sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.AnalyzeColumns: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 118        exp.AnalyzeWith: lambda self, e: self.expressions(e, prefix="WITH ", sep=" "),
 119        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 120        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 121        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 124        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 125        exp.Ceil: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 126        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 128        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 130        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 131        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.ConvertToCharset: lambda self, e: self.func(
 135            "CONVERT", e.this, e.args["dest"], e.args.get("source")
 136        ),
 137        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 138        exp.CredentialsProperty: lambda self,
 139        e: f"CREDENTIALS=({self.expressions(e, 'expressions', sep=' ')})",
 140        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 141        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 142        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 143        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 144        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 145        exp.EnviromentProperty: lambda self, e: f"ENVIRONMENT ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 146        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 147        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 148        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 149        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 150        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 151        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 152        exp.Floor: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
 153        exp.Get: lambda self, e: self.get_put_sql(e),
 154        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 155        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 156        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 157        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 158        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 159        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 160        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 161        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 162        exp.Int64: lambda self, e: self.sql(exp.cast(e.this, exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT)),
 163        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 164        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 165        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 166        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 167        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 168        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 169        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 170        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 171        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 172        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 173        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 174        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 175        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 176        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 177        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 178        exp.PartitionedByBucket: lambda self, e: self.func("BUCKET", e.this, e.expression),
 179        exp.PartitionByTruncate: lambda self, e: self.func("TRUNCATE", e.this, e.expression),
 180        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 181        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 182        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 183        exp.Put: lambda self, e: self.get_put_sql(e),
 184        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 185        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 186        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 187            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 188        ),
 189        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 190        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 191        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 192        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 193        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 194        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 195        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 196        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 197        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 198        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 199        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 200        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 201        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 202        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 203        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.Tags: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 205        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 206        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 207        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 208        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 209        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 210        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 211        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 212        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 213        exp.UsingTemplateProperty: lambda self, e: f"USING TEMPLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 214        exp.UsingData: lambda self, e: f"USING DATA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 215        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 216        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 217        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 218        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 219        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 220        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 221        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 222        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 223        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 224        exp.ForceProperty: lambda *_: "FORCE",
 225    }
 226
 227    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 228    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 229    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 230    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 231
 232    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 233    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 234    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 235
 236    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 237    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 238
 239    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 240    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 241
 242    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 243    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 244
 245    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 246    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 247
 248    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 249    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 250
 251    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 252    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 253
 254    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 255    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 256
 257    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 258    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 259
 260    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 261    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 262
 263    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 264    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 265
 266    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 267    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 268
 269    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 270    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 271
 272    # Whether join hints should be generated
 273    JOIN_HINTS = True
 274
 275    # Whether table hints should be generated
 276    TABLE_HINTS = True
 277
 278    # Whether query hints should be generated
 279    QUERY_HINTS = True
 280
 281    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 282    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 283
 284    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 285    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 286
 287    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 288    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 289
 290    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 291    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 292
 293    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 294    RETURNING_END = True
 295
 296    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 297    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 298
 299    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 300    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 301
 302    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 303    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 304
 305    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 306    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 307
 308    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 309    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 310    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 311    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 312
 313    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 314    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 315
 316    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 317    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 318
 319    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 320    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 321
 322    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 323    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 324
 325    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 326    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 327
 328    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 329    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 330
 331    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 332    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 333
 334    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 335    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 336
 337    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 338    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 339
 340    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 341    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 342
 343    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 344    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 345
 346    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 347    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 348
 349    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 350    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 351
 352    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 353    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 354
 355    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 356    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 357
 358    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 359    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 360
 361    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 362    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 363
 364    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 365    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 366
 367    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 368    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 369
 370    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 371    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 372
 373    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 374    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 375
 376    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 377    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 378
 379    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 380    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 381
 382    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 383    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 384
 385    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 386    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 387
 388    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 389    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 390    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 391
 392    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 393    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 394
 395    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 396    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 397
 398    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 399    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 400
 401    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 402    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 403
 404    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 405    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 406
 407    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 408    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 409
 410    # Whether EXCLUDE in window specification is supported
 411    SUPPORTS_WINDOW_EXCLUDE = False
 412
 413    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 414    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 415    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 416    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 417
 418    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 419    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 420
 421    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 422    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 423
 424    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 425    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 426
 427    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 428    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 429
 430    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 431    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 432
 433    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 434    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 435
 436    # The HEX function name
 437    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 438
 439    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 440    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 441
 442    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 443    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 444
 445    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 446    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 447
 448    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 449    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 450
 451    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 452    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 453
 454    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 455    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 456
 457    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
 458    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
 459
 460    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
 461    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
 462
 463    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 464    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 465
 466    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
 467    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
 468
 469    # The syntax to use when altering the type of a column
 470    ALTER_SET_TYPE = "SET DATA TYPE"
 471
 472    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
 473    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
 474    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
 475    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
 476    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
 477
 478    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 479        exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2: "TIMESTAMP",
 480        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 481        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 482        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 483        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 484        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 485        exp.DataType.Type.BLOB: "VARBINARY",
 486        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 487        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 488        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 489        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 490        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 491        exp.DataType.Type.SMALLDATETIME: "TIMESTAMP",
 492    }
 493
 494    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 495        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 496        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 497        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 498        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 499        "DAYS": "DAY",
 500        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 501        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 502        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 503        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 504    }
 505
 506    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 507        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 508        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 509        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 510        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 511            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 512            if e.args.get("windows")
 513            else ""
 514        ),
 515        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 516    }
 517
 518    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 519
 520    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 521
 522    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 523    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 524
 525    EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: t.Set[str] = set()
 526
 527    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 528        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 529        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 530        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 531        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 532        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 533        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 534        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 535        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 536        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 539        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 541        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 542        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 543        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 544        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 545        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 546        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 547        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 548        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 549        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 550        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 551        exp.EncodeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 552        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 553        exp.EnviromentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 554        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 555        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 556        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 557        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 558        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 559        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 560        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 561        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 563        exp.IncludeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 564        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 565        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 566        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 567        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 568        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 569        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 570        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 571        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 572        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 573        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 574        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 575        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 576        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 577        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 578        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 579        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 580        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 581        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 582        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 583        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 584        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 585        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 586        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 587        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 588        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 589        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 590        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 591        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 592        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 593        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 594        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 595        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 596        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 597        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 598        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 599        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 600        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 601        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 602        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 603        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 604        exp.StorageHandlerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 605        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 606        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 607        exp.Tags: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 608        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 609        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 610        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 611        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 612        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 613        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 614        exp.UsingTemplateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 615        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 616        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 617        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 618        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 619        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 620        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 621        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 622        exp.ForceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 623    }
 624
 625    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 626    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 627
 628    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 629    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 630        exp.Command,
 631        exp.Create,
 632        exp.Describe,
 633        exp.Delete,
 634        exp.Drop,
 635        exp.From,
 636        exp.Insert,
 637        exp.Join,
 638        exp.MultitableInserts,
 639        exp.Select,
 640        exp.SetOperation,
 641        exp.Update,
 642        exp.Where,
 643        exp.With,
 644    )
 645
 646    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 647    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 648        exp.Binary,
 649        exp.SetOperation,
 650    )
 651
 652    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 653    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 654        exp.Column,
 655        exp.Literal,
 656        exp.Neg,
 657        exp.Paren,
 658    )
 659
 660    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 661        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 662        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 663        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 664        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 665    }
 666
 667    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 668    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 669
 670    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 671
 672    __slots__ = (
 673        "pretty",
 674        "identify",
 675        "normalize",
 676        "pad",
 677        "_indent",
 678        "normalize_functions",
 679        "unsupported_level",
 680        "max_unsupported",
 681        "leading_comma",
 682        "max_text_width",
 683        "comments",
 684        "dialect",
 685        "unsupported_messages",
 686        "_escaped_quote_end",
 687        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 688        "_next_name",
 689        "_identifier_start",
 690        "_identifier_end",
 691        "_quote_json_path_key_using_brackets",
 692    )
 693
 694    def __init__(
 695        self,
 696        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 697        identify: str | bool = False,
 698        normalize: bool = False,
 699        pad: int = 2,
 700        indent: int = 2,
 701        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 702        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 703        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 704        leading_comma: bool = False,
 705        max_text_width: int = 80,
 706        comments: bool = True,
 707        dialect: DialectType = None,
 708    ):
 709        import sqlglot
 710        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 711
 712        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 713        self.identify = identify
 714        self.normalize = normalize
 715        self.pad = pad
 716        self._indent = indent
 717        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 718        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 719        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 720        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 721        self.comments = comments
 722        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 723
 724        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 725        self.normalize_functions = (
 726            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 727        )
 728
 729        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 730        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 731            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 732        )
 733        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 734
 735        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 736
 737        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 738        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 739
 740        self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets = True
 741
 742    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 743        """
 744        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 745
 746        Args:
 747            expression: The syntax tree.
