sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  78        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  79        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  82        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  83        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  85        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  87        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  95        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  97        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  98        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  99        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 100        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 101        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 102        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 103        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 104        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 105        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 108        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 109        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 110        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 111        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 112        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 113        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 114        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 115        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 116        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 117        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 118        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 119        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 123        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 125        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 127            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 128        ),
 129        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 131        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 132        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 133        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 134        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 135        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 136        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 137        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 138        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 139        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 140        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 141        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 142        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 143        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 144        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 145        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 146        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 147        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 148        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 149        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 150        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 151        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 152        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 153        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 154        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 155    }
 156
 157    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 158    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 159    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 160
 161    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 162    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 163    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 164
 165    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 166    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 167
 168    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 169    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 170
 171    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 172    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 173
 174    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 175    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 176
 177    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 178    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 179
 180    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 181    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 182
 183    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 184    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 185
 186    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 187    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 188
 189    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 190    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 191
 192    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 193    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 194
 195    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 196    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 197
 198    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 199    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 200
 201    # Whether join hints should be generated
 202    JOIN_HINTS = True
 203
 204    # Whether table hints should be generated
 205    TABLE_HINTS = True
 206
 207    # Whether query hints should be generated
 208    QUERY_HINTS = True
 209
 210    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 211    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 212
 213    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 214    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 215
 216    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 217    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 218
 219    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 220    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 221
 222    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 223    RETURNING_END = True
 224
 225    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 226    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 227
 228    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 229    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 230
 231    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 232    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 233
 234    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 235    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 236
 237    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 238    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 239    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 240    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 241
 242    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 243    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 244
 245    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 246    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 247
 248    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 249    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 250
 251    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 252    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 253
 254    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 255    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 256
 257    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 258    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 259
 260    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 261    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 262
 263    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 264    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 265
 266    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 267    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 268
 269    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 270    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 271
 272    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 273    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 274
 275    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 276    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 277
 278    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 279    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 280
 281    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 282    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 283
 284    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 285    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 286
 287    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 288    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 289
 290    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 291    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 292
 293    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 294    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 295
 296    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 297    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 298
 299    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 300    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 301
 302    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 303    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 304
 305    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 306    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 307
 308    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 309    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 310
 311    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 312    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 313
 314    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 315    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 316
 317    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 318    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 319    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 320
 321    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 322    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 323
 324    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 325    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 326
 327    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 328    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 329
 330    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 331    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 332
 333    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 334    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 335
 336    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 337    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 338
 339    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 340    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 341    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 342    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 343
 344    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 345    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 346
 347    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 348    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 349
 350    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 351    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 352
 353    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 354    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 355
 356    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 357    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 358
 359    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 360    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 361
 362    # The HEX function name
 363    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 364
 365    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 366    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 367
 368    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 369    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 370
 371    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 372    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 373
 374    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 375    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 376
 377    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 378        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 379        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 380        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 381        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 382        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 383        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 384        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 385        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 386        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 387        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 388    }
 389
 390    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 391        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 392        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 393        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 394        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 395        "DAYS": "DAY",
 396        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 397        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 398        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 399        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 400    }
 401
 402    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 403        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 404        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 405        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 406        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 407            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 408            if e.args.get("windows")
 409            else ""
 410        ),
 411        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 412    }
 413
 414    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 415
 416    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 417
 418    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 419    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 420
 421    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 422        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 423        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 424        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 425        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 426        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 427        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 428        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 429        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 430        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 431        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 435        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 437        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 440        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 445        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 446        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 447        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 448        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 449        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 450        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 452        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 454        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 455        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 460        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 461        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 462        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 463        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 464        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 465        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 466        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 469        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 472        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 476        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 478        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 479        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 480        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 484        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 486        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 487        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 490        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 493        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 495        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 498        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 500        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 501        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 502        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504    }
 505
 506    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 507    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 508
 509    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 510    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 511        exp.Command,
 512        exp.Create,
 513        exp.Delete,
 514        exp.Drop,
 515        exp.From,
 516        exp.Insert,
 517        exp.Join,
 518        exp.Select,
 519        exp.SetOperation,
 520        exp.Update,
 521        exp.Where,
 522        exp.With,
 523    )
 524
 525    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 526    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 527        exp.Binary,
 528        exp.SetOperation,
 529    )
 530
 531    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 532    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 533        exp.Column,
 534        exp.Literal,
 535        exp.Neg,
 536        exp.Paren,
 537    )
 538
 539    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 540        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 541        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 542        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 543        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 544    }
 545
 546    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 547    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 548
 549    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 550
 551    __slots__ = (
 552        "pretty",
 553        "identify",
 554        "normalize",
 555        "pad",
 556        "_indent",
 557        "normalize_functions",
 558        "unsupported_level",
 559        "max_unsupported",
 560        "leading_comma",
 561        "max_text_width",
 562        "comments",
 563        "dialect",
 564        "unsupported_messages",
 565        "_escaped_quote_end",
 566        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 567        "_next_name",
 568    )
 569
 570    def __init__(
 571        self,
 572        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 573        identify: str | bool = False,
 574        normalize: bool = False,
 575        pad: int = 2,
 576        indent: int = 2,
 577        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 578        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 579        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 580        leading_comma: bool = False,
 581        max_text_width: int = 80,
 582        comments: bool = True,
 583        dialect: DialectType = None,
 584    ):
 585        import sqlglot
 586        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 587
 588        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 589        self.identify = identify
 590        self.normalize = normalize
 591        self.pad = pad
 592        self._indent = indent
 593        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 594        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 595        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 596        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 597        self.comments = comments
 598        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 599
 600        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 601        self.normalize_functions = (
 602            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 603        )
 604
 605        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 606        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 607            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 608        )
 609        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 610            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 611        )
 612
 613        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 614
 615    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 616        """
 617        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 618
 619        Args:
 620            expression: The syntax tree.
 621            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 622                it is safer to copy.
