
2856        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2857        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2858            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2859
2860        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2861
2862    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2863        return self.func(
2864            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2865        )
2866
2867    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2868        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2869        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2870
2871    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2872        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2873        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2874        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2875        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2876        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2877        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2878        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2879        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2880        return f"FOREIGN KEY{expressions}{reference}{delete}{update}"
2881
2882    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2883        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2884        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2885        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2886        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2887
2888    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2889        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2890
2891    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2892        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2893        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2894        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2895
2896    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2897        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2898
2899    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2900        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2901
2902        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2903            path = self.escape_str(path)
2904
2905        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2906            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2907
2908        return path
2909
2910    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2911        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2912            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2913            if not callable(transform):
2914                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2915                return ""
2916
2917            return transform(self, expression)
2918
2919        if isinstance(expression, int):
2920            return str(expression)
2921
2922        if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2923            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2924            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2925        else:
2926            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2927            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2928
2929        return escaped
2930
2931    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2932        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2933
2934    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2935        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2936        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2937
2938        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2939        if unique_keys is not None:
2940            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2941        else:
2942            unique_keys = ""
2943
2944        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2945        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2946        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2947        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2948
2949        return self.func(
2950            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2951            *expression.expressions,
2952            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2953        )
2954
2955    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2956        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2957
2958    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2959        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2960        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2961        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2962        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2963        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2964        return self.func(
2965            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2966        )
2967
2968    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2969        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2970        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2971        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2972        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2973        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2974        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2975        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2976        return self.func(
2977            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2978            this,
2979            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2980        )
2981
2982    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2983        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2984        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2985        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2986
2987        if nested_schema:
2988            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2989
2990        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2991        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2992        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2993        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2994
2995    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2996        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2997
2998    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2999        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3000        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3001        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
3002        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
3003        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
3004        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
3005        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
3006        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3007        return self.func(
3008            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
3009        )
3010
3011    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
3012        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3013        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3014        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3015        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
3016        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
3017        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
3018
3019    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
3020        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3021        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3022        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
3023        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3024        with_ = (
3025            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3026            if expressions
3027            else ""
3028        )
3029        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
3030
3031    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
3032        query = expression.args.get("query")
3033        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
3034        field = expression.args.get("field")
3035        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
3036
3037        if query:
3038            in_sql = self.sql(query)
3039        elif unnest:
3040            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
3041        elif field:
3042            in_sql = self.sql(field)
3043        else:
3044            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3045
3046        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
3047
3048    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
3049        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
3050
3051    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
3052        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
3053        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
3054            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
3055        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
3056
3057        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
3058            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
3059            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
3060
3061        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3062        if this:
3063            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
3064            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
3065
3066        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
3067
3068    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
3069        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3070
3071    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
3072        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3073        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3074        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3075        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3076        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3077        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
3078
3079    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3080        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3081        parent = expression.parent
3082        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3083        return self.func(
3084            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3085        )
3086
3087    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3088        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3089        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3090
3091    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3092        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3093        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3094        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3095        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3096
3097    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3098        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3099
3100    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3101        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3102        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3103        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3104
3105    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3106        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3107
3108        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3109        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3110
3111        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3112            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3113        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3114            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3115
3116        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3117
3118    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3119        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3120
3121    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3122        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3123        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3124        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3125
3126    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3127        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3128        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3129        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3130