 748            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 749                it is safer to copy.
 750
 751        Returns:
 752            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 753        """
 754        if copy:
 755            expression = expression.copy()
 756
 757        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 758
 759        self.unsupported_messages = []
 760        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 761
 762        if self.pretty:
 763            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 764
 765        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 766            return sql
 767
 768        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 769            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 770                logger.warning(msg)
 771        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 772            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 773
 774        return sql
 775
 776    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 777        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 778        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 779
 780        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 781            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 782
 783            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 784
 785        return expression
 786
 787    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 788        if (
 789            not expression.parent
 790            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 791            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 792        ):
 793            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 794
 795            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 796        return expression
 797
 798    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 799        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 800            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 801        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 802
 803    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 804        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 805
 806    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 807        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 808
 809    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 810        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 811        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 812        return comment
 813
 814    def maybe_comment(
 815        self,
 816        sql: str,
 817        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 818        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 819        separated: bool = False,
 820    ) -> str:
 821        comments = (
 822            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 823            if self.comments
 824            else None
 825        )
 826
 827        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 828            return sql
 829
 830        comments_sql = " ".join(
 831            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 832        )
 833
 834        if not comments_sql:
 835            return sql
 836
 837        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 838
 839        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 840            return (
 841                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 842                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 843                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 844            )
 845
 846        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 847
 848    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 849        this_sql = (
 850            self.sql(expression)
 851            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 852            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 853        )
 854        if not this_sql:
 855            return "()"
 856
 857        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 858        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 859
 860    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 861        original = self.identify
 862        self.identify = False
 863        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 864        self.identify = original
 865        return result
 866
 867    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 868        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 869            return name.upper()
 870        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 871            return name.lower()
 872        return name
 873
 874    def indent(
 875        self,
 876        sql: str,
 877        level: int = 0,
 878        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 879        skip_first: bool = False,
 880        skip_last: bool = False,
 881    ) -> str:
 882        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 883            return sql
 884
 885        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 886        lines = sql.split("\n")
 887
 888        return "\n".join(
 889            (
 890                line
 891                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 892                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 893            )
 894            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 895        )
 896
 897    def sql(
 898        self,
 899        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 900        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 901        comment: bool = True,
 902    ) -> str:
 903        if not expression:
 904            return ""
 905
 906        if isinstance(expression, str):
 907            return expression
 908
 909        if key:
 910            value = expression.args.get(key)
 911            if value:
 912                return self.sql(value)
 913            return ""
 914
 915        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 916
 917        if callable(transform):
 918            sql = transform(self, expression)
 919        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 920            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 921
 922            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 923                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 924            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 925                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 926            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 927                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 928            else:
 929                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 930        else:
 931            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 932
 933        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 934
 935    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 936        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 937        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 938        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 939
 940    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 941        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 942        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 943        options = expression.args.get("options")
 944        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 945        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 946        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 947        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 948        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 949
 950    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 951        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 952            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 953        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 954        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 955
 956    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 957        return ".".join(
 958            self.sql(part)
 959            for part in (
 960                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 961                expression.args.get("db"),
 962                expression.args.get("table"),
 963                expression.args.get("this"),
 964            )
 965            if part
 966        )
 967
 968    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 969        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 970
 971        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 972            join_mark = ""
 973            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 974
 975        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 976
 977    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 978        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 979        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 980        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 981        return f"{position}{this}"
 982
 983    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 984        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 985        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 986        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 987        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 988        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 989        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 990        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 991        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 992
 993        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 994            kind = ""
 995
 996        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 997
 998    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 999        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1000        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
1001        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
1002
1003    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
1004        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1005        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
1006            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
1007        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
1008            persisted = " PERSISTED"
1009        else:
1010            persisted = ""
1011        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
1012
1013    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
1014        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
1015
1016    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
1017        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1018            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
1019        else:
1020            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1021
1022        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
1023
1024    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
1025        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
1026    ) -> str:
1027        this = ""
1028        if expression.this is not None:
1029            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
1030            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
1031
1032        start = expression.args.get("start")
1033        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1034        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
1035        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1036        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
1037        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1038        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
1039        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1040        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
1041        cycle_sql = ""
1042
1043        if cycle is not None:
1044            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
1045            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
1046
1047        sequence_opts = ""
1048        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
1049            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
1050            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
1051
1052        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1053        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1054
1055        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
1056
1057    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1058        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1059    ) -> str:
1060        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1061        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1062        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1063
1064    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1065        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1066    ) -> str:
1067        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1068
1069    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1070        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1071
1072    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1073        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1074
1075    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1076        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1077        if desc is not None:
1078            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1079        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1080        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1081        return f"PRIMARY KEY{options}"
1082
1083    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1084        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1085        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1086        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1087        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1088        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1089        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1090        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1091        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1092        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1093        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}{options}"
1094
1095    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1096        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1097
1098    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1099        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1100        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1101        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1102        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1103
1104        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1105
1106        properties_sql = ""
1107        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1108            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1109        ):
1110            properties_sql = self.sql(
1111                exp.Properties(
1112                    expressions=[
1113                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1114                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1115                    ]
1116                )
1117            )
1118
1119            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1120                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1121            elif not self.pretty:
1122                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1123                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1124
1125        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1126        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1127
1128        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1129        if expression_sql:
1130            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1131
1132            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1133                postalias_props_sql = ""
1134                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1135                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1136                        exp.Properties(
1137                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1138                        ),
1139                        wrapped=False,
1140                    )
1141                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1142                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1143
1144        postindex_props_sql = ""
1145        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1146            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1147                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1148                wrapped=False,
1149                prefix=" ",
1150            )
1151
1152        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1153        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1154        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1155
1156        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1157        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1158        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1159
1160        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1161        if clustered is None:
1162            clustered_sql = ""
1163        elif clustered:
1164            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1165        else:
1166            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1167
1168        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1169        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1170            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1171                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1172                sep=" ",
1173                prefix=" ",
1174                wrapped=False,
1175            )
1176
1177        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1178
1179        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1180        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1181            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1182                exp.Properties(
1183                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1184                ),
1185                sep=" ",
1186                prefix=" ",
1187                wrapped=False,
1188            )
1189
1190        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1191        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1192        no_schema_binding = (
1193            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1194        )
1195
1196        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1197        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1198
1199        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
1200            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
1201        else:
1202            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"
1203
1204        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1205        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1206
1207    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1208        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1209        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1210        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1211        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1212        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1213        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1214        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1215        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1216        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1217        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1218
1219        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1220        if cache is None:
1221            cache_str = ""
1222        elif cache is True:
1223            cache_str = " CACHE"
1224        else:
1225            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1226
1227        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1228        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1229
1230        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1231
1232    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1234        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1235        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1236        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1237
1238    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1239        style = expression.args.get("style")
1240        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1241        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1242        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1243        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1244        format = f" {format}" if format else ""
1245
1246        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1247
1248    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1249        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1250        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1251
1252    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1253        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1254        if with_:
1255            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1256        return sql
1257
1258    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1259        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1260        recursive = (
1261            "RECURSIVE "
1262            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1263            else ""
1264        )
1265        search = self.sql(expression, "search")
1266        search = f" {search}" if search else ""
1267
1268        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}{search}"
1269
1270    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1271        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1272        if alias:
1273            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1274
1275        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1276
1277        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1278        if materialized is False:
1279            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1280        elif materialized:
1281            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1282
1283        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1284
1285    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1286        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1287        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1288        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1289
1290        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1291            columns = ""
1292            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1293
1294        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1295            alias = self._next_name()
1296
1297        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1298
1299    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1300        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1301        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1302            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1303        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1304
1305    def hexstring_sql(
1306        self, expression: exp.HexString, binary_function_repr: t.Optional[str] = None
1307    ) -> str:
1308        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1309        is_integer_type = expression.args.get("is_integer")
1310
1311        if (is_integer_type and not self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE) or (
1312            not self.dialect.HEX_START and not binary_function_repr
1313        ):
1314            # Integer representation will be returned if:
1315            # - The read dialect treats the hex value as integer literal but not the write
1316            # - The transpilation is not supported (write dialect hasn't set HEX_START or the param flag)
1317            return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1318
1319        if not is_integer_type:
1320            # Read dialect treats the hex value as BINARY/BLOB
1321            if binary_function_repr:
1322                # The write dialect supports the transpilation to its equivalent BINARY/BLOB
1323                return self.func(binary_function_repr, exp.Literal.string(this))
1324            if self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE:
1325                # The write dialect does not support the transpilation, it'll treat the hex value as INTEGER
1326                self.unsupported("Unsupported transpilation from BINARY/BLOB hex string")
1327
1328        return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1329
1330    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1331        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1332        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1333            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1334        return this
1335
1336    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1337        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1338        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1339
1340        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1341            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1342            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1343        else:
1344            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1345            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1346
1347        if escape:
1348            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1349            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1350        else:
1351            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1352            escape_sql = ""
1353
1354        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1355            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1356
1357        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1358
1359    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1360        string = expression.this
1361        if "\\" in self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES:
1362            string = string.replace("\\", "\\\\")
1363
1364        string = self.escape_str(string, escape_backslash=False)
1365        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1366
1367    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1368        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1369        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1370        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1371        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1372
1373    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1374        nested = ""
1375        values = ""
1376        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1377
1378        type_value = expression.this
1379        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1380            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1381        else:
1382            type_sql = (
1383                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1384                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1385                else type_value
1386            )
1387
1388        if interior:
1389            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1390                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1391                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1392                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1393                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1394                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1395            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1396                nested = f" {interior}"
1397            else:
1398                nested = f"({interior})"
1399
1400        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1401        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1402            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1403            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1404        ):
1405            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1406
1407        return type_sql
1408
1409    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1410        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1411        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1412        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1413        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1414
1415    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1416        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1417        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1418        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1419        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1420        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1421        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1422        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1423        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1424        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1425        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1426        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1427        if self.RETURNING_END:
1428            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1429        else:
1430            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1431        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1432
1433    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1434        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1435        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1436        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1437        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1438        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1439        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1440        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1441        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1442        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1443        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1444        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1445        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1446        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1447        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1448        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1449
1450    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1451        op_type = type(expression)
1452        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1453
1454        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1455        if (
1456            distinct is False
1457            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1458            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1459        ):
1460            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1461
1462        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1463
1464        if distinct is None:
1465            distinct = default_distinct
1466            if distinct is None:
1467                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1468
1469        if distinct is default_distinct:
1470            distinct_or_all = ""
1471        else:
1472            distinct_or_all = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1473
1474        side_kind = " ".join(filter(None, [expression.side, expression.kind]))
1475        side_kind = f"{side_kind} " if side_kind else ""
1476
1477        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1478        on = self.expressions(expression, key="on", flat=True)
1479        on = f" ON ({on})" if on else ""
1480
1481        return f"{side_kind}{op_name}{distinct_or_all}{by_name}{on}"
1482
1483    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1484        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1485            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1486            order = expression.args.get("order")
1487
1488            if limit or order:
1489                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1490                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1491                )
1492
1493                if limit:
1494                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1495                if order:
1496                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1497                return self.sql(select)
1498
1499        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1500        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1501
1502        while stack:
1503            node = stack.pop()
1504
1505            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1506                stack.append(node.expression)
1507                stack.append(
1508                    self.maybe_comment(
1509                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1510                    )
1511                )
1512                stack.append(node.this)
1513            else:
1514                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1515
1516        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1517        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1518        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1519
1520    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1521        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1522        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1523        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1524        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1525        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
1526        limit_options = f"{limit_options}" if limit_options else " ROWS ONLY"
1527        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count}{limit_options}"
1528
1529    def limitoptions_sql(self, expression: exp.LimitOptions) -> str:
1530        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1531        rows = " ROWS" if expression.args.get("rows") else ""
1532        with_ties = " WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else ""
1533        if not with_ties and rows:
1534            with_ties = " ONLY"
1535        return f"{percent}{rows}{with_ties}"
1536
1537    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1538        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1539            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1540            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1541            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1542
1543        agg = expression.this
1544        agg_arg = agg.this
1545        cond = expression.expression.this
1546        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1547        return self.sql(agg)
1548
1549    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1550        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1551            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1552            return ""
1553
1554        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1555
1556    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1557        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1558        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1559        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1560        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1561        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1562        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1563        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1564        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1565        if include:
1566            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1567        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1568        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1569        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1570        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1571        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1572        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1573
1574        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1575
1576    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1577        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1578        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1579        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1580        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1581        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1582        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1583        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1584
1585        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1586
1587        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1588        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1589
1590    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1591        text = expression.name
1592        lower = text.lower()
1593        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1594        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1595        if (
1596            expression.quoted
1597            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1598            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1599            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1600        ):
1601            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1602        return text
1603
1604    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1605        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1606        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1607            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1608
1609        return text
1610
1611    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1612        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1613        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1614            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1615        return text
1616
1617    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1618        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1619        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1620        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1621        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1622        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1623
1624    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1625        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1626        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1627
1628    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1629        partition_keyword = "SUBPARTITION" if expression.args.get("subpartition") else "PARTITION"
1630        return f"{partition_keyword}({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1631
1632    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1633        root_properties = []
1634        with_properties = []
1635
1636        for p in expression.expressions:
1637            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1638            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1639                with_properties.append(p)
1640            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1641                root_properties.append(p)
1642
1643        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1644        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1645
1646        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1647            with_props = " " + with_props
1648
1649        return root_props + with_props
1650
1651    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1652        if properties.expressions:
1653            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1654        return ""
1655
1656    def properties(
1657        self,
1658        properties: exp.Properties,
1659        prefix: str = "",
1660        sep: str = ", ",
1661        suffix: str = "",
1662        wrapped: bool = True,
1663    ) -> str:
1664        if properties.expressions:
1665            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1666            if expressions:
1667                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1668                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1669        return ""
1670
1671    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1672        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1673
1674    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1675        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1676        for p in properties.expressions:
1677            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1678            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1679                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1680            else:
1681                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1682
1683        return properties_locs
1684
1685    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1686        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1687            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1688        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1689
1690    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1691        property_cls = expression.__class__
1692        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1693            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1694
1695        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1696        if not property_name:
1697            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1698
1699        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1700
1701    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1702        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1703            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1704            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1705
1706            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1707            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1708                like = f"({like})"
1709
1710            return like
1711
1712        if expression.expressions:
1713            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1714
1715        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1716        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1717
1718    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1719        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1720        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1721        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1722
1723    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1724        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1725        local = expression.args.get("local")
1726        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1727        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1728        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1729        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1730        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1731
1732    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1733        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1734        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1735        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1736
1737    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1738        if expression.args.get("default"):
1739            property = "DEFAULT"
1740        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1741            property = "ON"
1742        else:
1743            property = "OFF"
1744        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1745
1746    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1747        if expression.args.get("no"):
1748            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1749        if expression.args.get("default"):
1750            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1751
1752        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1753        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1754
1755    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1756        default = expression.args.get("default")
1757        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1758        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1759        if default or minimum or maximum:
1760            if default:
1761                prop = "DEFAULT"
1762            elif minimum:
1763                prop = "MINIMUM"
1764            else:
1765                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1766            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1767        units = expression.args.get("units")
1768        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1769        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1770
1771    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1772        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1773        always = expression.args.get("always")
1774        default = expression.args.get("default")
1775        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1776        never = expression.args.get("never")
1777
1778        if autotemp is not None:
1779            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1780        elif always:
1781            prop = "ALWAYS"
1782        elif default:
1783            prop = "DEFAULT"
1784        elif manual:
1785            prop = "MANUAL"
1786        elif never:
1787            prop = "NEVER"
1788        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1789
1790    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1791        no = expression.args.get("no")
1792        no = " NO" if no else ""
1793        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1794        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1795        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1796        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1797        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1798
1799    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1800        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1801            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1802        if expression.this:
1803            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1804            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1805            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1806
1807        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1808        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1809        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1810
1811    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1812        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1813
1814        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1815        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1816            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1817        else:
1818            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1819
1820        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1821
1822    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1823        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1824        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1825        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1826        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1827        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1828        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1829        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1830
1831    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1832        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1833        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1834        statistics_sql = ""
1835        if statistics is not None:
1836            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1837        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1838
1839    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1840        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1841        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1842        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1843        data_consistency = (
1844            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1845        )
1846        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1847        retention_period = (
1848            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1849        )
1850
1851        if this:
1852            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1853        else:
1854            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1855
1856        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1857
1858        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1859
1860    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1861        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1862        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1863
1864        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1865            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1866        else:
1867            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1868
1869        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1870        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1871        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1872        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1873        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1874        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1875        if is_function:
1876            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1877        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1878
1879        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1880        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1881        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1882        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1883        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1884        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1885        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1886        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1887
1888        if self.RETURNING_END:
1889            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1890        else:
1891            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1892
1893        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1894        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1895        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1896        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1897
1898        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1899        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1900
1901        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1902        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1903
1904    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1905        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1906
1907    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1908        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1909        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1910        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1911        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1912        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1913
1914    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1915        return expression.name
1916
1917    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1918        return expression.name
1919
1920    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1921        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1922
1923        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1924        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1925
1926        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1927        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1928        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1929
1930        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1931        if expressions:
1932            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1933            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1934
1935        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1936        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}{where}"
1937
1938    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1939        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1940
1941    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1942        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1943        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1944        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1945        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1946        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1947        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1948        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1949        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1950        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1951        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1952        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1953        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1954        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1955
1956    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1957        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1958
1959    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1960        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1961        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1962        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1963        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1964
1965    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1966        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1967        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1968        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1969        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1970
1971    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1972        return ".".join(
1973            self.sql(part)
1974            for part in (
1975                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1976                expression.args.get("db"),
1977                expression.args.get("this"),
1978            )
1979            if part is not None
1980        )
1981
1982    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1983        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1984        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1985        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1986        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1987        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1988        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1989        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1990        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1991