 623
 624        Returns:
 625            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 626        """
 627        if copy:
 628            expression = expression.copy()
 629
 630        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 631
 632        self.unsupported_messages = []
 633        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 634
 635        if self.pretty:
 636            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 637
 638        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 639            return sql
 640
 641        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 642            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 643                logger.warning(msg)
 644        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 645            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 646
 647        return sql
 648
 649    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 650        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 651        if (
 652            not expression.parent
 653            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 654            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 655        ):
 656            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 657
 658            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 659
 660        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 661            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 662
 663            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 664
 665        return expression
 666
 667    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 668        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 669            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 670        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 671
 672    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 673        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 674
 675    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 676        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 677
 678    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 679        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 680        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 681        return comment
 682
 683    def maybe_comment(
 684        self,
 685        sql: str,
 686        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 687        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 688        separated: bool = False,
 689    ) -> str:
 690        comments = (
 691            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 692            if self.comments
 693            else None
 694        )
 695
 696        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 697            return sql
 698
 699        comments_sql = " ".join(
 700            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 701        )
 702
 703        if not comments_sql:
 704            return sql
 705
 706        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 707
 708        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 709            return (
 710                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 711                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 712                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 713            )
 714
 715        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 716
 717    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 718        this_sql = (
 719            self.sql(expression)
 720            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 721            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 722        )
 723        if not this_sql:
 724            return "()"
 725
 726        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 727        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 728
 729    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 730        original = self.identify
 731        self.identify = False
 732        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 733        self.identify = original
 734        return result
 735
 736    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 737        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 738            return name.upper()
 739        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 740            return name.lower()
 741        return name
 742
 743    def indent(
 744        self,
 745        sql: str,
 746        level: int = 0,
 747        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 748        skip_first: bool = False,
 749        skip_last: bool = False,
 750    ) -> str:
 751        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 752            return sql
 753
 754        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 755        lines = sql.split("\n")
 756
 757        return "\n".join(
 758            (
 759                line
 760                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 761                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 762            )
 763            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 764        )
 765
 766    def sql(
 767        self,
 768        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 769        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 770        comment: bool = True,
 771    ) -> str:
 772        if not expression:
 773            return ""
 774
 775        if isinstance(expression, str):
 776            return expression
 777
 778        if key:
 779            value = expression.args.get(key)
 780            if value:
 781                return self.sql(value)
 782            return ""
 783
 784        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 785
 786        if callable(transform):
 787            sql = transform(self, expression)
 788        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 789            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 790
 791            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 792                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 793            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 794                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 795            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 796                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 797            else:
 798                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 799        else:
 800            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 801
 802        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 803
 804    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 805        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 806        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 807        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 808
 809    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 810        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 811        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 812        options = expression.args.get("options")
 813        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 814        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 815        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 816        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 817        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 818
 819    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 820        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 821            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 822        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 823        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 824
 825    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 826        return ".".join(
 827            self.sql(part)
 828            for part in (
 829                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 830                expression.args.get("db"),
 831                expression.args.get("table"),
 832                expression.args.get("this"),
 833            )
 834            if part
 835        )
 836
 837    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 838        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 839
 840        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 841            join_mark = ""
 842            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 843
 844        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 845
 846    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 847        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 848        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 849        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 850        return f"{position}{this}"
 851
 852    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 853        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 854        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 855        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 856        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 857        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 858        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 859        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 860        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 861
 862        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 863            kind = ""
 864
 865        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 866
 867    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 868        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 869        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 870        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 871
 872    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 873        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 874        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 875            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 876        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 877            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 878        else:
 879            persisted = ""
 880        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 881
 882    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 883        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 884
 885    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 886        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 887            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 888        else:
 889            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 890
 891        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 892
 893    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 894        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 895    ) -> str:
 896        this = ""
 897        if expression.this is not None:
 898            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 899            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 900
 901        start = expression.args.get("start")
 902        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 903        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 904        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 905        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 906        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 907        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 908        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 909        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 910        cycle_sql = ""
 911
 912        if cycle is not None:
 913            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 914            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 915
 916        sequence_opts = ""
 917        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 918            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 919            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 920
 921        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 922        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 923
 924        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 925
 926    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 927        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 928    ) -> str:
 929        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 930        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 931        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 932
 933    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 934        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 935    ) -> str:
 936        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 937
 938    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 939        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 940
 941    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 942        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 943
 944    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 945        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 946        if desc is not None:
 947            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 948        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 949
 950    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 951        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 952        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 953        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 954        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 955        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 956        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 957        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
 958        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 959
 960    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 961        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 962
 963    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 964        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 965        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 966        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 967
 968        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 969
 970        properties_sql = ""
 971        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 972            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 973        ):
 974            properties_sql = self.sql(
 975                exp.Properties(
 976                    expressions=[
 977                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 978                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 979                    ]
 980                )
 981            )
 982
 983            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 984                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 985            elif not self.pretty:
 986                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 987                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 988
 989        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 990        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 991
 992        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 993        if expression_sql:
 994            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 995
 996            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 997                postalias_props_sql = ""
 998                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 999                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1000                        exp.Properties(
1001                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1002                        ),
1003                        wrapped=False,
1004                    )
1005                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1006                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1007
1008        postindex_props_sql = ""
1009        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1010            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1011                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1012                wrapped=False,
1013                prefix=" ",
1014            )
1015
1016        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1017        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1018        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1019
1020        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1021        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1022
1023        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1024        if clustered is None:
1025            clustered_sql = ""
1026        elif clustered:
1027            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1028        else:
1029            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1030
1031        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1032        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1033            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1034                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1035                sep=" ",
1036                prefix=" ",
1037                wrapped=False,
1038            )
1039
1040        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1041
1042        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1043        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1044            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1045                exp.Properties(
1046                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1047                ),
1048                sep=" ",
1049                prefix=" ",
1050                wrapped=False,
1051            )
1052
1053        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1054        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1055        no_schema_binding = (
1056            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1057        )
1058
1059        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1060        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1061
1062        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1063        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1064
1065    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1066        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1067        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1068        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1069        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1070        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1071        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1072        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1073        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1074        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1075        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1076
1077        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1078        if cache is None:
1079            cache_str = ""
1080        elif cache is True:
1081            cache_str = " CACHE"
1082        else:
1083            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1084
1085        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1086        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1087
1088        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1089
1090    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1092        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1093        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1094        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1095