3131    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3132        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3133        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3134        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3135
3136    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3137        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3138
3139    def and_sql(
3140        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3141    ) -> str:
3142        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3143
3144    def or_sql(
3145        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3146    ) -> str:
3147        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3148
3149    def xor_sql(
3150        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3151    ) -> str:
3152        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3153
3154    def connector_sql(
3155        self,
3156        expression: exp.Connector,
3157        op: str,
3158        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3159    ) -> str:
3160        if stack is not None:
3161            if expression.expressions:
3162                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3163            else:
3164                stack.append(expression.right)
3165                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3166                    for comment in expression.comments:
3167                        if comment:
3168                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3169                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3170            return op
3171
3172        stack = [expression]
3173        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3174        ops = set()
3175
3176        while stack:
3177            node = stack.pop()
3178            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3179                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3180            else:
3181                sql = self.sql(node)
3182                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3183                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3184                else:
3185                    sqls.append(sql)
3186
3187        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3188        return sep.join(sqls)
3189
3190    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3191        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3192
3193    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3194        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3195
3196    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3197        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3198
3199    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3200        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3201
3202    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3203        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3204
3205    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3206        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3207
3208    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3209        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3210        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3211        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3212        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3213        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3214        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3215        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3216        default = f" DEFAULT {default} ON CONVERSION ERROR" if default else ""
3217        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{default}{format_sql}{action})"
3218
3219    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3220        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3221        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3222
3223    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3224        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3225            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3226        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3227
3228    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3229        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3230
3231    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3232        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3233        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3234        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3235        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3236        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3237        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3238
3239    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3240        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3241        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3242        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3243        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3244        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3245        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3246        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3247        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3248        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3249
3250    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3251        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3252        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3253        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3254        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3255
3256        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3257            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3258
3259        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3260
3261    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3262        return "BEGIN"
3263
3264    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3265        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3266        if chain is not None:
3267            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3268
3269        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3270
3271    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3272        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3273        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3274        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3275
3276    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3277        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3278
3279        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3280        if dtype:
3281            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3282            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3283            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3284            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3285            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {self.ALTER_SET_TYPE} {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3286
3287        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3288        if default:
3289            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3290
3291        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3292        if comment:
3293            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3294
3295        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3296        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3297
3298        if not drop and not allow_null:
3299            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3300
3301        if allow_null is not None:
3302            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3303            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3304
3305        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3306
3307    def alterindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterIndex) -> str:
3308        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3309
3310        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3311        visible_sql = "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3312
3313        return f"ALTER INDEX {this} {visible_sql}"
3314
3315    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3316        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3317        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3318            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3319        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3320
3321    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3322        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3323        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3324        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3325        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3326        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3327
3328    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3329        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3330            # Remove db from tables
3331            expression = expression.transform(
3332                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3333            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3334        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3335        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3336
3337    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3338        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3339        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3340        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3341        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3342
3343    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3344        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3345        return f"SET {exprs}"
3346
3347    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3348        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3349
3350        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3351            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3352        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3353            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3354        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3355            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3356        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3357            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3358        else:
3359            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3360
3361        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3362        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3363        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3364        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3365        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3366        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3367        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3368        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3369
3370        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3371
3372    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3373        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3374            return self.expressions(
3375                expression,
3376                key="actions",
3377                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3378                skip_first=True,
3379            )
3380        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3381
3382    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3383        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3384        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3385        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3386
3387    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3388        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3389
3390    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3391        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3392
3393        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3394            case = exp.case()
3395            for arg in expression.expressions:
3396                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3397            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3398
3399        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3400
3401        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3402        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3403        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3404