1992        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1993        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1994            sample_pre_alias = sample
1995            sample_post_alias = ""
1996        else:
1997            sample_pre_alias = ""
1998            sample_post_alias = sample
1999
2000        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
2001        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
2002        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2003        joins = self.indent(
2004            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
2005        )
2006        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
2007
2008        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
2009        if file_format:
2010            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2011            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
2012            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
2013
2014        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
2015        if ordinality:
2016            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
2017            alias = ""
2018
2019        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
2020        if when:
2021            table = f"{table} {when}"
2022
2023        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
2024        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
2025
2026        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
2027        if rows_from:
2028            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
2029
2030        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
2031
2032    def tablefromrows_sql(self, expression: exp.TableFromRows) -> str:
2033        table = self.func("TABLE", expression.this)
2034        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2035        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2036        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2037        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2038        joins = self.indent(
2039            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
2040        )
2041        return f"{table}{alias}{pivots}{sample}{joins}"
2042
2043    def tablesample_sql(
2044        self,
2045        expression: exp.TableSample,
2046        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
2047    ) -> str:
2048        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
2049        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
2050        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
2051        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
2052        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
2053        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
2054        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
2055        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
2056        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
2057
2058        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
2059        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
2060            size = f"{size} ROWS"
2061
2062        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
2063        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
2064            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
2065
2066        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
2067        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
2068            expr = f"({expr})"
2069
2070        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
2071
2072    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
2073        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2074        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
2075
2076        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2077
2078        if expression.this:
2079            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2080            if not expressions:
2081                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
2082
2083            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
2084            into = self.sql(expression, "into")
2085            into = f"{self.seg('INTO')} {into}" if into else ""
2086            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
2087            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
2088            return f"{direction} {this}{on}{into}{using}{group}"
2089
2090        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2091        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2092
2093        fields = self.expressions(
2094            expression,
2095            "fields",
2096            sep=" ",
2097            dynamic=True,
2098            new_line=True,
2099            skip_first=True,
2100            skip_last=True,
2101        )
2102
2103        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
2104        if include_nulls is not None:
2105            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
2106        else:
2107            nulls = ""
2108
2109        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
2110        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
2111        return f"{self.seg(direction)}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {fields}{default_on_null}{group}){alias}"
2112
2113    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
2114        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
2115        kind = expression.text("kind")
2116        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2117        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
2118
2119    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
2120        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
2121
2122    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
2123        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2124        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2125        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2126        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2127        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2128        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2129        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2130        if self.RETURNING_END:
2131            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2132        else:
2133            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2134        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2135        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2136
2137    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2138        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2139
2140        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2141        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2142            args = self.expressions(expression)
2143            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2144            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2145            values = (
2146                f"({values})"
2147                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2148                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2149                else values
2150            )
2151            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2152
2153        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2154        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2155        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2156
2157        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2158
2159        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2160            row = tup.expressions
2161
2162            if i == 0 and column_names:
2163                row = [
2164                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2165                ]
2166
2167            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2168
2169        if self.pretty:
2170            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2171            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2172            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2173            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2174            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2175
2176        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2177        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2178        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2179
2180    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2181        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2182
2183    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2184    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2185        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2186        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2187        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2188
2189    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2190        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2191
2192    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2193        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2194        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2195
2196    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2197        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2198        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2199
2200    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2201        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2202        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2203
2204    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2205        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2206        if group_by_all is True:
2207            modifier = " ALL"
2208        elif group_by_all is False:
2209            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2210        else:
2211            modifier = ""
2212
2213        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2214
2215        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2216        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2217        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2218
2219        groupings = csv(
2220            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2221            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2222            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2223            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2224            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2225        )
2226
2227        if (
2228            expression.expressions
2229            and groupings
2230            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2231        ):
2232            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2233
2234        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2235
2236    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2237        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2238        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2239
2240    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2241        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2242        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2243        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2244        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2245        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2246        return start + connect
2247
2248    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2249        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2250
2251    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2252        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2253            side = None
2254        else:
2255            side = expression.side
2256
2257        op_sql = " ".join(
2258            op
2259            for op in (
2260                expression.method,
2261                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2262                side,
2263                expression.kind,
2264                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2265            )
2266            if op
2267        )
2268        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2269        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2270        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2271        using = expression.args.get("using")
2272
2273        if not on_sql and using:
2274            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2275
2276        this = expression.this
2277        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2278
2279        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2280        if exprs:
2281            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2282
2283        if on_sql:
2284            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2285            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2286            if using:
2287                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2288            else:
2289                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2290        elif not op_sql:
2291            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2292                return f" {this_sql}"
2293
2294            return f", {this_sql}"
2295
2296        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2297            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2298
2299        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2300        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}{pivots}"
2301
2302    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2303        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2304        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2305        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2306
2307    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2308        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2309
2310        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2311        if cross_apply is True:
2312            op = "INNER JOIN "
2313        elif cross_apply is False:
2314            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2315        else:
2316            op = ""
2317
2318        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2319
2320    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2321        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2322
2323        if expression.args.get("view"):
2324            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2325            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2326            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2327            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2328            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2329            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2330
2331        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2332        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2333
2334        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
2335        if ordinality:
2336            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
2337            alias = ""
2338
2339        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}{ordinality}"
2340
2341    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2342        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2343
2344        args = [
2345            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2346            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2347            if e
2348        ]
2349
2350        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2351        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2352        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2353        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
2354        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2355
2356        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{limit_options}{expressions}"
2357
2358    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2359        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2360        value = expression.expression
2361        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2362        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2363        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2364        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2365
2366    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2367        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2368        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2369        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2370        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2371        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2372        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2373        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2374        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2375
2376    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2377        expressions = f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2378        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2379        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2380
2381    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2382        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2383
2384    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2385        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2386            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2387            return ""
2388
2389        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2390        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2391        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2392        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2393
2394        if wait is not None:
2395            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2396                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2397            else:
2398                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2399
2400        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2401
2402    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2403        text = expression.this or ""
2404        if expression.is_string:
2405            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2406        return text
2407
2408    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2409        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2410            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2411            text = "".join(
2412                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2413            )
2414
2415        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2416            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2417        )
2418
2419    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2420        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2421        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2422        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2423        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2424        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2425        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2426        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2427        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2428        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2429        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2430        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2431
2432    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2433        return "NULL"
2434
2435    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2436        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2437
2438    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2439        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2440        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2441        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2442        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2443
2444    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2445        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2446        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2447        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2448        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2449        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2450        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2451        interpolated_values = [
2452            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2453            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2454            else self.sql(e, "this")
2455            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2456        ]
2457        interpolate = (
2458            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2459        )
2460        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2461
2462    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2463        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2464
2465    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2466        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2467
2468    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2469        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2470
2471    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2472        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2473        asc = not desc
2474
2475        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2476        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2477        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2478        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2479        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2480
2481        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2482
2483        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2484        nulls_sort_change = ""
2485        if nulls_first and (
2486            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2487        ):
2488            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2489        elif (
2490            nulls_last
2491            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2492            and not nulls_are_last
2493        ):
2494            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2495
2496        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2497        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2498            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2499            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2500                self.unsupported(
2501                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2502                )
2503                nulls_sort_change = ""
2504            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False and (
2505                (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2506                or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2507            ):
2508                # BigQuery does not allow these ordering/nulls combinations when used under
2509                # an aggregation func or under a window containing one
2510                ancestor = expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Window, exp.Select)
2511
2512                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.Window):
2513                    ancestor = ancestor.this
2514                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.AggFunc):
2515                    self.unsupported(
2516                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2517                    )
2518                    nulls_sort_change = ""
2519            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2520                if expression.this.is_int:
2521                    self.unsupported(
2522                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2523                    )
2524                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2525                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2526                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2527                nulls_sort_change = ""
2528
2529        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2530        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2531
2532        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2533
2534    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2535        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2536        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2537
2538        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2539
2540        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2541
2542    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2543        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2544        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2545        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2546        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2547        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2548        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2549        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2550        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2551        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2552        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2553        definition_sqls = [
2554            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2555            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2556        ]
2557        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2558        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2559        body = "".join(
2560            (
2561                partition,
2562                order,
2563                measures,
2564                rows,
2565                after,
2566                pattern,
2567                define,
2568            )
2569        )
2570        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2571        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2572        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2573
2574    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2575        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2576
2577        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2578            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2579        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2580            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2581
2582        return csv(
2583            *sqls,
2584            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2585            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2586            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2587            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2588            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2589            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2590            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2591            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2592            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2593            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2594            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2595            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2596            self.options_modifier(expression),
2597            sep="",
2598        )
2599
2600    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2601        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2602        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2603
2604    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2605        self.unsupported("Unsupported query option.")