1096    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1097        style = expression.args.get("style")
1098        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1099        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1100
1101    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1102        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1103        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1104
1105    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1106        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1107        if with_:
1108            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1109        return sql
1110
1111    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1112        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1113        recursive = (
1114            "RECURSIVE "
1115            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1116            else ""
1117        )
1118
1119        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1120
1121    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1122        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1123
1124        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1125        if materialized is False:
1126            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1127        elif materialized:
1128            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1129
1130        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1131
1132    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1133        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1134        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1135        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1136
1137        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1138            columns = ""
1139            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1140
1141        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1142            alias = self._next_name()
1143
1144        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1145
1146    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1147        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1148        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1149            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1150        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1151
1152    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1153        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1154        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1155            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1156        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1157
1158    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1159        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1160        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1161            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1162        return this
1163
1164    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1165        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1166        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1167
1168        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1169            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1170            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1171        else:
1172            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1173            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1174
1175        if escape:
1176            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1177            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1178        else:
1179            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1180            escape_sql = ""
1181
1182        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1183            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1184
1185        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1186
1187    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1188        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1189        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1190
1191    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1192        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1193        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1194        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1195        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1196
1197    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1198        type_value = expression.this
1199
1200        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1201            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1202        else:
1203            type_sql = (
1204                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1205                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1206                else type_value
1207            )
1208
1209        nested = ""
1210        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1211        values = ""
1212
1213        if interior:
1214            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1215                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1216                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1217                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1218                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1219                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1220            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1221                nested = f" {interior}"
1222            else:
1223                nested = f"({interior})"
1224
1225        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1226        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1227            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1228            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1229        ):
1230            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1231
1232        return type_sql
1233
1234    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1235        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1236        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1237        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1238        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1239
1240    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1241        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1242        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1243        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1244        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1245        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1246        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1247        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1248        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1249        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1250        if self.RETURNING_END:
1251            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1252        else:
1253            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1254        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1255
1256    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1257        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1258        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1259        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1260        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1261        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1262        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1263        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1264        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1265        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1266        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1267        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1268        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1269        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1270
1271    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1272        return self.set_operations(expression)
1273
1274    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1275        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1276
1277    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1278        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1279        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1280        count = expression.args.get("count")
1281        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1282        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1283            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1284        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1285        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1286
1287    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1288        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1289            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1290            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1291            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1292
1293        agg = expression.this
1294        agg_arg = agg.this
1295        cond = expression.expression.this
1296        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1297        return self.sql(agg)
1298
1299    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1300        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1301            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1302            return ""
1303
1304        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1305
1306    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1307        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1308        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1309        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1310        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1311        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1312        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1313        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1314        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1315        if include:
1316            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1317        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1318        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1319        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1320        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1321        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1322        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1323
1324        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1325
1326    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1327        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1328        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1329        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1330        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1331        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1332        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1333        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1334
1335        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1336
1337        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1338        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1339
1340    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1341        text = expression.name
1342        lower = text.lower()
1343        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1344        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1345        if (
1346            expression.quoted
1347            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1348            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1349            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1350        ):
1351            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1352        return text
1353
1354    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1355        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1356        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1357            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1358
1359        return text
1360
1361    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1362        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1363        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1364            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1365        return text
1366
1367    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1368        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1369        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1370        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1371        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1372        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1373
1374    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1375        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1376        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1377
1378    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1379        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1380
1381    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1382        root_properties = []
1383        with_properties = []
1384
1385        for p in expression.expressions:
1386            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1387            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1388                with_properties.append(p)
1389            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1390                root_properties.append(p)
1391
1392        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1393        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1394
1395        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1396            with_props = " " + with_props
1397
1398        return root_props + with_props
1399
1400    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1401        if properties.expressions:
1402            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1403        return ""
1404
1405    def properties(
1406        self,
1407        properties: exp.Properties,
1408        prefix: str = "",
1409        sep: str = ", ",
1410        suffix: str = "",
1411        wrapped: bool = True,
1412    ) -> str:
1413        if properties.expressions:
1414            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1415            if expressions:
1416                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1417                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1418        return ""
1419
1420    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1421        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1422
1423    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1424        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1425        for p in properties.expressions:
1426            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1427            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1428                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1429            else:
1430                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1431
1432        return properties_locs
1433
1434    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1435        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1436            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1437        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1438
1439    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1440        property_cls = expression.__class__
1441        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1442            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1443
1444        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1445        if not property_name:
1446            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1447
1448        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1449
1450    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1451        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1452            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1453            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1454
1455            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1456            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1457                like = f"({like})"
1458
1459            return like
1460
1461        if expression.expressions:
1462            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1463
1464        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1465        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1466
1467    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1468        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1469        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1470        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1471
1472    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1473        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1474        local = expression.args.get("local")
1475        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1476        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1477        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1478        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1479        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1480
1481    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1482        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1483        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1484        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1485
1486    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1487        if expression.args.get("default"):
1488            property = "DEFAULT"
1489        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1490            property = "ON"
1491        else:
1492            property = "OFF"
1493        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1494
1495    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1496        if expression.args.get("no"):
1497            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1498        if expression.args.get("default"):
1499            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1500
1501        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1502        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1503
1504    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1505        default = expression.args.get("default")
1506        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1507        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1508        if default or minimum or maximum:
1509            if default:
1510                prop = "DEFAULT"
1511            elif minimum:
1512                prop = "MINIMUM"
1513            else:
1514                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1515            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1516        units = expression.args.get("units")
1517        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1518        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1519
1520    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1521        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1522        always = expression.args.get("always")
1523        default = expression.args.get("default")
1524        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1525        never = expression.args.get("never")
1526
1527        if autotemp is not None:
1528            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1529        elif always:
1530            prop = "ALWAYS"
1531        elif default:
1532            prop = "DEFAULT"
1533        elif manual:
1534            prop = "MANUAL"
1535        elif never:
1536            prop = "NEVER"
1537        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1538
1539    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1540        no = expression.args.get("no")
1541        no = " NO" if no else ""
1542        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1543        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1544        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1545        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1546        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1547
1548    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1549        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1550            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1551        if expression.this:
1552            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1553            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1554            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1555
1556        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1557        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1558        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1559
1560    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1561        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1562
1563        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1564        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1565            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1566        else:
1567            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1568
1569        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1570
1571    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1572        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1573        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1574        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1575        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1576        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1577        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1578        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1579
1580    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1581        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1582        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1583        statistics_sql = ""
1584        if statistics is not None:
1585            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1586        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1587
1588    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1589        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1590        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1591        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1592        data_consistency = (
1593            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1594        )
1595        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1596        retention_period = (
1597            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1598        )
1599
1600        if this:
1601            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1602        else:
1603            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1604
1605        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1606
1607        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1608
1609    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1610        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1611        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1612
1613        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1614            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1615        else:
1616            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1617
1618        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1619        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1620        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1621        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1622        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1623        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1624        if is_function:
1625            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1626        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1627
1628        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1629        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1630        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1631        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1632        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1633        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1634        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1635        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1636
1637        if self.RETURNING_END:
1638            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1639        else:
1640            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1641
1642        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1643        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1644
1645    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1646        return self.set_operations(expression)
1647
1648    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1649        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1650
1651    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1652        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1653
1654    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1655        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1656        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1657        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1658        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1659        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1660
1661    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1662        return expression.name
1663
1664    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1665        return expression.name
1666
1667    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1668        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1669
1670        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1671        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1672
1673        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1674        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1675        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1676
1677        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1678        if expressions:
1679            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1680            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1681
1682        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1683
1684    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1685        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1686
1687    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1688        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1689        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1690        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1691        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1692        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1693        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1694        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1695        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1696        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1697        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1698        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1699        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1700        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1701
1702    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1703        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1704
1705    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1706        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1707        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1708        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1709        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1710
1711    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1712        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1713        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1714        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1715        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1716
1717    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1718        return ".".join(
1719            self.sql(part)
1720            for part in (
1721                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1722                expression.args.get("db"),
1723                expression.args.get("this"),
1724            )
1725            if part is not None
1726        )
1727
1728    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1729        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1730        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1731        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1732        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1733        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1734        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1735        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1736        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1737        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1738        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1739        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1740        joins = self.indent(
1741            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1742        )
1743        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1744
1745        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1746        if file_format:
1747            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1748            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1749            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1750
1751        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1752        if ordinality:
1753            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1754            alias = ""
1755
1756        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1757        if when:
1758            table = f"{table} {when}"
1759
1760        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1761        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1762
1763        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1764        if rows_from:
1765            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1766
1767        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1768
1769    def tablesample_sql(
1770        self,
1771        expression: exp.TableSample,
1772        sep: str = " AS ",
1773        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1774    ) -> str:
1775        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1776            table = expression.this.copy()
1777            table.set("alias", None)
1778            this = self.sql(table)
1779            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1780        else:
1781            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1782            alias = ""
1783
1784        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1785        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1786        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1787        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1788        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1789        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1790        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1791        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1792        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1793
1794        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1795        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1796            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1797
1798        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1799        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1800            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1801
1802        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1803        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1804            expr = f"({expr})"
1805
1806        return (
1807            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1808        )
1809
1810    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1811        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1812
1813        if expression.this:
1814            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1815            if not expressions:
1816                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1817
1818            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1819            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1820            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1821            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1822            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1823
1824        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1825        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1826        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1827        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1828        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1829        if include_nulls is not None:
1830            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1831        else:
1832            nulls = ""
1833        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1834
1835    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1836        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1837        kind = expression.text("kind")
1838        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1839        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1840
1841    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1842        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1843
1844    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1845        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1846        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1847        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1848        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1849        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1850        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1851        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1852        if self.RETURNING_END:
1853            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1854        else:
1855            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1856        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1857        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1858
1859    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1860        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1861
1862        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1863        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1864            args = self.expressions(expression)
1865            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1866            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1867            values = (
1868                f"({values})"
1869                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1870                else values
1871            )
1872            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1873
1874        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1875        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1876        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1877
1878        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1879
1880        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1881            row = tup.expressions
1882
1883            if i == 0 and column_names:
1884                row = [
1885                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1886                ]
1887
1888            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1889
1890        if self.pretty:
1891            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1892            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1893            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1894            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1895            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1896
1897        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1898        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1899        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1900
1901    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1902        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1903
1904    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1905        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1906        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1907        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1908
1909    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1910        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1911
1912    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1913        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1914        if group_by_all is True:
1915            modifier = " ALL"
1916        elif group_by_all is False:
1917            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1918        else:
1919            modifier = ""
1920
1921        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1922
1923        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1924        grouping_sets = (
1925            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1926        )
1927
1928        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1929        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1930            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1931        else:
1932            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1933            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1934
1935        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1936        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1937            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1938        else:
1939            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1940            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1941
1942        groupings = csv(
1943            grouping_sets,
1944            cube_sql,
1945            rollup_sql,
1946            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1947            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1948        )
1949
1950        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1951            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1952
1953        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1954
1955    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1956        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1957        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1958
1959    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1960        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1961        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1962        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1963        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1964        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1965        return start + connect