3405    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3406        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3407
3408    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3409        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3410
3411    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3412        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3413        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3414        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3415        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3416
3417    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3418        return self.sql(
3419            exp.Cast(
3420                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3421                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3422            )
3423        )
3424
3425    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3426        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3427            return self.func(
3428                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3429            )
3430        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3431
3432    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3433        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3434
3435        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3436            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3437
3438        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3439            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3440                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3441
3442        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3443            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3444                return self.sql(
3445                    exp.cast(
3446                        l / r,
3447                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3448                    )
3449                )
3450
3451        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3452
3453    def safedivide_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDivide) -> str:
3454        n = exp._wrap(expression.this, exp.Binary)
3455        d = exp._wrap(expression.expression, exp.Binary)
3456        return self.sql(exp.If(this=d.neq(0), true=n / d, false=exp.Null()))
3457
3458    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3459        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3460
3461    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3462        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3463
3464    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3465        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3466
3467    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3468        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3469
3470    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3471        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3472
3473    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3474        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3475
3476    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3477        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3478
3479    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3480        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3481
3482    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3483        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3484
3485    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3486        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3487
3488    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3489        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3490
3491    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3492        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3493            return self.sql(
3494                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3495            )
3496        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3497
3498    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3499        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3500
3501    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3502        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3503
3504    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3505        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3506
3507    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3508        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3509
3510    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3511        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3512
3513    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3514        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3515
3516    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3517        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3518
3519    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3520        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3521
3522    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3523        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3524
3525    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3526        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3527
3528    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3529        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3530
3531    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3532        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3533
3534    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3535        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3536
3537    def jsoncast_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONCast) -> str:
3538        return self.cast_sql(expression)
3539
3540    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3541        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3542            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3543            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3544
3545        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3546
3547    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3548        this = expression.this
3549        expr = expression.expression
3550
3551        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3552            this, expr = expr, this
3553        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3554            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3555                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3556
3557            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3558
3559        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3560
3561    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3562        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3563        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3564        this = self.sql(expression, "this") or self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3565        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3566        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3567
3568    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3569        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3570        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3571        binary_type = type(expression)
3572
3573        while stack:
3574            node = stack.pop()
3575
3576            if type(node) is binary_type:
3577                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3578                if op_func:
3579                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3580
3581                stack.append(node.right)
3582                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3583                stack.append(node.left)
3584            else:
3585                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3586
3587        return "".join(sqls)
3588
3589    def ceil_floor(self, expression: exp.Ceil | exp.Floor) -> str:
3590        to_clause = self.sql(expression, "to")
3591        if to_clause:
3592            return f"{expression.sql_name()}({self.sql(expression, 'this')} TO {to_clause})"
3593
3594        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3595
3596    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3597        args = []
3598
3599        for key in expression.arg_types:
3600            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3601
3602            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3603                for value in arg_value:
3604                    args.append(value)
3605            elif arg_value is not None:
3606                args.append(arg_value)
3607
3608        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
3609            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3610        else:
3611            name = expression.sql_name()
3612
3613        return self.func(name, *args)
3614
3615    def func(
3616        self,
3617        name: str,
3618        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3619        prefix: str = "(",
3620        suffix: str = ")",
3621        normalize: bool = True,
3622    ) -> str:
3623        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3624        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3625
3626    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3627        arg_sqls = tuple(
3628            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3629        )
3630        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3631            return self.indent(
3632                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3633            )
3634        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
3635
3636    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3637        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3638
3639    def format_time(
3640        self,
3641        expression: exp.Expression,
3642        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3643        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3644    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3645        return format_time(
3646            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3647            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3648            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3649        )
3650
3651    def expressions(
3652        self,
3653        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3654        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3655        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3656        flat: bool = False,
3657        indent: bool = True,
3658        skip_first: bool = False,
3659        skip_last: bool = False,
3660        sep: str = ", ",
3661        prefix: str = "",
3662        dynamic: bool = False,
3663        new_line: bool = False,
3664    ) -> str:
3665        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3666
3667        if not expressions:
3668            return ""
3669
3670        if flat:
3671            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3672
3673        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3674        result_sqls = []
3675
3676        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3677            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3678            if not sql:
3679                continue
3680
3681            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3682
3683            if self.pretty:
3684                if self.leading_comma:
3685                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3686                else:
3687                    result_sqls.append(
3688                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3689                    )
3690            else:
3691                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3692
3693        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3694            if new_line:
3695                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3696                result_sqls.append("")
3697            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3698        else:
3699            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3700
3701        return (
3702            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3703            if indent
3704            else result_sql
3705        )
3706
3707    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3708        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3709        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3710        if flat:
3711            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3712        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3713