2606        return ""
2607
2608    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2609        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2610    ) -> t.List[str]:
2611        return [
2612            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2613            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2614        ]
2615
2616    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2617        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2618        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2619        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2620
2621    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2622        into = expression.args.get("into")
2623        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2624            into.pop()
2625
2626        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2627        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2628        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2629        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2630
2631        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2632        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2633            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2634            limit.pop()
2635        else:
2636            top = ""
2637
2638        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2639
2640        if kind:
2641            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2642                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2643            else:
2644                if kind == "STRUCT":
2645                    expressions = self.expressions(
2646                        sqls=[
2647                            self.sql(
2648                                exp.Struct(
2649                                    expressions=[
2650                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2651                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2652                                        else e
2653                                        for e in expression.expressions
2654                                    ]
2655                                )
2656                            )
2657                        ]
2658                    )
2659                kind = ""
2660
2661        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2662        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2663
2664        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2665        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2666        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2667        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2668        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2669            expression,
2670            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2671            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2672            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2673        )
2674
2675        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2676        if expression.args.get("with"):
2677            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2678            expression.pop_comments()
2679
2680        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2681
2682        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2683            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2684                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2685            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2686                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2687            else:
2688                table_kind = ""
2689            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2690
2691        return sql
2692
2693    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2694        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2695        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2696        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2697
2698    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2699        if expression.expressions:
2700            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2701        return ""
2702
2703    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2704        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2705        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2706        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2707        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2708        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2709        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2710        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2711
2712    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2713        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2714        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2715
2716    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2718        kind = expression.text("kind")
2719        if kind:
2720            kind = f"{kind}."
2721        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2722
2723    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2724        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2725
2726    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2727        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2728        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2729        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2730        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2731            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2732
2733            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2734            expression.set("sample", None)
2735
2736        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2737        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2738        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2739
2740    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2741        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2742        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2743
2744    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2745        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2746
2747        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2748        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2749
2750        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2751            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2752                alias.append("columns", offset)
2753
2754        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2755            columns = alias.columns
2756            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2757        else:
2758            alias = self.sql(alias)
2759
2760        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2761        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2762            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2763        else:
2764            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2765                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2766            elif offset:
2767                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2768            else:
2769                suffix = alias
2770
2771        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2772
2773    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2774        return ""
2775
2776    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2777        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2778        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2779
2780    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2781        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2782        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2783        order = expression.args.get("order")
2784        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2785        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2786        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2787        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2788
2789        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2790
2791        first = expression.args.get("first")
2792        if first is None:
2793            first = ""
2794        else:
2795            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2796
2797        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2798            return f"{this} {alias}"
2799
2800        args = self.format_args(
2801            *[arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg], sep=" "
2802        )
2803        return f"{this} ({args})"
2804
2805    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2806        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2807        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2808
2809    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2810        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2811        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2812        end = (
2813            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2814            or "CURRENT ROW"
2815        )
2816
2817        window_spec = f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2818
2819        exclude = self.sql(expression, "exclude")
2820        if exclude:
2821            if self.SUPPORTS_WINDOW_EXCLUDE:
2822                window_spec += f" EXCLUDE {exclude}"
2823            else:
2824                self.unsupported("EXCLUDE clause is not supported in the WINDOW clause")
2825
2826        return window_spec
2827
2828    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2829        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2830        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2831        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2832
2833    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2834        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2835        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2836        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2837        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2838
2839    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2840        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2841    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2842        return apply_index_offset(
2843            expression.this,
2844            expression.expressions,
2845            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2846            dialect=self.dialect,
2847        )
2848
2849    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2850        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2851        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2852        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2853
2854    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2855        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2856
2857    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2858        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2859        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2860            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2861                this = self.wrap(this)
2862            return f"ANY{this}"
2863        return f"ANY {this}"
2864
2865    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2866        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2867
2868    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2869        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2870        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2871
2872        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2873            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2874            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2875
2876        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2877
2878        if default:
2879            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2880
2881        statements.append("END")
2882
2883        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2884            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2885
2886        return " ".join(statements)
2887
2888    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2889        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2890        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2891        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2892
2893    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2894        order = expression.args.get("order")
2895        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2896        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2897
2898    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2899        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2900        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2901        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2902
2903    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2904        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2905
2906        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2907            func_name = "LTRIM"
2908        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2909            func_name = "RTRIM"
2910        else:
2911            func_name = "TRIM"
2912
2913        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2914
2915    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2916        args = expression.expressions
2917        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2918            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2919
2920        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2921            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2922
2923        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2924            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2925
2926        return args
2927
2928    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2929        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2930
2931        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2932        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2933            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2934
2935        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2936
2937    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2938        return self.func(
2939            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2940        )
2941
2942    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2943        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2944        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2945
2946    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2947        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2948        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2949        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2950        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2951        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2952        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2953        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2954        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2955        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2956        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2957        return f"FOREIGN KEY{expressions}{reference}{delete}{update}{options}"
2958
2959    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2960        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2961        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2962        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2963        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2964
2965    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2966        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2967
2968    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2969        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2970        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2971        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2972
2973    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2974        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2975
2976    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2977        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2978
2979        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2980            path = self.escape_str(path)
2981
2982        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2983            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2984
2985        return path
2986
2987    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2988        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2989            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2990            if not callable(transform):
2991                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2992                return ""
2993
2994            return transform(self, expression)
2995
2996        if isinstance(expression, int):
2997            return str(expression)
2998
2999        if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
3000            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
3001            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
3002        else:
3003            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
3004            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
3005
3006        return escaped
3007
3008    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
3009        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
3010
3011    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
3012        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
3013        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
3014
3015        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
3016        if unique_keys is not None:
3017            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
3018        else:
3019            unique_keys = ""
3020
3021        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
3022        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
3023        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
3024        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
3025
3026        return self.func(
3027            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
3028            *expression.expressions,
3029            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
3030        )
3031
3032    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
3033        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
3034
3035    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
3036        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
3037        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
3038        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
3039        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
3040        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
3041        return self.func(
3042            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
3043        )
3044
3045    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
3046        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3047        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3048        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
3049        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
3050        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
3051        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
3052        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
3053        return self.func(
3054            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
3055            this,
3056            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
3057        )
3058
3059    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
3060        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3061        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
3062        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
3063
3064        if nested_schema:
3065            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
3066
3067        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3068        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3069        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3070        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
3071
3072    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
3073        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
3074
3075    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
3076        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3077        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3078        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
3079        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
3080        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
3081        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
3082        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
3083        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3084        return self.func(
3085            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
3086        )
3087
3088    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
3089        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3090        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3091        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3092        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
3093        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
3094        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
3095
3096    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
3097        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3098        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
3099        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
3100        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3101        with_ = (
3102            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3103            if expressions
3104            else ""
3105        )
3106        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
3107
3108    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
3109        query = expression.args.get("query")
3110        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
3111        field = expression.args.get("field")
3112        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
3113
3114        if query:
3115            in_sql = self.sql(query)
3116        elif unnest:
3117            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
3118        elif field:
3119            in_sql = self.sql(field)
3120        else:
3121            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
3122
3123        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
3124
3125    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
3126        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
3127
3128    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
3129        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
3130        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
3131            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
3132        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
3133
3134        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
3135            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
3136            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
3137
3138        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3139        if this:
3140            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
3141            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
3142
3143        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
3144
3145    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
3146        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3147
3148    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
3149        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3150        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3151        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3152        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3153        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3154        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
3155
3156    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3157        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3158        parent = expression.parent
3159        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3160        return self.func(
3161            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3162        )
3163
3164    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3165        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3166        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3167
3168    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3169        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3170        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3171        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3172        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3173
3174    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3175        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3176
3177    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3178        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3179        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3180        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3181
3182    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3183        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3184
3185        parent = expression.parent
3186        pivot = parent and parent.parent
3187
3188        if isinstance(pivot, exp.Pivot) and pivot.unpivot:
3189            identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3190            literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3191