1966
1967    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1968        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1969
1970    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1971        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1972            side = None
1973        else:
1974            side = expression.side
1975
1976        op_sql = " ".join(
1977            op
1978            for op in (
1979                expression.method,
1980                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1981                side,
1982                expression.kind,
1983                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1984            )
1985            if op
1986        )
1987        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1988        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1989        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1990        using = expression.args.get("using")
1991
1992        if not on_sql and using:
1993            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1994
1995        this = expression.this
1996        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1997
1998        if on_sql:
1999            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2000            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2001            if using:
2002                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2003            else:
2004                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2005        elif not op_sql:
2006            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2007                return f" {this_sql}"
2008
2009            return f", {this_sql}"
2010
2011        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2012            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2013
2014        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2015
2016    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2017        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2018        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2019        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2020
2021    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2022        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2023
2024        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2025        if cross_apply is True:
2026            op = "INNER JOIN "
2027        elif cross_apply is False:
2028            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2029        else:
2030            op = ""
2031
2032        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2033
2034    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2035        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2036
2037        if expression.args.get("view"):
2038            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2039            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2040            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2041            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2042            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2043            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2044
2045        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2046        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2047        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2048
2049    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2050        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2051
2052        args = [
2053            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2054            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2055            if e
2056        ]
2057
2058        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2059        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2060        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2061        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2062
2063        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2064
2065    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2066        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2067        value = expression.expression
2068        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2069        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2070        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2071        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2072
2073    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2074        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2075        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2076        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2077        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2078        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2079        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2080        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2081        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2082
2083    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2084        expressions = (
2085            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2086        )
2087        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2088        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2089
2090    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2091        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2092
2093    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2094        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2095            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2096            return ""
2097
2098        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2099        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2100        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2101        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2102
2103        if wait is not None:
2104            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2105                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2106            else:
2107                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2108
2109        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2110
2111    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2112        text = expression.this or ""
2113        if expression.is_string:
2114            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2115        return text
2116
2117    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2118        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2119            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2120            text = "".join(
2121                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2122            )
2123
2124        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2125            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2126        )
2127
2128    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2129        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2130        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2131        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2132        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2133        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2134        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2135        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2136        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2137        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2138        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2139        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2140
2141    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2142        return "NULL"
2143
2144    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2145        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2146
2147    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2148        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2149        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2150        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2151        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2152        interpolated_values = [
2153            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2154            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2155        ]
2156        interpolate = (
2157            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2158        )
2159        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2160
2161    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2162        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2163        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2164        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2165        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2166        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2167        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2168        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2169
2170    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2171        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2172
2173    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2174        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2175
2176    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2177        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2178
2179    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2180        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2181        asc = not desc
2182
2183        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2184        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2185        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2186        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2187        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2188
2189        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2190
2191        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2192        nulls_sort_change = ""
2193        if nulls_first and (
2194            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2195        ):
2196            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2197        elif (
2198            nulls_last
2199            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2200            and not nulls_are_last
2201        ):
2202            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2203
2204        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2205        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2206            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2207            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2208                self.unsupported(
2209                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2210                )
2211                nulls_sort_change = ""
2212            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2213                if expression.this.is_int:
2214                    self.unsupported(
2215                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2216                    )
2217                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2218                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2219                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2220                nulls_sort_change = ""
2221
2222        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2223        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2224
2225        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2226
2227    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2228        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2229        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2230
2231        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2232
2233        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2234
2235    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2236        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2237        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2238        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2239        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2240        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2241        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2242        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2243        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2244        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2245        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2246        definition_sqls = [
2247            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2248            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2249        ]
2250        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2251        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2252        body = "".join(
2253            (
2254                partition,
2255                order,
2256                measures,
2257                rows,
2258                after,
2259                pattern,
2260                define,
2261            )
2262        )
2263        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2264        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2265        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2266
2267    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2268        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2269
2270        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2271            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2272        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2273            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2274
2275        return csv(
2276            *sqls,
2277            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2278            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2279            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2280            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2281            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2282            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2283            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2284            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2285            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2286            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2287            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2288            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2289            self.options_modifier(expression),
2290            sep="",
2291        )
2292
2293    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2294        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2295        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2296
2297    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2298        return ""
2299
2300    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2301        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2302    ) -> t.List[str]:
2303        return [
2304            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2305            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2306        ]
2307
2308    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2309        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2310        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2311        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2312
2313    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2314        into = expression.args.get("into")
2315        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2316            into.pop()
2317
2318        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2319        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2320        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2321        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2322
2323        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2324        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2325            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2326            limit.pop()
2327        else:
2328            top = ""
2329
2330        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2331
2332        if kind:
2333            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2334                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2335            else:
2336                if kind == "STRUCT":
2337                    expressions = self.expressions(
2338                        sqls=[
2339                            self.sql(
2340                                exp.Struct(
2341                                    expressions=[
2342                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2343                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2344                                        else e
2345                                        for e in expression.expressions
2346                                    ]
2347                                )
2348                            )
2349                        ]
2350                    )
2351                kind = ""
2352
2353        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2354        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2355        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2356        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2357        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2358            expression,
2359            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2360            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2361            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2362        )
2363
2364        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2365
2366        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2367            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2368                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2369            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2370                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2371            else:
2372                table_kind = ""
2373            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2374
2375        return sql
2376
2377    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2378        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2379        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2380        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2381
2382    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2383        if expression.expressions:
2384            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2385        return ""
2386
2387    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2388        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2389        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2390        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2391        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2392        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2393        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2394        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2395
2396    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2397        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2398        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2399
2400    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2401        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2402        kind = expression.text("kind")
2403        if kind:
2404            kind = f"{kind}."