3714    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3715        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3716        if not property_name:
3717            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3718        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3719
3720    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3721        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3722
3723    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3724        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3725
3726    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3727        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3728        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3729        expressions = (
3730            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3731        )
3732        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
3733
3734    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3735        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3736        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3737        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3738
3739    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3740        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3741
3742    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3743        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3744        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3745        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3746        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3747
3748        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3749        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3750            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3751            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3752            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3753            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3754        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3755            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3756                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3757            else:
3758                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3759        else:
3760            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3761        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3762
3763    def whens_sql(self, expression: exp.Whens) -> str:
3764        return self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3765
3766    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3767        table = expression.this
3768        table_alias = ""
3769
3770        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3771        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3772            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3773            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3774
3775        this = self.sql(table)
3776        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3777        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3778        whens = self.sql(expression, "whens")
3779
3780        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3781        if returning:
3782            whens = f"{whens}{returning}"
3783
3784        sep = self.sep()
3785
3786        return self.prepend_ctes(
3787            expression,
3788            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{whens}",
3789        )
3790
3791    @unsupported_args("format")
3792    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3793        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3794
3795    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3796        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3797            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3798            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3799
3800        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3801        if not fmt:
3802            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3803            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3804
3805        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3806
3807    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3809        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3810        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3811        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3812        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3813
3814    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3815        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3816        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3817        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3818        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3819
3820    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3821        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3822
3823    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3824        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3825
3826    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/table_bucket_part_index/CREATE_TABLE/
3827    def uniquekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueKeyProperty) -> str:
3828        return f"UNIQUE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3829
3830    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3831    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3832        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3833        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3834        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3835        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3836        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3837        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3838        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3839
3840    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3841        return ""
3842
3843    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3844        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3845        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3846        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3847        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3848        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3849
3850    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3851        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3852        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3853
3854        if having:
3855            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3856
3857        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3858
3859    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3860        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3861        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3862        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3863        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3864        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3865        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3866        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3867        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3868        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3869        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3870        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3871        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3872        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3873
3874    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3875        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3876        if key_block_size:
3877            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3878
3879        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3880        if using:
3881            return f"USING {using}"
3882
3883        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3884        if parser:
3885            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3886
3887        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3888        if comment:
3889            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3890
3891        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3892        if visible is not None:
3893            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3894
3895        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3896        if engine_attr:
3897            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3898
3899        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3900        if secondary_engine_attr:
3901            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3902
3903        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3904        return ""
3905
3906    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3907        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3908        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3909
3910    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3911        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3912        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3913        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3914        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3915        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3916        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3917        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3918        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3919        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3920        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3921        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3922
3923    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3924        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3925            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3926
3927        case = exp.Case().when(
3928            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3929            expression.args["true"],
3930            copy=False,
3931        )
3932        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3933        if else_cond:
3934            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3935
3936        return self.sql(case)
3937
3938    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3939        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3940        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3941        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3942        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3943        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3944        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3945
3946    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3947        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3948
3949    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3950        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3951
3952    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3953        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3954        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3955        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3956        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3957        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3958        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3959
3960    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3961        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3962        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3963        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3964
3965    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3966        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3967        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3968        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3969
3970    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3971        arg = expression.this
3972        if not arg.type:
3973            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3974
3975            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3976
3977        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3978            return self.sql(arg)
3979
3980        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3981        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3982
3983    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3984        this = expression.this
3985        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3986