3192            if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3193                alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3194            elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3195                alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3196
3197        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3198
3199    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3200        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3201
3202    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3203        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3204        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3205        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3206
3207    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3208        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3209        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3210        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3211
3212    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3213        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3214        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3215        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3216
3217    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3218        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3219
3220    def and_sql(
3221        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3222    ) -> str:
3223        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3224
3225    def or_sql(
3226        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3227    ) -> str:
3228        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3229
3230    def xor_sql(
3231        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3232    ) -> str:
3233        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3234
3235    def connector_sql(
3236        self,
3237        expression: exp.Connector,
3238        op: str,
3239        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3240    ) -> str:
3241        if stack is not None:
3242            if expression.expressions:
3243                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3244            else:
3245                stack.append(expression.right)
3246                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3247                    for comment in expression.comments:
3248                        if comment:
3249                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3250                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3251            return op
3252
3253        stack = [expression]
3254        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3255        ops = set()
3256
3257        while stack:
3258            node = stack.pop()
3259            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3260                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3261            else:
3262                sql = self.sql(node)
3263                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3264                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3265                else:
3266                    sqls.append(sql)
3267
3268        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3269        return sep.join(sqls)
3270
3271    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3272        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3273
3274    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3275        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3276
3277    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3278        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3279
3280    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3281        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3282
3283    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3284        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3285
3286    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3287        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3288
3289    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3290        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3291        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3292        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3293        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3294        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3295        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3296        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3297        default = f" DEFAULT {default} ON CONVERSION ERROR" if default else ""
3298        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{default}{format_sql}{action})"
3299
3300    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3301        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3302        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3303
3304    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3305        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3306            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3307        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3308
3309    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3310        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3311
3312    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3313        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3314        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3315        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3316        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3317        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3318        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3319
3320    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3321        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3322        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3323        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3324        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3325        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3326        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3327        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3328        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3329        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3330
3331    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3332        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3333        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3334        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3335        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3336
3337        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3338            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3339
3340        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3341
3342    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3343        return "BEGIN"
3344
3345    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3346        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3347        if chain is not None:
3348            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3349
3350        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3351
3352    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3353        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3354        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3355        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3356
3357    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3358        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3359
3360        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3361        if dtype:
3362            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3363            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3364            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3365            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3366            alter_set_type = self.ALTER_SET_TYPE + " " if self.ALTER_SET_TYPE else ""
3367            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {alter_set_type}{dtype}{collate}{using}"
3368
3369        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3370        if default:
3371            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3372
3373        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3374        if comment:
3375            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3376
3377        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3378        if visible:
3379            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET {visible}"
3380
3381        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3382        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3383
3384        if not drop and not allow_null:
3385            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3386
3387        if allow_null is not None:
3388            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3389            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3390
3391        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3392
3393    def alterindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterIndex) -> str:
3394        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3395
3396        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3397        visible_sql = "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3398
3399        return f"ALTER INDEX {this} {visible_sql}"
3400
3401    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3402        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3403        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3404            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3405        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3406
3407    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3408        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3409        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3410        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3411        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3412        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3413
3414    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3415        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3416            # Remove db from tables
3417            expression = expression.transform(
3418                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3419            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3420        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3421        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3422
3423    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3424        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3425        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3426        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3427        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3428
3429    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3430        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3431        return f"SET {exprs}"
3432
3433    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3434        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3435
3436        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3437            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3438        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3439            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3440        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3441            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3442        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3443            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3444        else:
3445            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3446
3447        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3448        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3449        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3450        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3451        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3452        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3453        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3454        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3455
3456        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3457
3458    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3459        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3460            return self.expressions(
3461                expression,
3462                key="actions",
3463                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3464                skip_first=True,
3465            )
3466        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3467
3468    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3469        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3470        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3471        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3472
3473    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3474        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3475
3476    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3477        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3478
3479        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3480            case = exp.case()
3481            for arg in expression.expressions:
3482                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3483            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3484
3485        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3486
3487        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3488        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3489        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3490
3491    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3492        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3493
3494    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3495        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3496
3497    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3498        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3499        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3500        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3501        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3502
3503    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3504        return self.sql(
3505            exp.Cast(
3506                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3507                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3508            )
3509        )
3510
3511    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3512        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3513            return self.func(
3514                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3515            )
3516        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3517
3518    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3519        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3520
3521        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3522            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3523
3524        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3525            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3526                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3527
3528        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3529            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3530                return self.sql(
3531                    exp.cast(
3532                        l / r,
3533                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3534                    )
3535                )
3536
3537        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3538
3539    def safedivide_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDivide) -> str:
3540        n = exp._wrap(expression.this, exp.Binary)
3541        d = exp._wrap(expression.expression, exp.Binary)
3542        return self.sql(exp.If(this=d.neq(0), true=n / d, false=exp.Null()))
3543
3544    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3545        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3546
3547    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3548        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3549
3550    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3551        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3552
3553    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3554        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3555
3556    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3557        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3558
3559    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3560        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3561
3562    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3563        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3564
3565    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3566        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3567
3568    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3569        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3570
3571    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3572        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3573
3574    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3575        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3576
3577    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3578        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3579            return self.sql(
3580                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3581            )
3582        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3583
3584    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3585        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3586
3587    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3588        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3589
3590    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3591        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3592
3593    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3594        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3595
3596    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3597        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3598
3599    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3600        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3601
3602    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3603        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3604
3605    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3606        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3607
3608    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3609        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3610
3611    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3612        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3613
3614    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3615        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3616
3617    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3618        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3619
3620    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3621        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3622
3623    def jsoncast_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONCast) -> str:
3624        return self.cast_sql(expression)
3625
3626    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3627        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3628            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3629            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3630
3631        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3632
3633    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3634        this = expression.this
3635        expr = expression.expression
3636
3637        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3638            this, expr = expr, this
3639        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3640            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3641                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3642
3643            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3644
3645        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3646
3647    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3648        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3649        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3650        this = self.sql(expression, "this") or self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3651        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3652        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3653
3654    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3655        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3656        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3657        binary_type = type(expression)
3658
3659        while stack:
3660            node = stack.pop()
3661
3662            if type(node) is binary_type:
3663                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3664                if op_func:
3665                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3666
3667                stack.append(node.right)
3668                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3669                stack.append(node.left)
3670            else:
3671                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3672
3673        return "".join(sqls)
3674
3675    def ceil_floor(self, expression: exp.Ceil | exp.Floor) -> str:
3676        to_clause = self.sql(expression, "to")
3677        if to_clause:
3678            return f"{expression.sql_name()}({self.sql(expression, 'this')} TO {to_clause})"
3679
3680        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3681
3682    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3683        args = []
3684
3685        for key in expression.arg_types:
3686            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3687
3688            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3689                for value in arg_value:
3690                    args.append(value)
3691            elif arg_value is not None:
3692                args.append(arg_value)
3693
3694        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
3695            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3696        else:
3697            name = expression.sql_name()
3698
3699        return self.func(name, *args)
3700
3701    def func(
3702        self,
3703        name: str,
3704        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3705        prefix: str = "(",
3706        suffix: str = ")",
3707        normalize: bool = True,
3708    ) -> str:
3709        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3710        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3711
3712    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3713        arg_sqls = tuple(
3714            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3715        )
3716        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3717            return self.indent(
3718                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3719            )
3720        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
3721
3722    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3723        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3724
3725    def format_time(
3726        self,
3727        expression: exp.Expression,
3728        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3729        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3730    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3731        return format_time(
3732            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3733            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3734            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3735        )
3736
3737    def expressions(
3738        self,
3739        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3740        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3741        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3742        flat: bool = False,
3743        indent: bool = True,
3744        skip_first: bool = False,
3745        skip_last: bool = False,
3746        sep: str = ", ",
3747        prefix: str = "",
3748        dynamic: bool = False,
3749        new_line: bool = False,
3750    ) -> str:
3751        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3752
3753        if not expressions:
3754            return ""
3755
3756        if flat:
3757            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3758
3759        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3760        result_sqls = []
3761
3762        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3763            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3764            if not sql:
3765                continue
3766
3767            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3768
3769            if self.pretty:
3770                if self.leading_comma:
3771                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3772                else:
3773                    result_sqls.append(
3774                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3775                    )
3776            else:
3777                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3778
3779        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3780            if new_line:
3781                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3782                result_sqls.append("")
3783            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3784        else:
3785            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3786
3787        return (
3788            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3789            if indent