2405        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2406
2407    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2408        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2409
2410    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2411        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2412        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2413        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2414        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2415        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2416
2417    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2418        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2419        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2420
2421    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2422        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2423            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2424            order = expression.args.get("order")
2425
2426            if limit or order:
2427                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2428
2429                if limit:
2430                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2431                if order:
2432                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2433                return self.sql(select)
2434
2435        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2436        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2437
2438        while stack:
2439            node = stack.pop()
2440
2441            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2442                stack.append(node.expression)
2443                stack.append(
2444                    self.maybe_comment(
2445                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2446                        comments=node.comments,
2447                        separated=True,
2448                    )
2449                )
2450                stack.append(node.this)
2451            else:
2452                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2453
2454        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2455        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2456        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2457
2458    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2459        return self.set_operations(expression)
2460
2461    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2462        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2463        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2464        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2465        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2466
2467    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2468        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2469
2470        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2471        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2472
2473        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2474            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2475                alias.append("columns", offset)
2476
2477        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2478            columns = alias.columns
2479            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2480        else:
2481            alias = self.sql(alias)
2482
2483        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2484        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2485            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2486        else:
2487            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2488                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2489            elif offset:
2490                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2491            else:
2492                suffix = alias
2493
2494        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2495
2496    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2497        return ""
2498
2499    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2500        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2501        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2502
2503    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2504        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2505        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2506        order = expression.args.get("order")
2507        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2508        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2509        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2510        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2511
2512        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2513
2514        first = expression.args.get("first")
2515        if first is None:
2516            first = ""
2517        else:
2518            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2519
2520        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2521            return f"{this} {alias}"
2522
2523        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2524        return f"{this} ({args})"
2525
2526    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2527        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2528        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2529
2530    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2531        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2532        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2533        end = (
2534            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2535            or "CURRENT ROW"
2536        )
2537        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2538
2539    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2540        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2541        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2542        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2543
2544    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2545        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2546        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2547        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2548        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2549
2550    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2551        return apply_index_offset(
2552            expression.this,
2553            expression.expressions,
2554            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2555        )
2556
2557    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2558        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2559        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2560        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2561
2562    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2563        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2564
2565    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2566        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2567        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2568            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2569                this = self.wrap(this)
2570            return f"ANY{this}"
2571        return f"ANY {this}"
2572
2573    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2574        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2575
2576    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2577        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2578        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2579
2580        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2581            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2582            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2583
2584        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2585
2586        if default:
2587            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2588
2589        statements.append("END")
2590
2591        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2592            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2593
2594        return " ".join(statements)
2595
2596    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2597        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2598        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2599        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2600
2601    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2602        order = expression.args.get("order")
2603        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2604        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2605
2606    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2607        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2608        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2609        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2610
2611    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2612        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2613
2614        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2615            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2616        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2617            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2618        else:
2619            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2620
2621    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2622        args = expression.expressions
2623        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2624            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2625
2626        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2627            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2628
2629        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2630            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2631
2632        return args
2633
2634    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2635        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2636
2637        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2638        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2639            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2640
2641        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2642
2643    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2644        return self.func(
2645            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2646        )
2647
2648    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2649        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2650        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2651
2652    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2653        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2654        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2655        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2656        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2657        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2658        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2659        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2660        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2661
2662    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2663        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2664        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2665        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2666        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2667
2668    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2669        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2670
2671    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2672        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2673        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2674        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2675
2676    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2677        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2678
2679    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2680        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2681        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2682            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2683
2684        return path
2685
2686    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2687        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2688            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2689            if not callable(transform):
2690                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2691                return ""
2692
2693            return transform(self, expression)
2694
2695        if isinstance(expression, int):
2696            return str(expression)
2697
2698        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2699            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2700            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2701        else:
2702            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2703            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2704
2705        return escaped
2706
2707    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2708        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2709
2710    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2711        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2712        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2713
2714        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2715        if unique_keys is not None:
2716            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2717        else:
2718            unique_keys = ""
2719
2720        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2721        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2722        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2723        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2724
2725        return self.func(
2726            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2727            *expression.expressions,
2728            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2729        )
2730
2731    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2732        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2733
2734    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2735        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2736        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2737        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2738        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2739        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2740        return self.func(
2741            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2742        )
2743
2744    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2745        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2746        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2747        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2748        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2749        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2750        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2751        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2752        return self.func(
2753            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2754            this,
2755            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2756        )
2757
2758    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2759        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2760        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2761        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2762
2763        if nested_schema:
2764            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2765
2766        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2767        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2768        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2769        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2770
2771    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2772        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2773
2774    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2775        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2776        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2777        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2778        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2779        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2780        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2781        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2782        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2783        return self.func(
2784            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2785        )
2786
2787    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2788        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2789        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2790        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2791        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2792        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2793        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2794
2795    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2797        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2798        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2799        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2800        with_ = (
2801            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2802            if expressions
2803            else ""
2804        )
2805        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2806
2807    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2808        query = expression.args.get("query")
2809        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2810        field = expression.args.get("field")
2811        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2812
2813        if query:
2814            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2815        elif unnest:
2816            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2817        elif field:
2818            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2819        else:
2820            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2821
2822        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2823
2824    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2825        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2826
2827    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2828        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2829        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2830            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2831        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2832
2833        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2834            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2835            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2836
2837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2838        if this:
2839            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2840            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2841
2842        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2843
2844    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2845        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2846
2847    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2849        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2850        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2851        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2852        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2853        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2854
2855    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2856        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2857
2858    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2859        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2860        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2861
2862    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2863        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2864        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2865        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2866        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2867
2868    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2869        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2870
2871    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2872        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2873        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2874        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2875
2876    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2877        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2878        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2879
2880        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2881            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2882        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2883            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2884
2885        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2886
2887    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2888        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2889
2890    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2891        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2892        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2893        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2894
2895    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2896        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2897        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2898        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2899
2900    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2902        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2903        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2904
2905    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2906        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2907
2908    def and_sql(
2909        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2910    ) -> str:
2911        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2912
2913    def or_sql(
2914        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2915    ) -> str:
2916        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2917
2918    def xor_sql(
2919        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2920    ) -> str:
2921        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2922
2923    def connector_sql(
2924        self,
2925        expression: exp.Connector,
2926        op: str,
2927        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2928    ) -> str:
2929        if stack is not None:
2930            if expression.expressions:
2931                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2932            else:
2933                stack.append(expression.right)
2934                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2935                    for comment in expression.comments:
2936                        if comment:
2937                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2938                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2939            return op
2940
2941        stack = [expression]
2942        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2943        ops = set()
2944
2945        while stack:
2946            node = stack.pop()