3987        if time_format:
3988            return self.sql(
3989                exp.cast(
3990                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3991                    exp.DataType.Type.TIME,
3992                )
3993            )
3994
3995        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3996            return self.sql(this)
3997
3998        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3999
4000    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
4001        this = expression.this
4002        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
4003            return self.sql(this)
4004
4005        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
4006
4007    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
4008        this = expression.this
4009        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
4010            return self.sql(this)
4011
4012        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
4013
4014    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
4015        this = expression.this
4016        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
4017
4018        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
4019            return self.sql(
4020                exp.cast(
4021                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
4022                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
4023                )
4024            )
4025
4026        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
4027            return self.sql(this)
4028
4029        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
4030
4031    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
4032        return self.sql(
4033            exp.func(
4034                "DATEDIFF",
4035                expression.this,
4036                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
4037                "day",
4038            )
4039        )
4040
4041    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
4042        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
4043            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4044
4045        unit = expression.text("unit")
4046        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
4047            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
4048
4049        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
4050
4051    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
4052        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
4053
4054        return self.func(
4055            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
4056        )
4057
4058    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
4059        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
4060            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
4061            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
4062            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
4063            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
4064
4065        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
4066
4067        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
4068        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
4069            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
4070
4071        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4072
4073    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
4074        expression.set(
4075            "expressions",
4076            [
4077                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
4078                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
4079                else e
4080                for e in expression.expressions
4081            ],
4082        )
4083
4084        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4085
4086    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
4087        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
4088        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4089
4090        return f"{low} TO {high}"
4091
4092    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
4093        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
4094        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
4095
4096        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4097
4098        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
4099        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
4100
4101        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
4102        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
4103
4104        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4105        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4106
4107        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4108        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4109
4110        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
4111
4112    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
4113    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
4114    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
4115        to = expression.this
4116        value = expression.expression
4117        style = expression.args.get("style")
4118        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
4119        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
4120
4121        if not to or not value:
4122            return ""
4123
4124        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4125        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4126            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4127
4128        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4129        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4130
4131        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4132        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4133            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4134
4135            style_value = style.name
4136            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4137            if not converted_style:
4138                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4139
4140            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4141
4142            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4143                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4144            elif to.this in (exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2):
4145                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4146            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4147                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4148            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4149                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4150
4151        if not transformed:
4152            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4153
4154        return self.sql(transformed)
4155
4156    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4157        this = expression.this
4158        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4159            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4160            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4161
4162        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4163            return f".{this}"
4164
4165        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4166        return (
4167            f"[{this}]"
4168            if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED
4169            else f".{this}"
4170        )
4171
4172    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4173        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4174        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4175
4176    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4177        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4178            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4179
4180            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4181
4182        return expression
4183
4184    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4185        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4186            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4187            mods = sorted(
4188                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4189                key=lambda x: 0
4190                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4191                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4192            )
4193
4194            if mods:
4195                mod = mods[0]
4196                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4197                this.meta["inline"] = True
4198                mod.this.replace(this)
4199                return self.sql(expression.this)
4200
4201            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4202
4203            if agg_func:
4204                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4205
4206        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4207
4208    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4209        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4210        if self.pretty:
4211            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4212        return string
4213
4214    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4215        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4216
4217        if expression.expressions:
4218            upper = option.upper()
4219
4220            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4221            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4222
4223            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4224            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4225            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4226            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4227
4228        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4229
4230        if not value:
4231            return option
4232
4233        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4234
4235        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4236
4237    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4238        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4239        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4240            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4241            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4242            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4243        else:
4244            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4245            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4246            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4247
4248        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4249        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4250
4251        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4252        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4253
4254        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4255        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4256
4257        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4258        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4259
4260        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4261
4262    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4263        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4264        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4265
4266        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4267        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4268        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4269        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4270
4271        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4272        params = self.expressions(
4273            expression,
4274            key="params",
4275            sep=sep,
4276            new_line=True,
4277            skip_last=True,
4278            skip_first=True,
4279            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4280        )
4281
4282        if params:
4283            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4284                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4285            elif not self.pretty:
4286                params = f" {params}"
4287
4288        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4289
4290    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4291        return ""
4292