3790            else result_sql
3791        )
3792
3793    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3794        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3795        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3796        if flat:
3797            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3798        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3799
3800    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3801        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3802        if not property_name:
3803            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3804        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3805
3806    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3807        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3808
3809    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3810        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3811
3812    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3813        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3814        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3815        expressions = (
3816            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3817        )
3818        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
3819
3820    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3821        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3822        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3823        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3824
3825    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3826        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3827
3828    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3829        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3830        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3831        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3832        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3833
3834        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3835        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3836            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3837            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3838            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3839            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3840        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3841            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3842                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3843            else:
3844                then = f"UPDATE SET{self.sep()}{self.expressions(then_expression)}"
3845        else:
3846            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3847        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3848
3849    def whens_sql(self, expression: exp.Whens) -> str:
3850        return self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3851
3852    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3853        table = expression.this
3854        table_alias = ""
3855
3856        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3857        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3858            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3859            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3860
3861        this = self.sql(table)
3862        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3863        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3864        whens = self.sql(expression, "whens")
3865
3866        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3867        if returning:
3868            whens = f"{whens}{returning}"
3869
3870        sep = self.sep()
3871
3872        return self.prepend_ctes(
3873            expression,
3874            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{whens}",
3875        )
3876
3877    @unsupported_args("format")
3878    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3879        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3880
3881    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3882        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3883            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3884            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3885
3886        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3887        if not fmt:
3888            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3889            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3890
3891        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3892
3893    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3894        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3895        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3896        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3897        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3898        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3899
3900    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3902        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3903        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3904        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3905
3906    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3907        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3908
3909    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3910        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3911
3912    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/table_bucket_part_index/CREATE_TABLE/
3913    def uniquekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueKeyProperty) -> str:
3914        return f"UNIQUE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3915
3916    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3917    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3918        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3919        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3920        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3921        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3922        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3923        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3924        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3925
3926    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3927        return ""
3928
3929    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3930        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3931        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3932        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3933        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3934        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3935
3936    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3937        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3938        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3939
3940        if having:
3941            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3942
3943        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3944
3945    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3946        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3947        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3948        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3949        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3950        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3951        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3952        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3953        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3954        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3955        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3956        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3957        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3958        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3959
3960    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3961        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3962        if key_block_size:
3963            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3964
3965        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3966        if using:
3967            return f"USING {using}"
3968
3969        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3970        if parser:
3971            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3972
3973        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3974        if comment:
3975            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3976
3977        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3978        if visible is not None:
3979            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3980
3981        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3982        if engine_attr:
3983            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3984
3985        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3986        if secondary_engine_attr:
3987            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3988
3989        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3990        return ""
3991
3992    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3993        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3994        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3995
3996    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3997        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3998        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3999        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4000        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4001        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
4002        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
4003        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4004        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4005        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
4006        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
4007        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
4008
4009    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
4010        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
4011            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4012
4013        case = exp.Case().when(
4014            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
4015            expression.args["true"],
4016            copy=False,
4017        )
4018        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
4019        if else_cond:
4020            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
4021
4022        return self.sql(case)
4023
4024    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
4025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4026        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4027        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
4028        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
4029        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
4030        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
4031
4032    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
4033        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
4034
4035    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
4036        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
4037
4038    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
4039        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
4040        model = f"MODEL {model}"
4041        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4042        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
4043        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
4044        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
4045
4046    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
4047        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4048        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4049        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
4050
4051    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
4052        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4053        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
4054        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
4055
4056    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
4057        arg = expression.this
4058        if not arg.type:
4059            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
4060
4061            arg = annotate_types(arg, dialect=self.dialect)
4062
4063        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
4064            return self.sql(arg)
4065
4066        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
4067        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
4068
4069    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
4070        this = expression.this
4071        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
4072
4073        if time_format:
4074            return self.sql(
4075                exp.cast(
4076                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
4077                    exp.DataType.Type.TIME,
4078                )
4079            )
4080
4081        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
4082            return self.sql(this)
4083
4084        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
4085
4086    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
4087        this = expression.this
4088        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
4089            return self.sql(this)
4090
4091        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
4092
4093    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
4094        this = expression.this
4095        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
4096            return self.sql(this)
4097
4098        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
4099
4100    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
4101        this = expression.this
4102        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
4103
4104        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
4105            return self.sql(
4106                exp.cast(
4107                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
4108                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
4109                )
4110            )
4111
4112        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
4113            return self.sql(this)
4114
4115        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
4116
4117    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
4118        return self.sql(
4119            exp.func(
4120                "DATEDIFF",
4121                expression.this,
4122                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
4123                "day",
4124            )
4125        )
4126
4127    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
4128        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
4129            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4130
4131        unit = expression.text("unit")
4132        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
4133            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
4134
4135        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
4136
4137    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
4138        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
4139
4140        return self.func(
4141            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
4142        )
4143
4144    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
4145        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
4146            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
4147            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
4148            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
4149            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
4150
4151        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
4152
4153        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
4154        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
4155            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
4156
4157        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4158
4159    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
4160        expression.set(
4161            "expressions",
4162            [
4163                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
4164                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
4165                else e
4166                for e in expression.expressions
4167            ],
4168        )
4169
4170        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4171
4172    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
4173        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
4174        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4175
4176        return f"{low} TO {high}"
4177
4178    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
4179        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
4180        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
4181
4182        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4183
4184        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
4185        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
4186
4187        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
4188        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
4189
4190        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4191        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4192
4193        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4194        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4195
4196        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
4197
4198    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
4199    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
4200    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
4201        to = expression.this
4202        value = expression.expression
4203        style = expression.args.get("style")
4204        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
4205        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
4206
4207        if not to or not value:
4208            return ""
4209
4210        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4211        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4212            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4213
4214        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4215        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4216
4217        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4218        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4219            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4220
4221            style_value = style.name
4222            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4223            if not converted_style:
4224                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4225
4226            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4227
4228            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4229                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4230            elif to.this in (exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2):
4231                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4232            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4233                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4234            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4235                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4236
4237        if not transformed:
4238            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4239
4240        return self.sql(transformed)
4241
4242    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4243        this = expression.this
4244        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4245            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4246            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4247
4248        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4249            return f".{this}"
4250
4251        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4252        return (
4253            f"[{this}]"
4254            if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED
4255            else f".{this}"
4256        )
4257
4258    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4259        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4260        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4261
4262    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4263        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4264            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4265
4266            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4267
4268        return expression
4269
4270    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4271        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4272            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4273            mods = sorted(
4274                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4275                key=lambda x: 0
4276                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4277                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4278            )
4279
4280            if mods:
4281                mod = mods[0]
4282                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4283                this.meta["inline"] = True
4284                mod.this.replace(this)
4285                return self.sql(expression.this)
4286
4287            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4288
4289            if agg_func:
4290                agg_func_sql = self.sql(agg_func, comment=False)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4291                return self.maybe_comment(agg_func_sql, comments=agg_func.comments)
4292
4293        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4294
4295    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4296        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4297        if self.pretty:
4298            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4299        return string
4300
4301    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4302        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4303
4304        if expression.expressions:
4305            upper = option.upper()
4306
4307            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4308            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4309
4310            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4311            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4312            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4313            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4314
4315        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4316
4317        if not value:
4318            return option
4319
4320        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4321
4322        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4323
4324    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4325        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4326        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4327            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4328            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4329            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4330        else:
4331            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4332            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4333            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4334
4335        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4336        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4337
4338        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4339        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4340
4341        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4342        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4343
4344        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4345        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4346
4347        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4348
4349    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4350        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4351        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4352
4353        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4354        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4355        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4356        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4357
4358        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4359        params = self.expressions(
4360            expression,
4361            key="params",
4362            sep=sep,
4363            new_line=True,
4364            skip_last=True,
4365            skip_first=True,
4366            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4367        )
4368
4369        if params:
4370            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4371                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4372            elif not self.pretty:
4373                params = f" {params}"
4374
4375        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4376
4377    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4378        return ""
4379
4380    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4381        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4382        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4383        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4384        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4385        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4386
4387        if filter_col or retention_period:
4388            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4389
4390        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4391
4392    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4393        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4394    ) -> str:
4395        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4396        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4397        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4398        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4399
4400    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4401        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4402        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4403        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4404
4405    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4406        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4407
4408    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4409        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4410        expr = expression.expression
4411
4412        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4413            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4414            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4415        else:
4416            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4417
4418        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4419
4420    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4421        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4422            return self.sql(expression.this)
4423
4424        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4425
4426    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4427        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4428        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4429
4430        if lower and upper:
4431            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4432        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4433
4434    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4435        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4436        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4437        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4438        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4439        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4440        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4441
4442        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4443
4444    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4445        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4446
4447        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4448        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4449            fill_pattern = "' '"
4450
4451        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4452
4453    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4454        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4455        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4456
4457    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4458        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4459
4460        parent = expression.parent
4461        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4462            parent = parent.parent
4463
4464        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4465            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4466
4467        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4468            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4469
4470        return self.sql(generate_series)
4471
4472    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4473        exprs = expression.expressions
4474        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4475            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4476        else:
4477            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4478
4479        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
4480
4481    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4482        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4483            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4484
4485        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4486        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4487        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4488
4489        if source_tz and timestamp:
4490            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4491                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4492            )
4493
4494        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4495
4496        return self.sql(expr)
4497
4498    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4499        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4500        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4501
4502        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4503
4504        if _with is None:
4505            with_sql = ""
4506        elif not _with:
4507            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4508        else:
4509            with_sql = " WITH"
4510
4511        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4512
4513        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4514
4515    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4516        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4517            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4518
4519        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4520        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4521        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4522
4523        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4524        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4525
4526        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4527
4528    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4529        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4530        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4531        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4532        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4533        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4534
4535    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4536        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4537        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4538        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4539        return res
4540
4541    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4542        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4543        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4544        empty = (
4545            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4546            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4547            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4548        )
4549
4550        error = expression.args.get("error")
4551        error = (
4552            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4553            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4554            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4555        )
4556
4557        if error and empty:
4558            error = (
4559                f"{empty} {error}"
4560                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4561                else f"{error} {empty}"
4562            )
4563            empty = ""
4564
4565        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4566
4567        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4568
4569    def jsonextractquote_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExtractQuote) -> str:
4570        scalar = " ON SCALAR STRING" if expression.args.get("scalar") else ""
4571        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'option')} QUOTES{scalar}"
4572
4573    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4574        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4575        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4576
4577        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4578        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4579
4580        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4581        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4582
4583        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4584
4585        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4586
4587    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4588        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4589
4590        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4591        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4592        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4593            parent = expression.parent
4594            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4595                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4596                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4597            else:
4598                this = expression.this
4599                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4600                if this.find(exp.Column):
4601                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4602                    this_sql = (
4603                        self.expressions(this)
4604                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4605                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4606                    )
4607
4608                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4609
4610        return array_agg
4611
4612    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4613        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4614        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4615
4616        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4617
4618    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4619        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4620
4621        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4622        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4623
4624        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4625        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4626
4627        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4628
4629        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4630
4631        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4632
4633    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4634        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4635        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4636        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4637
4638        return f"{this}{columns}"
4639
4640    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4641        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4642
4643        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4644        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4645
4646        return f"{kind}{this}"
4647
4648    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4649        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4650        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4651            func = f"*{func}"
4652
4653        return func
4654
4655    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4656        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4657        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4658        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4659        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4660        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4661
4662        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
4663
4664    @unsupported_args("format")
4665    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4666        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
4667
4668    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4669        this = expression.this
4670        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4671
4672        if zone:
4673            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4674            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4675            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4676            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4677                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4678            )
4679
4680        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
4681
4682    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4683        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4684            return self.sql(
4685                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4686            )
4687
4688        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4689
4690    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4691        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4692        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4693        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4694        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
4695
4696    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4697        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
4698            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4699
4700        start_ts = exp.cast(
4701            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
4702        )
4703
4704        return self.sql(
4705            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
4706        )
4707
4708    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
4709        dim = expression.expression
4710
4711        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
4712        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
4713            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
4714                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
4715            dim = None
4716
4717        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
4718        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
4719            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
4720
4721        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)
4722
4723    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
4724        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4725        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4726        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
4727        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4728
4729        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"
4730
4731    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
4732        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4733        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4734
4735        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"
4736
4737    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
4738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4739        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4740        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
4741        return f"{this}{value}"
4742
4743    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
4744        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
4745        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
4746            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"
4747
4748        return self.func(
4749            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
4750            this_sql,
4751            expression.args.get("time"),
4752            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
4753            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
4754        )
4755
4756    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
4757        return (
4758            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
4759        )
4760
4761    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
4762        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
4763        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4764
4765        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
4766        if properties:
4767            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"
4768
4769        return encode
4770
4771    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
4772        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4773        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"
4774
4775        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
4776        if column_def:
4777            include = f"{include} {column_def}"
4778
4779        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
4780        if alias:
4781            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"
4782
4783        return include
4784
4785    def xmlelement_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLElement) -> str:
4786        name = f"NAME {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4787        return self.func("XMLELEMENT", name, *expression.expressions)
4788
4789    def partitionbyrangeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangeProperty) -> str:
4790        partitions = self.expressions(expression, "partition_expressions")
4791        create = self.expressions(expression, "create_expressions")
4792        return f"PARTITION BY RANGE {self.wrap(partitions)} {self.wrap(create)}"
4793
4794    def partitionbyrangepropertydynamic_sql(
4795        self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangePropertyDynamic
4796    ) -> str:
4797        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
4798        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4799
4800        every = expression.args["every"]
4801        if isinstance(every, exp.Interval) and every.this.is_string:
4802            every.this.replace(exp.Literal.number(every.name))
4803
4804        return f"START {self.wrap(start)} END {self.wrap(end)} EVERY {self.wrap(self.sql(every))}"
4805
4806    def unpivotcolumns_sql(self, expression: exp.UnpivotColumns) -> str:
4807        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
4808        values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4809
4810        return f"NAME {name} VALUE {values}"
4811
4812    def analyzesample_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeSample) -> str:
4813        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4814        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
4815        return f"SAMPLE {sample} {kind}"
4816
4817    def analyzestatistics_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeStatistics) -> str:
4818        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4819        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4820        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4821        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4822        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4823        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4824        columns = f" {columns}" if columns else ""
4825        return f"{kind}{option} STATISTICS{this}{columns}"
4826
4827    def analyzehistogram_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeHistogram) -> str:
4828        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4829        columns = self.expressions(expression)
4830        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4831        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4832        update_options = self.sql(expression, "update_options")
4833        update_options = f" {update_options} UPDATE" if update_options else ""
4834        return f"{this} HISTOGRAM ON {columns}{inner_expression}{update_options}"
4835
4836    def analyzedelete_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeDelete) -> str:
4837        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4838        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4839        return f"DELETE{kind} STATISTICS"
4840
4841    def analyzelistchainedrows_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeListChainedRows) -> str:
4842        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4843        return f"LIST CHAINED ROWS{inner_expression}"
4844
4845    def analyzevalidate_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeValidate) -> str:
4846        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4847        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4848        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4849        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4850        return f"VALIDATE {kind}{this}{inner_expression}"
4851
4852    def analyze_sql(self, expression: exp.Analyze) -> str:
4853        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
4854        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
4855        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4856        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4857        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4858        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4859        mode = self.sql(expression, "mode")
4860        mode = f" {mode}" if mode else ""
4861        properties = self.sql(expression, "properties")
4862        properties = f" {properties}" if properties else ""
4863        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4864        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4865        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4866        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
4867        return f"ANALYZE{options}{kind}{this}{partition}{mode}{inner_expression}{properties}"
4868
4869    def xmltable_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLTable) -> str:
4870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4871        namespaces = self.expressions(expression, key="namespaces")
4872        namespaces = f"XMLNAMESPACES({namespaces}), " if namespaces else ""
4873        passing = self.expressions(expression, key="passing")
4874        passing = f"{self.sep()}PASSING{self.seg(passing)}" if passing else ""
4875        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns")
4876        columns = f"{self.sep()}COLUMNS{self.seg(columns)}" if columns else ""
4877        by_ref = f"{self.sep()}RETURNING SEQUENCE BY REF" if expression.args.get("by_ref") else ""
4878        return f"XMLTABLE({self.sep('')}{self.indent(namespaces + this + passing + by_ref + columns)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
4879
4880    def xmlnamespace_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLNamespace) -> str:
4881        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4882        return this if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Alias) else f"DEFAULT {this}"
4883
4884    def export_sql(self, expression: exp.Export) -> str:
4885        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4886        connection = self.sql(expression, "connection")
4887        connection = f"WITH CONNECTION {connection} " if connection else ""
4888        options = self.sql(expression, "options")
4889        return f"EXPORT DATA {connection}{options} AS {this}"
4890
4891    def declare_sql(self, expression: exp.Declare) -> str:
4892        return f"DECLARE {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
4893
4894    def declareitem_sql(self, expression: exp.DeclareItem) -> str:
4895        variable = self.sql(expression, "this")
4896        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
4897        default = f" = {default}" if default else ""
4898
4899        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4900        if isinstance(expression.args.get("kind"), exp.Schema):
4901            kind = f"TABLE {kind}"
4902
4903        return f"{variable} AS {kind}{default}"
4904
4905    def recursivewithsearch_sql(self, expression: exp.RecursiveWithSearch) -> str:
4906        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4907        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4908        set = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4909        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
4910        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
4911
4912        kind_sql = kind if kind == "CYCLE" else f"SEARCH {kind} FIRST BY"
4913
4914        return f"{kind_sql} {this} SET {set}{using}"
4915
4916    def parameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ParameterizedAgg) -> str:
4917        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True)
4918        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions) + f"({params})"
4919
4920    def anonymousaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.AnonymousAggFunc) -> str:
4921        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
4922
4923    def combinedaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedAggFunc) -> str:
4924        return self.anonymousaggfunc_sql(expression)
4925
4926    def combinedparameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedParameterizedAgg) -> str:
4927        return self.parameterizedagg_sql(expression)
4928
4929    def show_sql(self, expression: exp.Show) -> str:
4930        self.unsupported("Unsupported SHOW statement")
4931        return ""
4932
4933    def get_put_sql(self, expression: exp.Put | exp.Get) -> str:
4934        # Snowflake GET/PUT statements:
4935        #   PUT <file> <internalStage> <properties>
4936        #   GET <internalStage> <file> <properties>
4937        props = expression.args.get("properties")
4938        props_sql = self.properties(props, prefix=" ", sep=" ", wrapped=False) if props else ""
4939        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4940        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
4941
4942        if isinstance(expression, exp.Put):
4943            return f"PUT {this} {target}{props_sql}"
4944        else:
4945            return f"GET {target} {this}{props_sql}"
4946
4947    def translatecharacters_sql(self, expression: exp.TranslateCharacters):
4948        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4949        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4950        with_error = " WITH ERROR" if expression.args.get("with_error") else ""
4951        return f"TRANSLATE({this} USING {expr}{with_error})"