2947            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2948                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2949            else:
2950                sql = self.sql(node)
2951                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2952                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2953                else:
2954                    sqls.append(sql)
2955
2956        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2957        return sep.join(sqls)
2958
2959    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2960        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2961
2962    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2963        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2964
2965    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2966        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2967
2968    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2969        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2970
2971    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2972        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2973
2974    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2975        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2976
2977    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2978        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2979        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2980        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2981        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2982        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2983        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2984        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2985
2986    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2987        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2988        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2989
2990    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2991        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2992            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2993        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2994
2995    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2996        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2997
2998    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2999        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3000        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3001        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3002        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3003        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3004        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3005
3006    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3007        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3008        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3009        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3010        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3011        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3012        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3013        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3014        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3015        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3016
3017    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3018        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3019        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3020        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3021        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3022
3023        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3024            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3025
3026        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3027
3028    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3029        return "BEGIN"
3030
3031    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3032        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3033        if chain is not None:
3034            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3035
3036        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3037
3038    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3039        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3040        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3041        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3042
3043    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3044        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3045
3046        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3047        if dtype:
3048            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3049            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3050            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3051            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3052            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3053
3054        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3055        if default:
3056            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3057
3058        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3059        if comment:
3060            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3061
3062        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3063        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3064
3065        if not drop and not allow_null:
3066            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3067
3068        if allow_null is not None:
3069            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3070            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3071
3072        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3073
3074    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3075        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3076        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3077            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3078        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3079
3080    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3081        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3083        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3084        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3085        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3086
3087    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3088        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3089            # Remove db from tables
3090            expression = expression.transform(
3091                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3092            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3093        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3094        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3095
3096    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3097        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3098        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3099        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3100        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3101
3102    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3103        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3104        return f"SET {exprs}"
3105
3106    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3107        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3108
3109        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3110            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3111        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3112            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3113        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3114            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3115        else:
3116            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3117
3118        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3119        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3120        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3121        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3122        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3123        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3124        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3125
3126    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3127        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3128            return self.expressions(
3129                expression,
3130                key="actions",
3131                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3132                skip_first=True,
3133            )
3134        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3135
3136    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3137        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3138        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3139        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3140
3141    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3142        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3143
3144    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3145        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3146
3147        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3148            case = exp.case()
3149            for arg in expression.expressions:
3150                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3151            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3152
3153        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3154
3155        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3156        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3157        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3158
3159    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3160        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3161
3162    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3163        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3164
3165    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3166        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3167        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3168        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3169        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3170
3171    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3172        return self.sql(
3173            exp.Cast(
3174                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3175                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3176            )
3177        )
3178
3179    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3180        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3181            return self.func(
3182                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3183            )
3184        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3185
3186    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3187        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3188
3189        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3190            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3191
3192        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3193            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3194                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3195
3196        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3197            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3198                return self.sql(
3199                    exp.cast(
3200                        l / r,
3201                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3202                    )
3203                )
3204
3205        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3206
3207    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3208        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3209
3210    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3211        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3212
3213    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3214        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3215
3216    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3217        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3218
3219    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3220        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3221
3222    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3223        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3224
3225    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3226        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3227
3228    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3229        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3230
3231    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3232        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3233
3234    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3235        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3236
3237    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3238        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3239
3240    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3241        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3242            return self.sql(
3243                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3244            )
3245        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3246
3247    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3248        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3249
3250    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3251        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3252
3253    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3254        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3255
3256    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3257        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3258
3259    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3260        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3261
3262    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3263        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3264
3265    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3266        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3267
3268    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3269        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3270
3271    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3272        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3273
3274    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3275        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3276
3277    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3278        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3279
3280    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3281        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3282
3283    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3284        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3285
3286    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3287        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3288            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3289            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3290
3291        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3292
3293    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3294        this = expression.this
3295        expr = expression.expression
3296
3297        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3298            this, expr = expr, this
3299        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3300            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3301                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3302
3303            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3304
3305        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3306
3307    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3308        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3309        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3310        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3311        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3312        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3313
3314    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3315        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3316        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3317
3318    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3319        args = []
3320
3321        for key in expression.arg_types:
3322            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3323
3324            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3325                for value in arg_value:
3326                    args.append(value)
3327            elif arg_value is not None:
3328                args.append(arg_value)
3329
3330        if self.normalize_functions:
3331            name = expression.sql_name()
3332        else:
3333            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3334
3335        return self.func(name, *args)
3336
3337    def func(
3338        self,
3339        name: str,
3340        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3341        prefix: str = "(",
3342        suffix: str = ")",
3343    ) -> str:
3344        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3345
3346    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3347        arg_sqls = tuple(
3348            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3349        )
3350        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3351            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3352        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3353
3354    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3355        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3356
3357    def format_time(
3358        self,
3359        expression: exp.Expression,
3360        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3361        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3362    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3363        return format_time(
3364            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3365            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3366            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3367        )
3368
3369    def expressions(
3370        self,
3371        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3372        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3373        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3374        flat: bool = False,
3375        indent: bool = True,
3376        skip_first: bool = False,
3377        skip_last: bool = False,
3378        sep: str = ", ",
3379        prefix: str = "",
3380        dynamic: bool = False,
3381        new_line: bool = False,
3382    ) -> str:
3383        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3384
3385        if not expressions:
3386            return ""
3387
3388        if flat:
3389            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3390
3391        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3392        result_sqls = []
3393
3394        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3395            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3396            if not sql:
3397                continue
3398
3399            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3400
3401            if self.pretty:
3402                if self.leading_comma:
3403                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3404                else:
3405                    result_sqls.append(
3406                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3407                    )
3408            else:
3409                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3410
3411        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3412            if new_line:
3413                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3414                result_sqls.append("")
3415            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3416        else:
3417            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3418        return (
3419            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3420            if indent
3421            else result_sql
3422        )
3423
3424    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3425        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3426        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3427        if flat:
3428            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3429        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3430
3431    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3432        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3433        if not property_name:
3434            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3435        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3436
3437    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3438        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3439
3440    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3441        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3442
3443    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3444        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3445        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3446        expressions = (
3447            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3448        )
3449        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3450
3451    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3452        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3453        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3454        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3455
3456    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3457        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3458
3459    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3460        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3461        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3462        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3463        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3464
3465        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3466        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3467            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3468            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3469            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3470            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3471        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3472            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3473                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3474            else:
3475                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3476        else:
3477            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3478        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3479
3480    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3481        table = expression.this
3482        table_alias = ""
3483
3484        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3485        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3486            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3487            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3488
3489        this = self.sql(table)