4293    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4294        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4295        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4296        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4297        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4298        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4299
4300        if filter_col or retention_period:
4301            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4302
4303        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4304
4305    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4306        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4307    ) -> str:
4308        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4309        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4310        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4311        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4312
4313    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4314        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4315        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4316        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4317
4318    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4319        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4320
4321    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4322        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4323        expr = expression.expression
4324
4325        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4326            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4327            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4328        else:
4329            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4330
4331        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4332
4333    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4334        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4335            return self.sql(expression.this)
4336
4337        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4338
4339    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4340        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4341        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4342
4343        if lower and upper:
4344            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4345        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4346
4347    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4348        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4349        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4350        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4351        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4352        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4353        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4354
4355        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4356
4357    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4358        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4359
4360        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4361        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4362            fill_pattern = "' '"
4363
4364        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4365
4366    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4367        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4368        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4369
4370    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4371        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4372
4373        parent = expression.parent
4374        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4375            parent = parent.parent
4376
4377        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4378            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4379
4380        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4381            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4382
4383        return self.sql(generate_series)
4384
4385    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4386        exprs = expression.expressions
4387        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4388            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4389        else:
4390            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4391
4392        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
4393
4394    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4395        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4396            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4397
4398        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4399        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4400        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4401
4402        if source_tz and timestamp:
4403            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4404                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4405            )
4406
4407        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4408
4409        return self.sql(expr)
4410
4411    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4412        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4413        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4414
4415        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4416
4417        if _with is None:
4418            with_sql = ""
4419        elif not _with:
4420            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4421        else:
4422            with_sql = " WITH"
4423
4424        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4425
4426        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4427
4428    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4429        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4430            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4431
4432        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4433        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4434        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4435
4436        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4437        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4438
4439        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4440
4441    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4442        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4443        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4444        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4445        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4446        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4447
4448    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4449        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4450        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4451        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4452        return res
4453
4454    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4455        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4456        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4457        empty = (
4458            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4459            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4460            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4461        )
4462
4463        error = expression.args.get("error")
4464        error = (
4465            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4466            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4467            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4468        )
4469
4470        if error and empty:
4471            error = (
4472                f"{empty} {error}"
4473                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4474                else f"{error} {empty}"
4475            )
4476            empty = ""
4477
4478        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4479
4480        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4481
4482    def jsonextractquote_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExtractQuote) -> str:
4483        scalar = " ON SCALAR STRING" if expression.args.get("scalar") else ""
4484        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'option')} QUOTES{scalar}"
4485
4486    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4487        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4488        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4489
4490        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4491        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4492
4493        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4494        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4495
4496        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4497
4498        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4499
4500    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4501        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4502
4503        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4504        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4505        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4506            parent = expression.parent
4507            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4508                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4509                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4510            else:
4511                this = expression.this
4512                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4513                if this.find(exp.Column):
4514                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4515                    this_sql = (
4516                        self.expressions(this)
4517                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4518                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4519                    )
4520
4521                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4522
4523        return array_agg
4524
4525    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4526        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4527        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4528
4529        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4530
4531    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4532        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4533
4534        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4535        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4536
4537        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4538        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4539
4540        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4541
4542        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4543
4544        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4545
4546    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4547        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4548        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4549        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4550
4551        return f"{this}{columns}"
4552
4553    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4554        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4555
4556        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4557        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4558
4559        return f"{kind}{this}"
4560
4561    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4562        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4563        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4564            func = f"*{func}"
4565
4566        return func
4567
4568    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4569        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4570        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4571        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4572        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4573        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4574
4575        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
4576
4577    @unsupported_args("format")
4578    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4579        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
4580
4581    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4582        this = expression.this
4583        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4584
4585        if zone:
4586            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4587            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4588            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4589            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4590                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4591            )