3490        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3491        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3492        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3493        sep = self.sep()
3494
3495        return self.prepend_ctes(
3496            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3497        )
3498
3499    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3500        if expression.args.get("format"):
3501            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3502
3503        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3504
3505    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3506        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3507            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3508            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3509
3510        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3511        if not fmt:
3512            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3513            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3514
3515        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3516
3517    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3518        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3519        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3520        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3521        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3522        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3523
3524    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3525        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3526        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3527        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3528        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3529
3530    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3531        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3532
3533    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3534        return ""
3535
3536    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3537        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3538        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3539        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3540        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3541        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3542
3543    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3544        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3545        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3546
3547        if having:
3548            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3549
3550        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3551
3552    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3553        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3554        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3555        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3556        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3557        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3558        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3559        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3560        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3561        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3562        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3563        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3564        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3565        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3566
3567    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3568        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3569        if key_block_size:
3570            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3571
3572        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3573        if using:
3574            return f"USING {using}"
3575
3576        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3577        if parser:
3578            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3579
3580        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3581        if comment:
3582            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3583
3584        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3585        if visible is not None:
3586            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3587
3588        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3589        if engine_attr:
3590            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3591
3592        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3593        if secondary_engine_attr:
3594            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3595
3596        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3597        return ""
3598
3599    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3600        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3601        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3602
3603    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3604        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3605        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3606        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3607        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3608        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3609        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3610        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3611        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3612        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3613        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3614        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3615
3616    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3617        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3618            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3619
3620        case = exp.Case().when(
3621            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3622            expression.args["true"],
3623            copy=False,
3624        )
3625        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3626        if else_cond:
3627            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3628
3629        return self.sql(case)
3630
3631    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3632        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3633        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3634        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3635        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3636        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3637        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3638
3639    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3640        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3641
3642    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3643        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3644
3645    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3646        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3647        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3648        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3649        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3650        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3651        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3652
3653    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3654        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3655        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3656        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3657
3658    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3659        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3660        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3661        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3662
3663    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3664        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3665
3666    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3667        arg = expression.this
3668        if not arg.type:
3669            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3670
3671            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3672
3673        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3674            return self.sql(arg)
3675
3676        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3677        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3678
3679    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3680        this = expression.this
3681        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3682            return self.sql(this)
3683
3684        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3685
3686    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3687        this = expression.this
3688        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3689            return self.sql(this)
3690
3691        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3692
3693    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3694        this = expression.this
3695        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3696
3697        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3698            return self.sql(
3699                exp.cast(
3700                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3701                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3702                )
3703            )
3704
3705        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3706            return self.sql(this)
3707
3708        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3709
3710    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3711        return self.sql(
3712            exp.func(
3713                "DATEDIFF",
3714                expression.this,
3715                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3716                "day",
3717            )
3718        )
3719
3720    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3721        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3722            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3723
3724        unit = expression.text("unit")
3725        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3726            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3727
3728        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3729
3730    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3731        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3732
3733        return self.func(
3734            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3735        )
3736
3737    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3738        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3739            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3740            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3741            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3742            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3743
3744        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3745
3746        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3747        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3748            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3749
3750        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3751
3752    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3753        expression.set(
3754            "expressions",
3755            [
3756                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3757                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3758                else e
3759                for e in expression.expressions
3760            ],
3761        )
3762
3763        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3764
3765    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3766        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3767        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3768
3769        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3770
3771    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3772        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3773        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3774
3775        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3776
3777        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3778        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3779
3780        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3781        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3782
3783        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3784        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3785
3786        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3787        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3788
3789        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3790
3791    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3792    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3793    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3794        to = expression.this
3795        value = expression.expression
3796        style = expression.args.get("style")
3797        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3798        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3799
3800        if not to or not value:
3801            return ""
3802
3803        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3804        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3805            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3806
3807        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3808        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3809
3810        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3811        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3812            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3813
3814            style_value = style.name
3815            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3816            if not converted_style:
3817                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3818
3819            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3820
3821            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3822                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3823            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3824                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3825            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3826                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3827            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3828                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3829
3830        if not transformed:
3831            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3832
3833        return self.sql(transformed)
3834
3835    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3836        this = expression.this
3837        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3838            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3839            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3840
3841        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3842            return f".{this}"
3843
3844        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3845        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3846
3847    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3848        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3849        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3850
3851    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3852        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3853            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3854
3855            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3856
3857        return expression
3858
3859    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3860        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3861            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3862            mods = sorted(
3863                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3864                key=lambda x: 0
3865                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3866                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3867            )
3868
3869            if mods:
3870                mod = mods[0]
3871                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3872                this.meta["inline"] = True
3873                mod.this.replace(this)
3874                return self.sql(expression.this)
3875
3876            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3877
3878            if agg_func:
3879                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3880
3881        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3882
3883    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3884        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3885        if self.pretty:
3886            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3887        return string
3888
3889    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3890        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3891
3892        if expression.expressions:
3893            upper = option.upper()
3894
3895            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3896            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3897
3898            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3899            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3900            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3901            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3902
3903        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3904
3905        if not value:
3906            return option
3907
3908        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3909
3910        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3911
3912    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3913        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3914        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3915            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3916            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3917            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3918        else:
3919            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3920            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3921            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3922
3923        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3924        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3925
3926        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3927        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3928
3929        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3930        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3931
3932        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3933        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3934
3935        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3936
3937    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3939        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3940
3941        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3942        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3943        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3944        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3945
3946        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3947        params = self.expressions(
3948            expression,
3949            key="params",
3950            sep=sep,
3951            new_line=True,
3952            skip_last=True,
3953            skip_first=True,
3954            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3955        )
3956
3957        if params:
3958            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3959                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3960            elif not self.pretty:
3961                params = f" {params}"
3962
3963        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3964
3965    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3966        return ""
3967
3968    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3969        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3970        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3971        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3972        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3973        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3974
3975        if filter_col or retention_period:
3976            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3977
3978        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
3979
3980    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3981        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3982    ) -> str:
3983        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3984        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3985        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3986        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
3987
3988    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
3989        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3990        this = f"TABLE {this}"
3991        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
3992
3993    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
3994        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
3995
3996    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
3997        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3998        expr = expression.expression
3999
4000        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4001            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4002            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4003        else:
4004            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4005
4006        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4007
4008    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4009        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4010            return self.sql(expression.this)
4011
4012        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4013
4014    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4015        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4016        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4017
4018        if lower and upper:
4019            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4020        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4021
4022    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4023        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4024        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4025        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4026        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4027        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4028        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4029
4030        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4031
4032    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4033        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4034
4035        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4036        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4037            fill_pattern = "' '"
4038
4039        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4040
4041    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4042        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4043        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"