4592
4593        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
4594
4595    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4596        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4597            return self.sql(
4598                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4599            )
4600
4601        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4602
4603    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4604        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4605        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4606        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4607        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
4608
4609    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4610        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
4611            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4612
4613        start_ts = exp.cast(
4614            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
4615        )
4616
4617        return self.sql(
4618            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
4619        )
4620
4621    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
4622        dim = expression.expression
4623
4624        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
4625        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
4626            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
4627                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
4628            dim = None
4629
4630        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
4631        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
4632            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
4633
4634        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)
4635
4636    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
4637        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4638        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4639        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
4640        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4641
4642        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"
4643
4644    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
4645        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4646        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4647
4648        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"
4649
4650    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
4651        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4652        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4653        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
4654        return f"{this}{value}"
4655
4656    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
4657        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
4658        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
4659            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"
4660
4661        return self.func(
4662            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
4663            this_sql,
4664            expression.args.get("time"),
4665            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
4666            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
4667        )
4668
4669    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
4670        return (
4671            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
4672        )
4673
4674    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
4675        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
4676        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4677
4678        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
4679        if properties:
4680            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"
4681
4682        return encode
4683
4684    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
4685        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4686        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"
4687
4688        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
4689        if column_def:
4690            include = f"{include} {column_def}"
4691
4692        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
4693        if alias:
4694            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"
4695
4696        return include
4697
4698    def xmlelement_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLElement) -> str:
4699        name = f"NAME {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4700        return self.func("XMLELEMENT", name, *expression.expressions)
4701
4702    def partitionbyrangeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangeProperty) -> str:
4703        partitions = self.expressions(expression, "partition_expressions")
4704        create = self.expressions(expression, "create_expressions")
4705        return f"PARTITION BY RANGE {self.wrap(partitions)} {self.wrap(create)}"
4706
4707    def partitionbyrangepropertydynamic_sql(
4708        self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangePropertyDynamic
4709    ) -> str:
4710        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
4711        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4712
4713        every = expression.args["every"]
4714        if isinstance(every, exp.Interval) and every.this.is_string:
4715            every.this.replace(exp.Literal.number(every.name))
4716
4717        return f"START {self.wrap(start)} END {self.wrap(end)} EVERY {self.wrap(self.sql(every))}"
4718
4719    def unpivotcolumns_sql(self, expression: exp.UnpivotColumns) -> str:
4720        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
4721        values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4722
4723        return f"NAME {name} VALUE {values}"
4724
4725    def analyzesample_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeSample) -> str:
4726        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4727        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
4728        return f"SAMPLE {sample} {kind}"
4729
4730    def analyzestatistics_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeStatistics) -> str:
4731        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4732        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4733        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4734        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4735        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4736        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4737        columns = f" {columns}" if columns else ""
4738        return f"{kind}{option} STATISTICS{this}{columns}"
4739
4740    def analyzehistogram_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeHistogram) -> str:
4741        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4742        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4743        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4744        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4745        update_options = self.sql(expression, "update_options")
4746        update_options = f" {update_options} UPDATE" if update_options else ""
4747        return f"{this} HISTOGRAM ON {columns}{inner_expression}{update_options}"
4748
4749    def analyzedelete_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeDelete) -> str:
4750        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4751        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4752        return f"DELETE{kind} STATISTICS"
4753
4754    def analyzelistchainedrows_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeListChainedRows) -> str:
4755        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4756        return f"LIST CHAINED ROWS{inner_expression}"
4757
4758    def analyzevalidate_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeValidate) -> str:
4759        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4760        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4761        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4762        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4763        return f"VALIDATE {kind}{this}{inner_expression}"
4764
4765    def analyze_sql(self, expression: exp.Analyze) -> str:
4766        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
4767        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
4768        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4769        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4771        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4772        mode = self.sql(expression, "mode")
4773        mode = f" {mode}" if mode else ""
4774        properties = self.sql(expression, "properties")
4775        properties = f" {properties}" if properties else ""
4776        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4777        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4778        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4779        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4780        return f"ANALYZE{options}{kind}{this}{partition}{mode}{inner_expression}{properties}"
4781
4782    def xmltable_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLTable) -> str:
4783        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4784        namespaces = self.expressions(expression, key="namespaces")
4785        namespaces = f"XMLNAMESPACES({namespaces}), " if namespaces else ""
4786        passing = self.expressions(expression, key="passing")
4787        passing = f"{self.sep()}PASSING{self.seg(passing)}" if passing else ""
4788        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns")
4789        columns = f"{self.sep()}COLUMNS{self.seg(columns)}" if columns else ""
4790        by_ref = f"{self.sep()}RETURNING SEQUENCE BY REF" if expression.args.get("by_ref") else ""
4791        return f"XMLTABLE({self.sep('')}{self.indent(namespaces + this + passing + by_ref + columns)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
4792
4793    def xmlnamespace_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLNamespace) -> str:
4794        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4795        return this if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Alias) else f"DEFAULT {this}"
4796
4797    def export_sql(self, expression: exp.Export) -> str:
4798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4799        connection = self.sql(expression, "connection")
4800        connection = f"WITH CONNECTION {connection} " if connection else ""
4801        options = self.sql(expression, "options")
4802        return f"EXPORT DATA {connection}{options} AS {this}"
4803
4804    def declare_sql(self, expression: exp.Declare) -> str:
4805        return f"DECLARE {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
4806
4807    def declareitem_sql(self, expression: exp.DeclareItem) -> str:
4808        variable = self.sql(expression, "this")
4809        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
4810        default = f" = {default}" if default else ""
4811
4812        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4813        if isinstance(expression.args.get("kind"), exp.Schema):
4814            kind = f"TABLE {kind}"
4815
4816        return f"{variable} AS {kind}{default}"
4817
4818    def recursivewithsearch_sql(self, expression: exp.RecursiveWithSearch) -> str:
4819        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4821        set = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4822        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
4823        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
4824
4825        kind_sql = kind if kind == "CYCLE" else f"SEARCH {kind} FIRST BY"
4826
4827        return f"{kind_sql} {this} SET {set}{using}"
4828
4829    def parameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ParameterizedAgg) -> str:
4830        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True)
4831        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions) + f"({params})"
4832
4833    def anonymousaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.AnonymousAggFunc) -> str:
4834        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
4835
4836    def combinedaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedAggFunc) -> str:
4837        return self.anonymousaggfunc_sql(expression)
4838
4839    def combinedparameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedParameterizedAgg) -> str:
4840        return self.parameterizedagg_sql(expression)
4841
4842    def show_sql(self, expression: exp.Show) -> str:
4843        self.unsupported("Unsupported SHOW statement")
4844        return ""